Unit II

Nuclear decay and radioactivity

If a nucleus is unstable, it undergoes spontaneous decay to either lower excited state or to
transmute to another nucleus.
Three types of decay are possible
(i) Decay by emission of alpha particle (mediated by strong nuclear interaction)
(ii) Decay by emission of beta particle (mediated by weak nuclear interaction)
(iii) Decay by emission of gamma photon (mediated by electromagnetic interaction)
Antoine-Henri
Becquerel
Radioactivity is the phenomenon of spontaneous decay of nucleus with the emission of radiation.
Note: Radioactivity (the rate of decay, or the type of decay) is unaffected by
• External conditions such as temperature, pressure and humidity.
• the physical and chemical state of the material
• Electric and magnetic fields
Properties of different radiation
Charge
Examples for alpha and beta decay

• Neutron emission
• Proton emission
• Heavier nucleus emission
• Fission process

Source: “Concepts of Modern Physics”

by Arthur Beiser
 -rays -rays -rays
1.-rays consists of 1.-rays consists of -ve charged 1. -rays are electromagnetic
positively charged helium electrons. radiations of wavelength 0.01Å -
nuclei. 0.1Å.
2. It carries a charge +2e 2. It carries a charge -e and 2. It carries electrically neutral
and mass 4 times that of a mass equal to that of an photons and rest mass of it is
proton ( 4 amu) electron ( 0 amu) zero.

3.They travel with a velocity 3.They travel with a velocity of 3. They travel with a velocity of
of about 0.05 c. about 0.3 c to 0.9 c. c.
4. They are deflected by 4.They are deflected by electric 4. They are not deflected by
electric and magnetic fields and magnetic fields electric and magnetic fields

5. Their ionising power is 5. Their ionising power is 10-2 5. Their ionising power is 10-2
very high. times that of -rays. times that of -rays.
6.Their penetrating power is 6. Their penetrating power is 6. Their penetrating power is
very low. 100 times that of -rays. 100 times that of -rays.
 Some important points
•  and  particles do not exist inside the nucleus but they are formed at the instant of emission.  particles
are emitted from the nucleus only after the emission of  or  particles.

• A radioactive nucleus emits either  or  particle but not both simultaneously.

• After the emission of either  or  the nucleus can be in its excited state, so it emits  rays and returns to
the ground state.

• In a radioactive process, which takes place continuously, the number of nuclei in the original substance
decreases with time. This is known as radioactive decay or disintegration.

• The nucleus that undergoes decay is called the parent and the nucleus forms after decay is called daughter.
The daughter nucleus can also be radioactive. Thus, process continues until a stable nucleus (lead or
bismuth) is formed.
 Radioactivity
The radioactive decay law
Let radioactive sample contains 𝑁 nuclei and the number of nuclei decaying 𝑑𝑁 in time 𝑑𝑡

Number of nuclei decaying per second is −𝑑𝑁/𝑑𝑡

/
Probability of a single nucleus to decay is, therefore, λ=

On rearranging
𝑑𝑁 = −𝜆𝑁𝑑𝑡

On integrating, we have
𝑁=𝑁 𝑒
 Radioactivity
Activity law
N is the number of nuclei present, then activity, denoted by ‘𝑅’,
is defined as 𝑅=−
𝑅=𝑅 𝑒

Half Life 𝒕𝟏⁄𝟐

Time in which activity drops by half, i.e. 𝑅(𝑡 = 𝑡 ⁄ ) = 𝑅 ⁄2
Or the number of nuclei drops to half 𝑅(𝑡 = 𝑡 ⁄ ) = 𝑅 ⁄2
ln 2 0.693
𝑡 ⁄ = =
𝜆 𝜆
Assumptions in radioactivity law:
• The probability of decay is the same for all the nuclei.
• The probability of decay is independent of the age of a particular nucleus. (In other words the
probability is independent of the history of the nucleus).

Units of decay rate

SI unit of activity is becquerel (Bq)

1 becquerel = 1 decay/ second.

