Length and Time

Length measurement
Ruler

As you may already be aware, a ruler is the most simple method of

measuring the length of an object. Most rulers are marked in
centimeters or inches, and can measure to the nearest millimeter.

Micrometer screw gauge

Length measurements can be made more precise (compared to a

ruler) by using a micrometer screw gauge. Whilst rulers measure to
the nearest millimeter, a micrometer screw gauge can measure
lengths to the nearest 1/100mm!

This instrument is therefore used to measure very small distances.

Volume measurement
A volume of a liquid can be determined by using a measuring
cylinder. When reading the cylinder scale, it is important to measure
from the bottom of the meniscus (i.e. bottom of the curve).
Moreover, you must be directly parallel to it otherwise a parallax
error may occur.
In the example above, the edge of the liquid reads at 37cm^3 but
the meniscus is at 36.5cm^3 which is the true reading.

Time measurement
Clocks are devices that can be used to measure time. Although it
can either be analogue or digital, most labs will use a digital one
which can measure time to the nearest 0.01s.

Obtaining averages
Length measurements can be made more accurate by measuring
multiples and averaging the results. For example, rather than
measuring the thickness of one single sheet of paper, it would be
more accurate to measure the thickness of 1000 sheets of paper
and dividing the measurement by 1000.

This is also the case for time measurements (i.e. time taken for
single pendulum swing). Instead of measuring the time taken for a
single swing, it is much more accurate to measure the time taken
for 100 swings and averaging the results.
 Motion (kinematics)

Speed and velocity

Speed

The speed of an object is defined as the change in distance

per second.

The unit for speed is m/s

Lets imagine you walked from point A to B, and then returned back
to A, and it took you 2000 seconds.

You walked a total of 1000m in 2000 seconds and therefore your

speed was 1000/2000= 0.50m/s.

Velocity

Speed is a scalar quantity (magnitude only) whereas velocity

is a vector quantity (magnitude and direction)
The concept of velocity is basically speed with a direction.
The definition of velocity is the rate of change
in displacement.

Displacement is also a vector quantity which is defined as

distance traveled in a particular direction.

Going back to the example above, the total return distance

between A & B is 1000 meters.

However, the direction of travel from A to B is the complete

opposite of B to A and therefore they actually cancel each
other out when we think in terms of displacement.

In other words, your starting point was A and your ending

point was also A. Therefore in that sense, you haven’t
actually moved from your original starting point A, and
therefore your displacement is actually zero. This means that
the velocity will also be 0 as a result (since 0/2000 = 0).

Acceleration
Acceleration is the change in velocity per second, and since velocity
is a vector quantity, so is acceleration.

The unit for acceleration is m/s 2.

Using the formula above, acceleration can be positive or negative

 Acceleration is positive when an object increases in velocity over
time. This is what is generally implied when we state that an
object is ‘accelerating’.
 Acceleration is negative when an object decreases in velocity
over time. We call this ‘deceleration’.

Free fall and terminal velocity

Any object falling close to the earth surface will be pulled by the
earth’s gravity (Fg) causing it to free fall at a constant acceleration
of approximately 9.8 m/s/s.

This implies that a free falling body will continuously speed up by

9.8 m/s per second until it hits eventually hits the ground.

However this is not actually the case. As the body accelerates

downwards (due to earth’s downward gravitational pull) the air
resistance (which opposes gravity) increases (Fd). Eventually the
upward force of air resistance will equal the force of gravity
(Fg=Fd).

When this happens, the free falling body will stop accelerating and
continue falling at a fixed velocity (rather than speeding up by 9.8
m/s per second). We call this terminal velocity.

Plotting & interpreting graphs

Distance-time graphs
A distance time graph plots distance traveled versus time.

The speed of travel (of

any particular section of the graph) can be calculated via
the gradient.

A gradient is calculated by using this formula:

For example, lets calculate the speed of travel between 0 to 6

seconds on the distance-time graph above.

 The change in X axis = 10m

 The change in Y axis = 6s
 Gradient (speed) = 10/6 = 1.67 m/s
Speed-time graphs

A speed-time graph plots speed against time.

 The distance traveled can be calculated via the area underneath

the graph.

 The acceleration can be calculated by the gradient.

