Information Processing Cycle
1. Acquisition - Collection of raw data from the source.
e.g. -collecting the workers' timecards so as to know how many hours
each person worked that week.
-using a form on a website to collect visitors’ opinion
2. Data Preparation – Copying, grouping and arranging data in a certain
order, involves data verification
3. Data Input
The process of transforming data into a form that a computer can
understand.
4 Data Processing - Involves classifying, sorting, calculating,
summarizing, comparing, etc. tot convert data into information.
5. Information Output - Gives the required result. * Mostly, the output is
stored on the storage media for later user.
Criteria for Data Gathering
► Consistent – not conflicting or ambiguous.
► Complete – describe all possible data requirements
► Required – truly needed to deliver the required
information
► Accurate – stated correctly.
► Traceable – directly mapped to the source and required
information
► Verifiable – defined so can be demonstrated during
processing.
*
Data Collection
The formal process of using research, meetings,
interviews, questionnaires, sampling, and other
techniques to collect information about an information
system problems, requirements, and preferences. It is
also called information gathering or data collection.
*
Data Collection Ethics
► Data collection often brings data gatherers into contact with
sensitive information.
► Company plans
► Employee salaries or medical history
► Customer credit card, social security, or other information
► Ethical behavior
► Information managers must not misuse information.
► Information managers must protect (secure) information from people
who would misuse it.
► Otherwise
► Information manager loses respect, credibility, and confidence of
users and management, impairing ability to do job
► Organization and Information manager could have legal liability
► Systems analyst /Information manager could lose job
*
Data Collection Methods
► Sampling of existing documentation, forms, and databases.
► Research and site visits.
► Observation of the work environment.
► Questionnaires.
► Interviews.
► Prototyping.
*
Sampling Existing Documentation, Forms,
& Files
Sampling –process of collecting a representative
sample of documents, forms, and records.
► Organization chart
► Memos and other documents that describe the
business processes
► Standard operating procedures for current
information system
► Completed forms
► Manual and computerized screens and reports
*
► Samples of databases
Things to be Gleaned from
Documents
► Symptoms and causes of problems
► Persons in organization who have understanding of problem
► Business functions that support the present information system
► Type of data to be collected and reported by the system
► Questions that need to be covered in interviews
*
Why to Sample Completed
Rather than Blank Forms
► Can determine type of data going into each blank
► Can determine size of data going into each blank
► Can determine
which blanks
are not used
or not always
used
► Can see data
relationships
*
Observation
Observation – a fact-finding technique
wherein the information designer either
participates in or watches a person
perform activities to learn about the
system.
Advantages?
Disadvantages?
Work sampling - a fact-finding technique
that involves a large number of
observations taken at random intervals.
*
Observation
Advantages Disadvantages
► Data gathered can be ► People may perform
very reliable differently when being
► Can see exactly what is observed
being done in complex ► Work observed may not
tasks be representative of
► Relatively inexpensive normal conditions
compared with other ► Timing can be
techniques inconvenient
► Can do work ► Interruptions
measurements ► Some tasks not always
performed the same
way
► May observe wrong
way of doing things
*
Observation Guidelines
► Determine the who, what, where, when, why, and how of the
observation.
► Obtain permission from appropriate supervisors.
► Inform those who will be observed of the purpose of the observation.
► Keep a low profile.
► Take notes.
► Review observation notes with appropriate individuals.
► Don't interrupt the individuals at work.
► Don't focus heavily on trivial activities.
► Don't make assumptions.
*
Questionnaires
Questionnaire – a special-purpose document
that allows the analyst to collect information
and opinions from respondents.
Free-format questionnaire – a questionnaire
designed to offer the respondent greater
latitude in the answer. A question is asked,
and the respondent records the answer in the
space provided after the question.
Fixed-format questionnaire – a questionnaire
containing questions that require selecting an
answer from predefined available responses.
*
Types of Fixed-Format Questions
► Multiple-choice questions
► Rating questions
► Ranking questions
Rank the following transactions according to the amount of time you spend
processing them.
___ % new customer orders
___ % order cancellations The implementation of quality discounts would
___ % order modifications cause an increase in customer orders.
___ % payments ___ Strongly agree
___ Agree
___ No opinion Is the current accounts receivable
___ Disagree report that you receive useful?
___ Strongly disagree ___ Yes
___* No
Questionnaires
Advantages Disadvantages
► Often can be answered ► Return rate is often low
quickly ► No guarantee that an
► People can complete at individual will answer all
their convenience questions
► Relatively inexpensive ► No opportunity to reword
way to gather data from or explain misunderstood
a large number questions
► Allow for anonymity ► Cannot observe body
► Responses can be language
tabulated quickly ► Difficult to prepare
*
Developing a Questionnaire
1. Determine what facts and opinions must be
collected and from whom you should get
them.
2. Based on the facts and opinions sought,
determine whether free- or fixed-format
questions will produce the best answers.
3. Write the questions.
4. Test the questions on a small sample of
respondents.
5. Duplicate and distribute the questionnaire.
*
Interviews
Interview - a fact-finding technique whereby
the systems analysts collect information from
individuals through face-to-face interaction.
The personal interview
► Find facts is generally recognized
as the most important
► Verify facts and most often used
► Clarify facts fact-finding technique.
► Generate enthusiasm
► Get the end-user involved
► Identify requirements
► Solicit ideas and opinions *
Types of Interviews and Questions
Unstructured interview –conducted with only a general goal
or subject in mind and with few, if any, specific questions.
The interviewer counts on the interviewee to provide a
framework and direct the conversation.
Structured interview –interviewer has a specific set of
questions to ask of the interviewee.
Open-ended question – question that allows the interviewee
to respond in any way.
Closed-ended question – a question that restricts answers to
either specific choices or short, direct responses.