1 Ci = 3.7  1010 decays/ second.
 Radioactive series

Radioactivity
Mean life: average time a nucleus is likely to survive.
𝜏= 𝑡 𝑃 𝑡 𝑑𝑡

𝑃 𝑡 𝑑𝑡 is the probability to decay between t and dt

𝑑𝑁/𝑑𝑡 𝑑𝑡
𝑃 𝑡 𝑑𝑡 =
∫ 𝑑𝑁/𝑑𝑡 𝑑𝑡

𝜏= 𝑡 𝑃 𝑡 𝑑𝑡
1
𝜏=
𝜆
𝑡 ⁄
= = 1.44 𝑡 ⁄
0.693
Radioactivity
Q. Half life of radon is 3.8 d. How long does it take for 60% of a sample of radon to decay?
Radioactivity
Q. Find the activity of 1 mg of 222Rn? Atomic mass unit of radon is 222 u
Half life of radon is 3.8 d. 1 amu is 1.66 x 10-27 kg

Ans:  = 2.11 x 10-6 s-1

N = 2.71 x 1018 atoms
R = 5.72 x 1012 decay/sec = 155 Ci

Q. Find the activity 1 week later?

t = 1.28
R= 155 x e-1.28 = 43 Ci
Relative population of nuclei in radioactive decay
Decay of radioactive nucleus A into B
𝑁 =𝑁 𝑒
𝑁 = 𝑁 (1 − 𝑒 )
𝑁 +𝑁 =𝑁

Decay of radioactive nucleus A into B and C

𝝀𝑨 = 𝝀𝑨→𝑩 + 𝝀𝑨→𝑪
𝝀 = 𝝀𝟏 + 𝝀 𝟐
𝑁 =𝑁 𝑒 ; 𝑁 + 𝑁 = 𝑁 (1 − 𝑒 )
𝑁 = 𝝀𝟏 ⁄𝝀 𝑁 (1 − 𝑒 )
𝑁 = 𝝀𝟐 ⁄𝝀 𝑁 (1 − 𝑒 )
𝑁 +𝑁 +𝑁 =𝑁
 Relative population of nuclei in radioactive decay
When Production and Decay of
radioactive nucleus 𝑋 happening at
the same time
Production rate 𝑃
Change in the number of 𝑋 is

𝑑𝑁 = 𝑃𝑑𝑡 − 𝜆𝑁𝑑𝑡
𝑁= (1 − 𝑒 )

Activity R is
𝑅 = 𝑃(1 − 𝑒 )

For irradiation time 𝑡 ≪ 𝑡 / ; 𝑅 ≅ 𝑃𝜆𝑡

For long irradiation time 𝑅 ≅ 𝑃
 Branching ratios and half-lives
Total decay constant is 𝝀𝒕 = 𝝀𝜶 + 𝝀𝜷 + 𝝀𝜺
• Vertical axis is always energy
• Example of 226Ac decaying into three
different nuclei
• Branching ratio of alpha decay is
𝐵𝑅 = 𝝀𝜶 ⁄𝝀𝒕
• Similarly branching ratio of beta decay
is
𝐵𝑅 = 𝝀𝜷 ⁄𝝀𝒕
 Example of proton emission

• Vertical axis is always

energy
Few facts about radioactivity

• Radioactivity has always been present on Earth.

• The largest source of ionizing radiation is from naturally occurring

radon in the atmosphere

• Without heat from natural radioactivity, the Earth’s core would have
frozen billions of years ago.
Alpha decay
Alpha particle identified as 4He nucleus by Rutherford in 1909.
Why it occurs?
It is a Coulomb repulsion effect.
Coulomb force increases as Z2 while nuclear binding force increases as A
Therefore present in heavier nuclei with large Z.

Why then protons not emitted?

Alpha particle is very “stable” compared to proton or neutron.
Q value is positive for alpha decay
Lifetimes of few of the alpha decaying nuclei
Kinematics of alpha decay

Some of the mass is converted into KE.

