Sources of Data
Primary data: information obtained firsthand by the researcher on
the variables of interest for the specific purpose of the study.
Examples: individuals, focus groups, panels
Secondary data: information gathered from sources already
existing.
Examples: company records or archives, government
publications, industry analyses offered by the media, web sites,
the Internet, and so on.
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Choice of data collection method depends on
objective(s) of the study
the research questions
the research strategy
Facilities available
the degree of accuracy required,
the type of data required,
the time span of the study,
the expertise of the reviewer
Data Collection Methods are
Interviews
Questionnaires
Observation
INTERVIEWS
An interview is a guided, purposeful conversation between two or
more people
Types
1) Structured Vs Unstructured Interviews
2)Personal/ Telephonic / Computer assisted interviews
3)Individual Vs Group Interviews
Unstructured interviews are so labeled because the interviewer does not
enter the interview setting with a planned sequence of questions to be
asked of the respondent. A possible objective of an unstructured
interview is to bring some preliminary issues to the surface so that the
researcher can determine what factors need further in‐depth
investigation. See example on pg 118
Structured interviews are those conducted when it is known at the
outset what information is needed. The content of a structured interview
can be prepared in advance, and usually consists of:
● an introduction: the interviewer introduces him‐ or herself, the
purpose of the interview, assures confidentiality, asks permission to
record the interview;
● a set of topics (usually questions) in a logical order: first “warm ‐up”
questions (which are easy to answer and non‐threatening) and then the
main questions covering the purpose of the interview;
Personal Interview
Advantages
– Can clarify doubts about questions
– Can pick up non-verbal cues
– Relatively high response/cooperation
– Special visual aids and scoring devises can be used
Disadvantages
– High costs and time intensive
– Geographical limitations
– Response bias / Confidentiality difficult to be assured
– Some respondents are unwilling to talk to strangers
– Trained interviewers
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Telephone Interview
Advantages
– Discomfort of face to face is avoided
– Faster / Number of calls per day could be high
– Lower cost
Disadvantages
– Interview length must be limited
– Low response rate
– No facial expressions
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Computer Assisted Interviews(CAI)
With computer‐assisted interviews (CAI) questions are flashed onto the
computer screen and interviewers can enter the answers of the respondents
directly into the computer. The accuracy of data collection is considerably
enhanced since the software can be programmed to flag the “off base” or “out‐
of‐range” responses. CAI software also prevents interviewers from asking the
wrong questions or in the wrong sequence since the questions are automatically
flashed to the respondent in an ordered sequence. This, to some extent,
eliminates interviewer‐induced bias
Advantages
– Lowest cost option
– Expanded geographical coverage
– Requires minimal staff
– Perceived as more anonymous
Disadvantages
– Low response rate in some modes
– No interviewer intervention possible for clarification
– Cannot be too long or complex 7
– Incomplete surveys
Types of Computer Assisted Interviews
CATI (computer‐assisted telephone interviewing)
CATI, used in research organizations, is useful in as much as responses to
surveys can be obtained from people all over the world. The computer prompts
the questions with the help of software and the respondent provides the
answers. The computer selects the telephone number, dials, and places the
responses in a file. The data are analyzed later. Computerized, voice ‐activated
telephone interviews are also possible for short surveys. Data can also be
gathered during field surveys through handheld computers that record and
analyze responses
CAPI (computer‐assisted personal interviewing)
CAPI involves rather big investments in hardware and software. CAPI has an
advantage in that it can be
self‐administered; that is, respondents can use their own computers to run the
program by themselves once they receive the software and enter their
responses, thereby reducing errors in recording. However, not everyone is8
comfortable using a personal computer and some may not have access to one.
Group Interviews
Interviews may be conducted on an individual basis, but also on a group basis,
where the interviewer puts open questions to a group of participants. The term “focus
group” is used for a particular type of group interview, where the topic is clearly
defined and there is a focus on facilitating discussion between participants
Focus Groups
consist typically of eight to ten members with a moderator leading the
discussions on a particular topic, concept, or product.
Members are generally chosen on the basis of their familiarity with the topic
on which information is sought
The focus sessions are aimed at obtaining respondents’ impressions,
interpretations, and opinions, as the members talk about the event, concept,
product, or service.
The moderator plays a vital role in steering the discussions in a manner that
draws out the information sought, and keeps the members on track.
Focus groups are relatively inexpensive and can provide fairly dependable
data within a short time frame.
Role of the moderator
The moderator introduces the topic, observes, and takes notes
and/or records the discussions.
The moderator never becomes an integral part of the
discussions, but merely steers the group persuasively to obtain all
the relevant information, and helps the group members to get
through any impasse that might occur.
The moderator also ensures that all members participate in the
discussion and that no member dominates the group. Someone
from the research team may also observe the proceedings through
a one‐way mirror, listening to the verbal statements and noticing
the non verbal cues of the members.
Guidelines for conducting Interviews
Establishing credibility as able researchers is important for the success of
the research project.
Researchers need to establish rapport with the respondents and motivate
them to give responses relatively free from bias by allaying whatever
suspicions, fears, anxieties, and concerns they may have about the
research and its consequences. This can be accomplished by being
sincere, pleasant, and non-evaluative.
While interviewing,the researcher has to ask broad questions initially and
then narrow them down to specific areas,
Ask questions in an unbiased way,
offer clarification when needed, and
help respondents to think through difficult issues.
The responses should be transcribed immediately and should not be
trusted to memory and later recall.
QUESTIONNAIRE
Questionnaire Design
Definition
A questionnaire is a pre-formulated, written set of questions to which
the respondent records his answers
Steps
1. Determine the content of the questionnaire
2. Determine the form of response
3. Determine the wording of the questions
4. Determine the question sequence
5. Write cover letter
© 2009 John Wiley & Sons Ltd. 13
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Principles of Questionnaire Design.
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1. Questionnaire content
Framework
Need information for all constructs in framework
Measurement: Operationalizing
– Objective construct:
• 1 items => 1 question
– Subjective construct:
• multiple items => multiple questions
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2. Response format
Closed vs. Open-ended questions
– Closed questions
• Helps respondents to make quick decisions
• Helps researchers to code
– Open-ended question
• First: unbiased point of view
• Final: additional insights
Measurement: Response scales
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3. Question Wording
Avoid double-barreled questions
Avoid ambiguous questions and words
Use of ordinary words
Avoid leading or biasing questions
Social desirability
Avoid recall depended questions
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Question Wording
Use positive and negative statements
– Dresdner delivers high quality banking service
Dresdner has poor customer operational support
– Avoid double negatives
Limit the length of the questions
Rules of thumb:
– < 20 words
– < one full line in print
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4. Question Sequence
Personal and sensitive data at the end
© 2009 John Wiley & Sons Ltd. 19
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5. Cover Letter
The cover letter is the introductory page of the
questionnaire
It includes:
– Identification of the researcher
– Motivation for respondents to fill it in
– Confidentiality
– Thanking of the respondent
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Please read from e-book sent via email
REVIEW OF THE ADVANTAGES AND
DISADVANTAGES OF DIFFERENT DATA COLLECTION
METHODS AND WHEN TO USE EACH
page 157
Ethics in Data Collection
page 159