*
Interviews
Advantages Disadvantages
► Give analyst opportunity ► Time-consuming
to motivate interviewee ► Success highly dependent
to respond freely and on analyst's human
openly relations skills
► Allow analyst to probe for ► May be impractical due to
more feedback location of interviewees
► Permit analyst to adapt or
reword questions for each
individual
► Can observe nonverbal
communication
*
Procedure to Conduct an
Interview
1. Select Interviewees
► End users
► Learn about individual prior to the interview
2. Prepare for the Interview
► interview guide
3. Conduct the Interview
► Summarize the problem
► Offer an incentive for participation
► Ask the interviewee for assistance
4. Follow Up on the Interview
*
► Memo that summarizes the interview
Sample Interview Guide
(continued)
Sample Interview Guide
* 6-21
Prepare for the Interview
► Types of Questions to Avoid
► Loaded questions
► Leading questions
► Biased questions
► Interview Question Guidelines
► Use clear and concise language.
► Don’t include your opinion as part of the question.
► Avoid long or complex questions.
► Avoid threatening questions.
► Don’t use “you” when you mean a group of
people.
*
Conduct the Interview
► Dress to match interviewee
► Arrive on time
► Or early if need to confirm room setup
► Open interview by thanking interviewee
► State purpose and length of interview and how
data will be used
► Monitor the time
► Ask follow-up questions
► Probe until you understand
► Ask about exception conditions ("what if...")
*
Interviewing Do’s and Don’ts
Do Don't
► Dress appropriately ► Assume an answer is
► Be courteous finished or leading
nowhere
► Listen carefully
► Reveal verbal and
► Maintain control of the nonverbal clues
interview
► Use jargon
► Probe
► Reveal personal biases
► Observe mannerisms and
► Talk more than listen
nonverbal communication
► Assume anything about
► Be patient
the topic or the
► Keep interviewee at ease interviewee
► Maintain self-control ► Tape record (take notes
► Finish on time instead)
*
Body Language and Proxemics
Body language – the nonverbal information
we communicate.
► Facial disclosure
► Eye contact
► Posture
Proxemics – the relationship between people
and the space around them.
► Intimate zone—closer than 50cm (Hugging,
whispering)
► Personal zone—from 50cm to 1.2m (close friends)
► Social zone—from 1.2m to 3.7m (friends &
colleagues)
► Public zone—beyond 3.7m (strangers)
*
Discovery Prototyping
Discovery prototyping – the act of building a small-scale, representative
or working model of the users’ requirements in order to discover or verify
those requirements.
Appropriate/ used when information system users do not clearly know
what they want
A working model of what they have explained is developed so that users
can use and criticize the model.
i. Throw away prototyping
ii. Evolutionary prototyping
*
Discovery Prototyping
Advantages Disadvantages
► Can experiment to ► Developers may need to
develop understanding be trained in
of how system might prototyping
work ► Users may develop
► Aids in determining unrealistic expectations
feasibility and ► Could extend
usefulness of system development schedule
before development
► Serves as training
mechanism
► Aids in building test
plans and scenarios
► May minimize time
spent on fact-finding
*
Joint Requirements Planning
Joint requirements planning (JRP) – a process whereby highly
structured group meetings are conducted for the purpose of analyzing
problems and defining requirements.
► JRP is a subset of a more comprehensive joint application development or
JAD technique that encompasses the entire systems development process.
*
JRP Participants
► Sponsor
► Facilitator
► Users and Managers
► Scribes
► IT Staff
*
Steps to Plan a JRP Session
1. Selecting a location
► Away from workplace when possible
► Requires several rooms
► Equipped with tables, chairs, whiteboard,
overhead projectors
► Needed computer equipment
2. Selecting the participants
► Each needs release from regular duties
3. Preparing the agenda
► Briefing documentation
► Agenda distributed before each session
*
Typical Room Layout for JRP session
*
Guidelines for Conducting
a JRP Session
► Do not unreasonably deviate from the agenda
► Stay on schedule
► Ensure that the scribe is able to take notes
► Avoid the use of technical jargon
► Apply conflict resolution skills
► Allow for ample breaks
► Encourage group consensus
► Encourage user and management participation without
allowing individuals to dominate the session
► Make sure that attendees abide by the established
ground rules for the session *
Brainstorming
► Sometimes, one of the goals of a JRP session is
to generate possible ideas to solve a problem.
► Brainstorming is a common approach that is used for
this purpose.
Brainstorming – a technique for generating ideas
by encouraging participants to offer as many
ideas as possible in a short period of time
without any analysis until all the ideas have
been exhausted.
*
Brainstorming Guidelines
► Isolate appropriate people in a place that free from
distractions and interruptions.
► Make sure everyone understands purpose of the
meeting.
► Appoint one person to record ideas.
► Remind everyone of brainstorming rules.
► Within a specified time period, team members call out
their ideas as quickly as they can think of them.
► After group has run out of ideas and all ideas have been
recorded, then and only then should ideas be
evaluated.
►
*
Refine, combine, and improve ideas generated earlier.
Benefits of JRP
► JRP actively involves users and management in the
development project (encouraging them to take
“ownership” in the project).
► JRP reduces the amount of time required to develop
systems.
► When JRP incorporates prototyping as a means for
confirming requirements and obtaining design
approvals, the benefits of prototyping are realized
*
A Fact-Finding Strategy
1. Learn from existing documents, forms, reports,
and files.
2. If appropriate, observe the system in action.
3. Given all the facts that already collected, design
and distribute questionnaires to clear up things
that aren’t fully understood.
4. Conduct interviews (or group work sessions).
5. (Optional). Build discovery prototypes for any
functional requirements that are not understood or
for requirements that need to be validated.
6. Follow up to verify facts. *