Here we demonstrate the appearance of this graph under various

conditions.
 - The gradient of
a distance-time graph is
the speed

- The gradient of
a speed-time graph is
the acceleration

- The area under

a speed-time graph is
the distance covered

- The area under

an acceleration-time gra
ph is the speed

An object at rest remains at rest, and an object in motion

1. Newton’s First Law of
remains in motion at constant speed and in a straight line
Motion (Inertia)
unless acted on by an unbalanced force.

2. Newton’s Second Law of The acceleration of an object depends on the mass of the
Motion (Force) object and the amount of force applied.

Whenever one object exerts a force on another object,

3. Newton’s Third Law of
the second object exerts an equal and opposite force on
Motion (Action & Reaction)
the first.
 Mass and Weight

Mass
Mass is the amount of matter that makes up an object. It is
measured in kilograms (kg). All masses have something called
‘inertia’ which is the tendency to continue moving if it is already in
motion, or to stay still if already still. In other words, inertia is the
resistance to change in motion. The larger the mass, the larger the
inertia.

Inertia is exactly why a large moving truck cannot stop as quickly as

a smaller car can. Similarly, you can imagine the same truck will
have more trouble speeding from a stationary position compared to
a smaller vehicle which will accelerate faster.

Weight
Whilst in everyday life the term ‘weight’ is often used as another
word for mass, in science this is not the case.

Weight is actually defined as the force on a mass due to the earth’s

gravity and is measured in Newtons (N). The formula for weight is as
follows:

W = Weight (N), m = mass (Kg), g = gravitational strength (N/Kg)

On earth the gravitational strength is 9.81 N/Kg. For the sake of your
course however, you can say that it is 10 N/Kg which is also known
as the acceleration of free fall (10m/s/s).

In other words, 10 N/Kg (gravitational strength) is exactly the same

as 10 m/s/s (acceleration)
 Density

Density
Density is the quantity related to how closely packed the particles in
a material are, as well as how much the particles weigh.

Measuring density
As the equation above shows, all we need to know in order to
calculate the density of a substance is the mass and volume. Let’s
take a look at some examples.

Determining the density of a liquid

 Put a measuring cylinder on a weighing scale and reset it to 0

 Pour the liquid into the measuring cylinder and measure the
volume
 The weight of the liquid is found by reading off the weighing
scale
 Calculate density

Calculate density of regular solid

 Measure the dimensions of the solid (height/weight/width)
 Measure the weight of the solid on a weighing scale
 Volume of solid = height X weight X width
 Calculate density

This method is only possible if the solid has a regular square or

rectangular shape. If the shape is irregular then the displacement
method should be used (as below)

Calculate density of irregular solid

 Measure the weight of the solid via a weighing scale

 Add water into a measuring cylinder and measure it’s initial
volume
 Submerge the irregular solid into the measuring cylinder
 The solid will displace the water causing it to rise
 Measure the new volume reading
 The volume of the solid = new volume reading – initial volume
reading
 Calculate density

Predicting flotation
The density of an object determines whether it will float or sink in
another substance.

 An object will float if it is less dense than the liquid it is placed in

 An object will sink if it is more dense than the liquid it is placed
in
 Forces

Effects of forces
Forces can do various things to an object. They can:

 Change the shape of an object

 Accelerate an object

The different effects of forces will be discussed in this chapter

Effect of forces on a spring

When a load is hung off a spring, the spring will extend. The
extension of the spring varies with force. An experiment can
be done to demonstrate this.

The downward force on the spring caused by the load is what makes
the spring change shape

The experimental procedure is as follows:

 Measure the unloaded original length (OL) of the spring (to

the nearest mm) by using the pointer and the ruler
 Add a 100g mass at the end of the spring and measure the new
length (L1)
 Calculate ‘extension‘ by calculating the change in length of
spring (L1-L0)
 Repeat the process 6 times, adding an extra 100g mass each
time
 Plot a graph of extension against force, where force = mass X 10
N/Kg

For instance: Measure the first length with no mass (L0). Then add
the first 100g mass (mass 1) and measure the new length (L1). The
‘extension’ of the spring after adding mass 1 is the change in length
of the spring (i.e. L1-L0). Then add another 100g to make it 200g in
total (mass 2). Measure the new length of the spring (L2), and the
extension (L2-L0). Repeat this process at least 6 times.