Conservation of energy to express Q in terms of KE • 98% of the energy is taken by alpha particle
and 2% by the recoiling heavy nuclear
fragment.
• For Q ~ 5 MeV, recoil energy is around ~
Q value of the process 100’s of keV. Large enough to knock out
(energy available recoiling nuclei out of the lattice.
for the moving fragments)
Let’s take a reaction
Momentum conservation
A+B  X+Y
Energy conservation
Kinetic energy of the alpha particle mAc2 + TA + mBc2 + TB = mXc2 + TX + mYc2 + TY
Q value of the reaction
(mAc2 + mBc2 ) – (mXc2+ mYc2 )
Kinematics of alpha decay
Exercise:
Find the Q value of the process
U = Th + He
Masses are
U 238.050786 amu
Th 234.043599 amu
He 4.002603 amu
1 a. m. u = 1.660 × 10 𝑘𝑔 ≡ 931 𝑀𝑒𝑉

Ans : 4.26 MeV

Negative energy release is the Separation energy for that particle.
Theory of alpha emission
(stability against decay)
Theory of alpha emission
(quantum tunnelling)
One-body model by Gamow, and
Gurney and Condon in 1928
Assumptions of the model
• Alpha particle move in a spherical
potential of the daughter nucleus.
• Assumes alpha particle are
preformed.
• Alpha particle tunnels through the
Coulomb barrier

This is now a familiar problem in

quantum mechanics, that of particle
in a square well with a barrier.
Quantum mechanically the decay happen by the process called tunneling.
And the decay constant is given by
𝑣
𝜆≅ 𝑇
𝑅
Here is the frequency with which alpha particle present itself to the nuclear surface of nucleus
with radius 𝑅 .
𝑇 is the transmission probability.
Quantum tunneling
through a potential barrier

• Radial part of the Schrodinger equation is

• Solutions in different regions are, region 1

• Solution in region 2

• Solution in region 3

• Applying condition of continuity of the wavefunction and its derivative

• We get

• or
• Transmission coefficient is given by

• For wavelength much smaller than width of the potential barrier

• We have

• And (for low values of transmission)

• A barrier of arbitrary shape can be decomposed into rectangular barriers of small width
• In such case the total transmission is given by

• Or

• Transmission can be written as

• G is the Gamow factor.

• Decay constant can now be given as
Theory of alpha emission
(quantum tunnelling)
Beta decay
• Emission of electrons from nuclei is the earliest observed radioactive decay
phenomena.
• 1934 beta positive decay observed.
• 1937 orbital electron capture observed.
• 1955 inverse process was observed.

Basic decay processes are

𝑛 →𝑝+𝑒 negative beta decay (𝛽 )
p→𝑛+𝑒 positive beta decay (𝛽 )
𝑝 + 𝑒 → 𝑛 orbital electron capture

75
Comparison with other interactions
 Continuous beta ray spectrum
and the missing energy
Why the energy of beta particle is continuous? And not
sharp like alpha decay.
• This raises the question about the validity of
conservation laws of energy, linear and angular
momentum.
Calorimetric experiments rule out the loss of energy
due to collision with atomic electrons of the sample.
“Three body process” proposed by Pauli. And the third
particle is named as neutrino by Fermi.

Neutrino carries the missing energy.

77
Source: https://permalink.lanl.gov/
Pauli’s neutrino hypothesis
• Pauli suggested the energy was being split
randomly between two particles - the electron
and an unknown light particle that was
escaping detection.

• neutrinos have some mass, maybe about one

ten-millionth the mass of an electron.

• Enrico Fermi suggested the name "neutrino,"

which was Italian for "little neutral one."

Wolfgang Pauli
suggested the
existence of a neutrino.

78
Properties of neutrino

• No charge as charge is already conserved without neutrino

• The mass is nearly zero (experiments conducted have placed extremely small
upper limit)
• Must be a fermion; Spin must be ½
• Two kind of neutrinos (neutrino and antineutrino)
• Neutrino does not cause ionization; so, passes undetected
So, Neutrino has a weak interaction with matter.

79
Beta decay processes
with neutrinos
Basic decay processes are
𝑛 → 𝑝 + 𝑒 + 𝜈̅ negative beta decay (𝛽 )
X = Y + 𝑒 + 𝜈̅
Ne = Na + 𝑒 + 𝜈̅

p→𝑛+𝑒 + 𝜈 positive beta decay (𝛽 )

X = Y +𝑒 +𝜈
Al = Y + 𝑒 +𝜈

𝑝+𝑒 →𝑛+ 𝜈 orbital electron capture

X +𝑒 = Y + 𝜈
O +𝑒 = N +𝜈
Kinematics of beta decay
negative beta decay
Q value of the process

Mass of the neutrino is neglected (assumed zero)

