JSS2 BASIC SCIENCE LESSON NOTES -

FIRST TERM

Scheme of Work
SN WEEK TOPICS

1 WEEK 1 LIVING THINGS HABITAT

2 WEEK 2 ADAPTATION OF LIVING THINGS TO THEIR

HABITAT

3 WEEK 3 RELATIONSHIP BETWEEN LIVING ORGANISMS

IN THEIR HABITAT

4 WEEK 4 UNIQUENESS OF HUMAN BEINGS

5 WEEK 5 MEASUREMENT OF GROWTH AND

DEVELOPMENT

6 WEEK 6 HUMAN DEVELOPMENT 1

WEEK 7 & 8 HUMAN DEVELOPMENT 2

9 WEEK 9 BODY IMAGE 1

10 WEEK 10 BODY IMAGE 2

 WEEK 1 HABITAT OF LIVING THINGS
What is a Habitat?
A habitat is an ecological or environmental area that is inhabited by a human, a
particular species of animal, plant, or other type of organism. A place where a
living thing lives is its habitat. It is a place where it can find food, shelter,
protection, and mates for reproduction. It is the natural environment in which an
organism lives or the physical environment that surrounds a species
population.
The living place of plants and animals is called Habitat. Habitat can be big or
small example forest or a leaf.
Different animals and plants require different living conditions to survive
examples. To survive, whales need seawater whereas to survive, goldfish need
fresh water. Some animals can survive in more than one habitat and some can
survive in one.
Introduction to different habitats
All animals and plants are adapted to the conditions of the habitats in which
they live. Example: A rattlesnake could not live in the Arctic for a very long time
whereas a Walrus could not live in the desert.

Different types of Habitats

1 Forest Habitat
2 Desert Habitat
3 Water Habitat{Aquatic Habitat}
4 Grassland Habitat
5 Tundra Habitat
Details of Different Types of Habitats
1. Forest Habitat: It is a type of habitat that covers a large area where many
trees, plants, and animals live. The plants in forests provide shade and
protection to many different types of animals

Different types of forests are

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a) Deciduous Forest: These are forests in cool rainy areas. They can be found
in the middle of Europe or the Eastern half of North America. Animals living in
this habitat must adjust to cold winters and hot summers. The trees in the
forest provide shelter for them
Examples of animals living in this habitat are
Black bear, Grey squirrel, Turkey, Rat snake
b) Coniferous forest: This habitat is found in Europe and Canada. The Northern
coniferous forests are called Taiga. This is the largest type of habitat in the
world. It has fewer animals as compared to deciduous forests cold weather
makes life very difficult in these forests.
Examples of animals living in this habitat are lynx, Moose, Squirrel, Loon, and
Hawk owl.

c) Rain Forest: Tropical rain forest occurs in regions that are near the equator.
The climate is very warm with plenty of rainfall. Most of the animals live on
trees.
2. Desert Habitat:
Deserts are characterized by dry conditions and a wide temperature range.
These are defined as regions that have less than 254 mm of annual rainfall or
precipitation.

Types of Deserts
a.Hot and dry Desert: Most hot deserts are near the Tropic of Cancer or Tropic
of Capricorn.
b.Cold Deserts: These are near the Arctic part of the world. Cold Deserts have
animals like Kangaroo rats, Antelope, and Jack Rabbits.
Just as some animals prefer to live on land, some need water habitat to survive.

3. Aquatic habitat{Water Habitat}

It refers to the region covered with water where plants and animals survive.
Aquatic habitat is further divided into freshwater habitat, marine habitat, and

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coastal habitat. Water is the medium for the organisms living in aquatic
habitats.

a)Freshwater habitat: These are the water bodies filled with fresh water. These
include rivers, lakes, ponds, streams etc. Water present has a very low
concentration of salts. Plants growing in water are called hydrophytes.

b) Marine habitat: Oceans and seas are termed to be marine habitats. These
are full of life. Different varieties of organisms exist in marine habitats.
Organisms like corals, shelled animals, sponges, jellyfish, sharks, and many
others are found in this habitat.

c) Coastal habitat or estuaries: This is the region represented by the place

where land meets the sea. Estuaries are formed when the saltwater mixes with
freshwater. These habitats are unique. Special types of trees called mangroves
are found in this region. Animals are also well adapted to live in these regions.

