Nuclear Physics

Shivute ©2025
 Course Content
• Isotopes
– Definition
– Applications
• Principle of Radioactivity
– Definition of radioactivity decay
– Half-life
• Types of Radiation
– Alpha, beta and gamma
 Radioactivity History
• In 1896, Henri Becquerel discovered, almost by accident, that
uranium can blacken a photographic plate, even in the dark.

• Uranium emits very energetic radiation ‑ it is radioactive.

Henri Becquerel (1852-1908)

In 1903, he shared the Nobel Prize in Physics with Pierre Image of Becquerel's photographic plate which
and Marie Curie "in recognition of the extraordinary has been fogged by exposure to radiation from
services he has rendered by his discovery of a uranium salt.
spontaneous radioactivity".
• Then Marie and Pierre Curie
discovered more radioactive
elements including polonium and
radium.
• She used the word radioactivity
to describe the property of
certain substances to give off
invisible “radiations” that could Marie Curie (1867-1934)
be detected by films.
• Scientists soon realised that there
were three different types of
radiation.
• These were called alpha (α), beta
(β), and gamma (γ) rays from the
first three letters of the Greek
alphabet.
Pierre Curie (1859-1906)
 Discovery
• 1896, Antoine-Henri
Bequerel -> uranium
• Marie Curie separated
radioactive elements in
uranium mineral
– With her husband Pierre,
discovered polonium and
radium
• Most radioactive elements
are heavier elements,
near the bottom of the
periodic table
Isotopes and Radioactivity
 Isotopes
• Isotopes are atoms of
an element having the
same number of
protons but different
numbers of neutrons.
• How many neutrons?
– Mass number – atomic
number = number of
neutrons
Sample problems
 What is radioactive decay?
• This occurs when an unstable atomic nucleus
changes into another nucleus by emitting one
or more particles (e.g. ,  or  rays) and
energy
• A nucleus that is unstable is radioactive
• Radioactive nuclei have found many uses in
science and medicine
– Iron-59 (an isotope) can be injected into a person’s
bloodstream to show blood circulation
– pg303
 Uses of radioactive decay
• Other uses:
– Detection of cancer and
killing of cancer cells
• using coblat-60 to stop
the growth of brain
tumors
– Preserving food
• The radiation kills
bacteria, fungi, insects,
and other pests that spoil
food
 Sources of Radiation
• Ionizing radiation is a natural part of our
environment.
• There are two chief sources of radiation you
will probably be exposed to:
– background radiation.
– radiation from radioactive isotopes or medical
procedures such as x-rays.
 Background radiation
• Background radiation levels
can vary widely from place to
place.
– Cosmic rays are high energy
particles that come from
outside our solar system.
– Radioactive material from
nuclear weapons is called
fallout.
– Radioactive radon gas is
present in the atmosphere.
 Radioactive Decay
Radioactive decay results in the emission of either:

• an alpha particle (a),

• a beta particle (b),

• or a gamma ray(g).
 Alpha Decay
An alpha particle is identical to that of a helium nucleus.

It contains two protons and two neutrons.

 Alpha Decay

• Alpha-particle production
• Alpha particle – helium nucleus
– Examples

• Net effect is loss of 4 in mass number and loss of 2 in

atomic number.
 Alpha Decay

222 A 4

86
Rn Z
Y + 2
He

222 218 4

86
Rn 84
Po + 2
He
 Beta Decay
As a result of beta decay, the nucleus has one less
neutron, but one extra proton.

The atomic number, Z, increases by 1 and the mass

number, A, stays the same.
 Beta Decay
As a result of beta decay, the nucleus has one less
neutron, but one extra proton.

The atomic number, Z, increases by 1 and the mass

number, A, stays the same.
 Beta Decay
• Beta-particle production
• Beta particle – electron
– Examples

• Net effect is to change a neutron to a proton.

 Beta Decay
218
218 At
84
Po 85

-1
b
 Beta Decay
A A 0

Z
X Z+1
Y + -1
b

218 218 0

84
Po 85
Rn + -1
b
 Gamma Decay
• Gamma rays are not charged particles like α and β
particles.
• Gamma rays are electromagnetic radiation with
high frequency.
• When atoms decay by emitting α or β particles to
form a new atom, the nuclei of the new atom
formed may still have too much energy to be
completely stable.
• This excess energy is emitted as gamma rays
(gamma ray photons have energies of ~ 1 x 10-12 J).
 Gamma Decay
• Gamma ray release
• Gamma ray – high energy photon
– Examples

• Net effect is no change in mass number or atomic

number.
 Absorption of Radiation
• Alpha (α) – absorbed by 2-3 cm air and thin
paper
• Beta (β ) – can penetrate paper absorbed by a
few mm of metal
• Gamma (γ) – very penetrating absorbed by
many cm of lead and metres of concrete
Absorption of Radiation
 Summary
• Radioactivity – the spontaneous decomposition or
disintegration of a nucleus forming a different nucleus
and producing one or more additional particles
• Radioactive decay is a process by which the nuclei of a
nuclide emit ,  or  rays.
• In the radioactive process, the nuclide undergoes a
transmutation, converting to another nuclide.
• Nuclear Equation – shows the radioactive decomposition
of an element
14
6 C → 147N + 0
-1 e
• Nuclear Forces – strong nuclear force holds neutrons and
protons together to form a nucleus (counters
electromagnetic repulsion).
 Detection of Radioactivity
• Geiger-Muller counter – instrument which
measures radioactive decay by registering the
ions and electrons produced as a radioactive
particle passes through a gas-filled chamber
 Detection of Radioactivity
• Scintillation counter instrument which
measures the rate of radioactive decay by
sensing flashes of light that the radiation
produces in the detector
 Half-Life
• Uranium is still found in
nature because of how
long it takes to decay
• Half-life is the time it
takes for a sample of
radioactive isotope to
decay to half its original
mass
• EXAMPLES:
– Uranium-235 takes 713
million years
 Calculating of Half-time
No. of nuclei
Decays per second, N present
or “activity”  N
t
decay constant
Survival: N(t) N0e t

No. of nuclei No. we started

present at time t with at t=0
Instead of base e we can use base
2: t

 t T1/2 0.693
e 2 where T1/2 

Half life
t

T1/2
Then we can write N(t) N0e t N0 2
Example
One in 8.3x1011 carbon atoms is 14C which b-
decays with a ½ life of 5730 years. Determine #
of decays/s per gram of Carbon.

 1.0 mole  23  1  10 atoms

N14   6.02 10  11 
6 10
 12 g   8.3 10  g

.693 .693
  3.83 10 12 s -1
T1/ 2 5730 365 24 60 60

N
 N 0.23 decays/s
t
 Calculating of Half-time
• Half-life can be calculated by the following
method or equation

Homework

N
 N
t
0.693
T1/2 

 Radioactive Half-Life
• Most radioactive
materials decay
in a series of
reactions.
• Radon gas comes
from the decay
of uranium in the
soil.
• Uranium (U-238)
decays to radon-
222 (Rn-222).
Radioactive Half-life

t

T1/2
N(t) N0e t N0 2

time
 Application of Isotopes
1. Food and Agriculture
1. Fertilisers
2. Increasing genetic variability
3. Food irradiation and preservation
2. Medicine
1. Sterilization
2. Treatment of cancer
3. Diagnosis - Tracers and imaging
3. Carbon dating
4. Smoke detectors
 Note:
 website: http://www.world-nuclear.org/info/non-power-
nuclear-applications/overview/the-many-uses-of-nuclear-
technology/