The extension-load graph should look like this:

Important concepts about this graph are:

 Spring extension is directly proportional to the force applied until

the limit of proportionality is reached (this is the Hooke’s law)
 Further force on the spring causes extension that is non-
proportional to the force applied. If the force is removed, the
spring will return to its original length/shape
 After the elastic limit, the spring cannot return to its original
length even after the force is removed
 Eventually the force may be too great and the spring breaks

The Hooke’s law states that the extension of a spring is directly

proportional to the force applied (given that the limit of
proportionality or the elastic limit is not reached).
Force, mass and acceleration

Understanding the formula

Not only can forces change the shape of an object, it can also
accelerate it.

The equation is as follows:

 The larger the force, the greater the acceleration of the object
(as long as the mass stays constant)
 The larger the mass, the smaller the acceleration as long as the
force stays constant

Resultant force

Forces always act in a particular direction. They are a vector

quantity (just like velocity).

Therefore the resultant force on an object is the overall force

when the size and direction of all forces acting are taken into
account.

 Forces in the same direction are added together

 Forces in the opposite direction are subtracted
Centripetal force

The centripetal force is the force that causes an object to move in a

circle. This force always acts at a right angle to the direction that
the object is travelling, which causes it to move in a circle.

The force acts at a right angle to the direction that the object is
travelling. The force does not do any work on the object because the
object does not move in the direction of the force.

The force constantly changes the direction of the object without

changing it’s speed. This means that velocity is constantly changing,
and the object accelerates towards the center of the circle/orbit.
Remember, velocity and acceleration are both vector quantities.
Even if the speed of an object is not changing, if the direction is
changing then the velocity is changing. And if the velocity is
changing, then the object is accelerating.

The centripetal force increases if:

 The mass of the object increases

 The speed of the object increases
 The radius of the circle decreases

If the centripetal force is suddenly removed, then the object will

move on a tangent to the original circle.

Friction and air resistance

Friction is a force between two surfaces which impedes motion and

results in heating. It is the resistance that one surface or object
encounters when moving over another surface/object.

At a microscopic level, object surfaces are not 100% smooth. They

are rough and uneven, and therefore when moving one object over
another, friction will always oppose that movement.
Air resistance is a form of friction. When free falling in the air, the air
molecules will collide against the falling object and create an
upwards force which opposes the downwards force of the object.

Turning effect
The turning effect or moment of a force about a pivot is equal to the
force multiplied by its perpendicular distance from the pivot.

If an object is in equilibrium,
To
it means that there is no calculate
resultant turning effect and no the result
resultant force. ant
moment, you must calculate
two things:

 Clockwise moment
 Anti-clockwise moment
If the clockwise moment is greater than the anti-clockwise moment,
then the object will turn clockwise. Whichever direction has the
greatest moment, the object will turn in that direction.

If the clockwise moment = anti-clockwise moment, then they will

cancel out. The object is in equilibrium and will thus not turn.

The resultant moment causes anti-clockwise rotation

The resultant moment causes clockwise rotation

There is no resultant moment, so the object is in equilibrium

An experiment can be conducted to demonstrate that there is no

net moment on an object in equilibrium:

 Anticlockwise moment due to 9N weight = 9 X 0.4 = 3.6Nm

 Clockwise moment due to force of spring balance = 12 X 0.3 =
3.6Nm
 Conclusion: The ruler is not rotating, it is in equilibrium because
clockwise moment = anticlockwise moment
Centre of mass
The centre of mass of an object is the point on the object where the
mass can be considered ‘concentrated’ and hence where the weight of
the object is considered to act.

The centre of mass of a plane lamina can be determined by using a simple

experiment:

 Push a pin through a point anywhere on the edge of the lamina,

and allow it to swing freely
 Once the lamina is hanging still, mark a vertical line downwards
from the pin
 Take out the pin and push it through a second point on the edge
 Again, allow the lamina to swing freely and come to a stop
 Mark another vertical line downwards from the 2nd pin
 The point at which these two lines cross is the centre of mass

The centre of mass affects the stability of an object.