Let’s take a reaction

Example A+B  X+Y
Energy conservation
mAc2 + TA + mBc2 + TB = mXc2 + TX + mYc2 + TY
Q value of the reaction
(mAc2 + mBc2 ) – (mXc2+ mYc2 )
If kinetic energy of the recoiling
daughter nucleus is neglected
Examples of beta decay:
137Cs and 60Co
Positive beta decay

Both 𝛽 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝜀 leads to the

Q value of the process
same final daughter nucleus

Electron-capture process

• One of the atomic electron is captured

• An electronic vacancy is created.
• This vacancy when filled by higher shell electrons result in the emission of one or more X-
rays.
• The resulting atom created immediately after electron-capture has higher energy than its
ground state by an amount equal to binding energy of the captured electron.
Q value of the process
Note the for a given nucleus it is possible to have
both 𝑄 > 0 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑄 > 0.
That is possible to have both beta-positive and electron-capture decay.
And 𝑄 < 0 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑄 > 0.
That is possible to have electron-capture but no beta-positive decay.
But not 𝑄 > 0 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑄 < 0
That is not possible to have beta positive but no electron-capture decay.
Kinetic energy spectra in
beta decay

• Coulomb attraction between daughter

nucleus and 𝛽 gives more low-energy
electrons
• Coulomb repulsion between daughter
nucleus and 𝛽 gives less low-energy
positrons
 Nuclear Chart

• Black dots represent stable nuclei (stable against any type of decay)
Neutrino detection
Inverse beta decay
𝜈̅ + p → 𝑛 + 𝑒
𝜈+𝑛 → 𝑝+𝑒
Weakly interacting particle

For a typical neutrino the probability of reacting with a proton is

𝜎 = 1.2 × 10 cm
For this neutrino to interact with 1 cm of matter containing 10 protons/cm3 the
probability is 10 cm
Neutrino detection
Two requirements
1) Large source of neutrino
1) Nuclear explosions
2) Nuclear reactor
2) Methodology for detection
using inverse beta decay

Neutrinos from reactor

• Neutron-rich nuclei are formed in reactor due to nuclear fission process.
• These nuclei undergo beta-decay and release about 6 𝜈̅ per fission event.
• The flux of neutrino is around 10 per cm per second.
Neutrino detection
(Reines and Cowan 1955)
Methodology for detection
using inverse beta decay
a) Liquid scintillator and water with Cd were
used as a detector and target. Cadmium
was in the form of CdCl.
b) Neutrino interact with a proton in water
and produce positron and neutron.
𝜈̅ + p → 𝑛 + 𝑒
c) Positron get annihilated and produce two
gamma radiations (0.511 MeV).
𝑒 + 𝑒 → 2𝛾
d) Neutron (after slowing down) is captured
by 114Cd and the resulting compound
system (115Cd*) decay by emitting gamma-
rays of energies between 3 and 9 MeV.
Methodology for detection
e) Two pairs of signals with a delay of
3 to 10 microseconds were
produced by the liquid scintillators.
f) First pair of signals would be from
positron annihilation, and second
from neutron capture.
g) Electronic circuit was designed to
detect this “delayed-coincidence”
event.
.
Some other experimental details:
1) Data were taken for 900 hrs with reactor on, and 250 hours with reactor off.
2) Rate of these events were one per hour.
3) Accidental events due to gamma and neutrons coming from the reactor.
• Increasing the shield in further experiments will reduce this background and improve the
signal to background events

Result of the Reines-Cowan experiment

• Delayed-coincidence signals were observed.
• Above delayed-coincidence signals were 5 times greater when the reactor was on than off.
• Signal to background events were 4 to 1.
• Signals were proportional to the number of target protons.
• Replace some of the H2O by D2O
• Doubling the amount of Cadmium reduced the average delay time between positron-
annihilation and neutron capture signals.
First three points conclude that the inverse beta decay is happening, which in turn indicate the
existence of anti-neutrino. Red sentences were further check on the accuracy of the results.
Non-conservation of parity
in beta decay
Reflection about plane

Reflection about origin

Right handed system Left handed system
Non-conservation of parity
in beta decay
 The parity operation
 Charge conjugation operation
 Time reversal operation

Source: “Introductory Nuclear Physics”

by KS Krane