4. Grassland Habitat: They are big open spaces of grass. About one-quarter of
land on earth is in grassland.

The two different types of grasslands are :

a.Temperature grasslands: They are farther from the equator and have both
cold winters and hot summers
b.Tropical grasslands: These are closest to the equator and all hot all year
Since Grassland lack trees and heavy bushes Hence grasslands are home to
large herds of grazing animals such as Bison, Giraffe, Lion, Zebra, Ostrich
5. Tundra Habitat: The two major characteristics of tundra are Arctic tundra and
alpine tundra. These are located at high altitudes on mountains around the
world. About one-fifth of the earth's land is Tundra. The Arctic tundra is frozen
for much of the year. The ground is permanently frozen 10 feet 3 inches down
so the trees cannot grow there.

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Animals living in the tundra are Lions, Snowbirds, Mosquitoes, Flies, Polar
bears, Wolves, and Flatfish. Animals are also well adapted to live in these
regions.

EVALUATION
1. Habitat is a place where -------- a.plants live b. Animals live c. Man and
Animals live d. Plants and Animals live
2. Which of the following is not an aquatic animal? a. Fish b.Water lilies
c.Crocodile d.Birds

1. What is a Habitat?
2. State 5 types of Habitat.
3. Give 5 examples of animals found in each Habitat.
4. Describe the characteristics of each of these habitats.

ASSIGNMENT.
What are Arboreal Animals? Give Examples.

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 WEEK 2 ADAPTATIONS
Adaptations are special features that allow a plant or animal to live in a
particular place or habitat.

The ability of living organisms to adjust themselves to their surroundings is

called adaptation. Adaptations are the changes in the structure or behaviour of
an organism that will allow the organism to survive in that habitat. Plants and
animals make some natural adjustments in some features to fit themselves into
their environment. Different living organisms adapt themselves to their habitats
in different ways. Adaptations can be brought about by changes in the body,
changes in the behaviour, and location changes.

Adaptation of animals in aquatic habitat

Animals that live in aquatic habitats are adapted by structural modification of

the structures of their body and also by developing new structures. Aquatic
animals are adapted by modifying the structures present in their bodies which
are known as the adaptational structures or adaptational features. The
adaptational features of aquatic animals are as follows:

1 The body is streamlined in shape which helps to minimize water resistance

which makes it easy to live in water.

2Respiratory organs are the gills in perfectly aquatic forms like fishes but in
the air-breathing forms, nostrils are located near the top of the head to enable
them to go to the surface frequently to inhale air.

3Locomotory organs are developed as the fins to swim in water easily. There
are different types of fins like dorsal fins, ventral fins, caudal fins, pectoral fins,
and pelvic fins. All the fins help in swimming but the caudal fin helps them to
balance the body in water. Some aquatic forms like amphibians have a thin fold
of skin in between the digits of the hind limbs which is called a web. Web helps
to increase the surface area for swimming. Aquatic animals like turtles have
fin-like organs called paddles for swimming and whales have the flippers as the
swimming organ.

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4 The body is covered by scales which make the body soft and slippery to
escape from the enemies and also help them to protect the internal soft organs
of the body.

5 Some fishes have a hydrostatic organ called an air bladder for adjusting
them in the different depths of water according to their need by increasing the
amount of gas or by decreasing the amount of gas inside the air bladder.

ADAPTATION OF AQUATIC PLANTS

Plant Adaptations

Plants have adaptations to help them survive (live and grow) in different areas.
Adaptations are special features that allow a plant or animal to live in a
particular place or habitat. These adaptations might make it very difficult for the
plant to survive in a different place. This explains why certain plants are found
in one area, but not in another. For example, you wouldn't see a cactus living in
the Arctic. Nor would you see lots of really tall trees living in grasslands.

Plant Adaptations in Water

• underwater leaves and stems are flexible to move with water currents

• some plants have air spaces in their stems to help hold the plant up in
the water

• submerged plants lack a strong water transport system (in stems);

instead water, nutrients, and dissolved gasses are absorbed through the leaves
directly from the water.

• roots and root hairs reduced or absent; roots only needed for anchorage,
not for absorption of nutrients and water

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• some plants have leaves that float atop the water, exposing themselves
to the sunlight

• in floating plants chlorophyll is restricted to the the upper surface of

leaves (the part that the sunlight will hit) and the upper surface is waxy to repel
water

• Some plants produce seeds that can float

In floating plants, chlorophyll is restricted to the upper surface. Note the green
color on the top of the leaves and the reddish underside of the overturned leaf.
Aquatic plants must be flexible to withstand the pressures of moving water.

The Desert

The desert is very dry and often hot. Annual rainfall averages less than 10
inches per year, and that rain often comes all at the same time. The rest of the
year is very dry. There is a lot of direct sunlight shining on the plants. The soil
is often sandy or rocky and unable to hold much water. Winds are often strong
and dry out plants. Plants are exposed to extreme temperatures and drought
conditions. Plants must cope with extensive water loss.