 An object is stable if it’s weight (the force acting on the centre of

mass) is inside the base of the object.
 An object will tip over if it’s weight is outside the base of the
object

Therefore a low centre of mass and a large base increases the

stability of an object.

A high centre of mass and a small base decreases the stability of an

object.

Vectors and scalars

There are key differences between scalar and vector quantities that
you must be aware of:

 A scalar quantities have magnitude only such as: mass, time,

speed, energy
 Vector quantities have magnitude and direction such as: velocity,
acceleration, force

With the combination of two vector quantities, we

can graphically determine the resultant (overall) vector using a
scale diagram.
For example, use a scale diagram to calculate the resultant force in
this diagram:

1. Choose a scale i.e. we will use 1N = 1cm

2. On paper, re-draw the diagram with the appropriate scaled

lengths
3. Arrange the forces ‘nose to tail’ so that the arrows follow on

4. Draw the resultant force in the direction of the arrows, and

measure it’s length

5. Since 1cm = 1 N in our scale, 12cm = 12N resultant force

 Momentum

Momentum & Impulse

Momentum is mass in motion, and any moving object will have
momentum.

Meanwhile, an object’s change in momentum is its impulse.

Conservation of momentum
The law of momentum conservation can be stated as follows. For a
collision between object 1 and object 2 in an isolated system, the
total momentum of the two objects before the collision is equal to
the total momentum of the two objects after the collision.
 Pressure
Pressure
Pressure is the amount of force exerted per area.

Measuring pressure
Mercury barometer
The pressure at beneath a liquid surface (and therefore at the base of
the mercury column) can be calculated with the following formula:

Manometer
 Parachutist Case

Acceleration of free fall

 In the absence of air resistance, all objects fall with
the same acceleration regardless of their mass

 This is called the acceleration of freefall

o This is also sometimes called acceleration due to gravity

In the absence of air resistance, Galileo discovered that all objects

(near Earth's surface) fall with an acceleration of about 9.8 m/s2

 This means that for every second an object falls, its velocity will
increase by 9.8 m/s

 The symbol also stands for the gravitational field strength, and can
be used to calculate the force of weight acting an object using its
mass:
 W = mg

 Where:

o W = the force of weight acting on an object, measured in

newtons (N)

o m = mass of object, measured in kilograms (kg)

o g = gravitational field strength, measured in newtons per

kilogram (N/kg)

Object falling with no air resistance

In the absence of air resistance, objects fall with constant

acceleration

Falling objects with air resistance

 When objects fall through a fluid, the fluid exerts a frictional
force on the object as it falls

o Fluids are liquids or gases

 Frictional forces oppose the motion of an object

o They act to slow it down

 When an object falls through air, it experiences air resistance

o Air resistance is a frictional force produced by collisions with air

particles as the object moves through the air

 Air resistance increases as the speed of the object increases

 When objects fall through air, two forces are exerted on the object:

o The force of weight

o The force of air resistance

 When the force of air resistance becomes equal to the force of

weight, then the object stops accelerating and falls at a constant
speed

o This is called terminal velocity

 How does a skydiver reach terminal velocity?

The stages of a skydivers fall until they reach terminal velocity

 When a skydiver jumps out of a plane, initially the only force acting on them
is weight

o The resultant force acts in the downward direction

o The skydiver accelerates

 As the skydiver accelerates, their speed increases, so the force of air

resistance increases

o The resultant force acts in the downward direction with a smaller magnitude

o The skydiver continues to accelerate but at a slower rate

 Air resistance increases until it is equal to the weight

o The forces are balanced

o There is no resultant force

o Terminal velocity is reached

 The parachute is deployed, increasing the surface area of the skydiver

o The parachute collides with many more air particles

o Air resistance increases greatly

 The force of air resistance is now greater than the force of weight

o The resultant force acts in the upward direction

o The skydiver continues falling in a downward direction

o The skydiver is decelerating

 As the skydiver decelerates, their speed decreases

o Therefore, air resistance decreases

o Therefore, the resultant force decreases

 Air resistance decreases until it is equal to the weight

o The forces are balanced

o There is no resultant force

o A new, slower terminal velocity is reached

Graph showing the motion of the skydiver as they reach terminal velocity

The graph shows how the speed of the skydiver changes during the
descent. The horizontal parts of the graph show the periods of
terminal velocity