Desert Plant Adaptations

• Some plants, called succulents, store water in their stems or leaves;

• Some plants have no leaves or small seasonal leaves that only grow after
it rains. The lack of leaves helps reduce water loss during photosynthesis.
Leafless plants conduct photosynthesis in their green stems.

• Long root systems spread out wide or go deep into the ground to absorb
water;

• Some plants have a short life cycle, germinating in response to rain,

growing, flowering, and dying within one year. These plants can evade
drought.

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• Leaves with hair help shade the plant, reducing water loss. Other plants
have leaves that turn throughout the day to expose a minimum surface area to
the heat.

• Spines to discourage animals from eating plants for water;

• Waxy coating on stems and leaves helps reduce water loss.

• Flowers that open at night lure pollinators who are more likely to be
active during the cooler night.

• Slower growing requires less energy. The plants don't have to make as
much food and therefore do not lose as much water.

This cactus displays several desert adaptations: it has spines rather than
leaves and it stores water in its stem. This cactus displays light-colored hair
that helps shade the plant. This plant has a waxy coating on its leaves.

The Temperate Grasslands

The temperate grasslands, also called prairie, feature hot summers and cold
winters. Rainfall is uncertain and drought is common. The temperate
grasslands usually receive about 10 to 30 inches of precipitation per year. The
soil is extremely rich in organic material because the above-ground portions of
grasses die off annually, enriching the soil. The area is well-suited to
agriculture, and few original prairies survive today.

Temperate Grassland Prairie) Plant Adaptations

• During a fire, while above-ground portions of grasses may perish, the

root portions survive to sprout again

• Some prairie trees have thick bark to resist fire

• Prairie shrubs readily resprout after fire

• Roots of prairie grasses extend deep into the ground to absorb as much
moisture as they can

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• Extensive root systems prevent grazing animals from pulling roots out of
the ground

• Prairie grasses have narrow leaves which lose less water than broad
leaves

• Grasses grow from near their base, not from the tip, thus are not
permanently damaged by grazing animals or fire

• Many grasses take advantage of exposed, windy conditions and are

wind-pollinated

• Soft stems enable prairie grasses to bend in the wind

Soft stems enable prairie grasses to bend in the wind. Narrow leaves minimize
water loss. Many grasses are wind-pollinated and are well-suited to the
exposed, windy conditions of the grasslands.

ADAPTATION OF FROGS

All animals adapt to survive in the wild, and frogs are no exception. Here is a
list of the top ten physical adaptations that enable frogs to thrive in wetlands.

1. Legs: Frogs have very powerful back legs and webbed feet that help them
swim and jump.

Some frogs even use their legs to dig or burrow underground to hibernate.
Certain frogs can jump up to 20 times their body length in a single bound.

2. Skin: Frogs can breathe through their skin so they can stay underwater as
long as they want.

3. Skin: Frogs donʼt drink water through their mouths at all, instead they soak it
into their bodies through their skin.

4. Skin: Frog skin is often camouflaged to hide from predators. Some frogs can
change the colour of their skin depending on their surroundings.

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5. Skin: Some frogs secrete poison through their skin. Many of the more easily
visible, brightly colored tropical frogs are colored in this way to warn predators
that they are poisonous.

6. Croaks: Frogs attract each other for mating with their croak. Each frog
species has a distinct croak. They have vocal sacs, which fill with air and can
amplify the sound up to a mile away.

7. Tongue: When a frog spots a tasty meal, it flicks out its long, sticky tongue.
The tongue wraps around the meal/insect and pulls it back into the frogʼs
mouth. Unlike humans, a frogʼs tongue is not attached to the back of its mouth.
Instead, it is attached to the front, enabling the frog to stick its tongue out much
further.

8. Teeth: Frogs do have teeth, but they are small and not good for chewing.
Instead, frogs use their teeth to hold their prey in their mouths until they are
ready to swallow.

9. Eyes: Frogs swallow using their eyes. Its eyes retract into its head and push
the food down its throat. Frogʼs eyes are on top of their heads so when they
swim close to the surface of the water, only their eyes are exposed. This way,
they can quickly spot danger before danger spots them.

10. Eyes: Frogs can see forwards, sideways, and upwards all at the same time
and never close their eyes, even when they sleep. They even have a third
eyelid which is see-through and protects the frogʼs sensitive eyes when it is
under water.

Acclimatization:

The ability of an organism to make small adjustments or changes in the body in

a short period to adjust itself to the surrounding atmosphere is called
acclimatisation. People who visit mountain ranges suffer from altitude sickness

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due to poor oxygen content in the atmosphere at such heights. Their body gets
adjusted or acclimatised to changes in their surroundings.

Components of a habitat

The components in a habitat are broadly classified into two types, namely
biotic and abiotic components. Biotic components interact with abiotic
components to obtain all the necessary conditions.

Biotic components include all the living organisms in a habitat, i.e. plants,
animals, and microorganisms.

Abiotic components include all the non-living things in a habitat, i.e. air, soil,
water, sunlight, and temperature. The favourable conditions for the survival of
living organisms are provided by abiotic components.

a) Air: Air is essential for all the living organisms on Earth. Plants and animals
take in oxygen from the air during respiration. Plants take in carbon dioxide
during the process of photosynthesis. Air also provides nitrogen which is fixed
to the plants for utilization. Air is required by organisms to cool their body.
Winds help in generating energy. Winds also help in carrying the seeds to
distant places.

b) Soil: Soil is the topmost layer of the earth. Soil is rich in minerals and
microorganisms which help in different ways for plant growth. Soil also
possesses certain spaces that lodge water particles. This water lodged in the
spaces is used by plants in the process of absorption.

c) Water: Three-fourths of our earth is covered with water. Water is essential

for life. Water forms a medium for many metabolic reactions taking place inside

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the body. Water can be freshwater or marine water. Animals living in water are
called aquatic organisms. Plants especially those living in water are called
hydrophytes. Humidity and rain are also the forms of water which help the
living organisms.

d) Sunlight: Sun is the ultimate source of energy for all living organisms on
Earth. Plants depend on sunlight for synthesizing their food by the process of
photosynthesis. Animals depend on plants for their food i.e. indirectly they
depend on sunlight.

e) Temperature: Temperature at a place depends on the sunlight available at

the particular place. Temperature also influences the humidity of that particular
place. Areas may be too hot, moderate, or too cool. Some animals hibernate
during cool winter and some of them aestivate during hot summer.

EVALUATION

1. The two factors that affect living organisms are a.Abiotic and amniotic factors
and b. Abiotic and Non-abiotic factors c.Abiotic and Biotic factors d.Biotic and
biological factors.

2,.Features that help organisms to survive in a particular habitat are called

--------a.Homes b.Adaptation c.Favourites d.Permanent home.

Define the following

1. Biotic factors ii.Abiotic factors

2. Give Examples

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WEEK 3 RELATIONSHIPS BETWEEN LIVING THINGS IN
THEIR HABITAT
An Ecological relationship is the relationship between organisms in an
ecosystem. All organisms in an ecosystem are connected. Each interaction
depends on the one before it. Each population interacts with one another in a
complex web of relations. Ecological relationships help better describe how
they are connected.
There are six ecological relationships of which two are oppositional and four
are symbiotic. The oppositional relationships are predation and competition.
The symbiotic relationships are mutualism, commensalism, amensalism, and
parasitism.
The ecological relationship an organism has depends on the way the organism
adapted to its environmental pressures on evolutionary bases.
Oppositional relationships
Predation
This is where one organism hunts and eats the other organism. The organism
hunting is called the predator, while the organism being hunted is called the
prey. Energy received from the sun is transferred from animals when the prey is
eaten by the predator. The predator now has its preyʼs energy.

A predator is usually a carnivore that hunts, kills, and eats other animals. For
example, a snake eating a mouse, the snake is considered the predator
because it is consuming the mouse. In another example, a striped marlin is a
predator. It lives in the Pacific Ocean and preys on sardines, also a Pacific
animal. Similarly, various birds eat earthworms.
However, a predator can become the prey of another larger predator. For
instance, a snake may become a meal for a hawk.
"In ecology, predation is a mechanism of population control. Thus, when the
number of predators is scarce, the number of prey should rise. When this
happens, the predators would be able to reproduce more and possibly change
their hunting habits. As the number of predators rises, the number of prey

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declines. This results in food scarcity for predators that can eventually lead to
the death of many predators."
Because of this, predation is called a "positive-negative" relationship. There is
also Cannibalism. It is a higher grade of predation. This is where in one
population the organisms eat each other because of the scarcity of food
sources. Ex. Frogs are known for cannibalism too.

Herbivore/plant predation

The prey does not necessarily have to be an animal, but can also be a plant.
When the prey is a plant, the relationship would be called an herbivore-plant
relationship.
A perfect example of this would be," Galapagos tortoises and cactus plants that
grow on the Galapagos Islands."
Another example is the koalas. They have a special digestive system that
allows them to break down tough eucalyptus leaves and remain unharmed by
their poison National Geographic).
Finally, a squirrel is the herbivore (predator) and the nuts he eats are the plant
(prey).
Food Webs
The species that make up an ecosystem are connected in complex "food
webs" of the eater and eaten. Food webs show interconnectedness, especially
between predators and their prey.
When one species disappears, its predators can no longer eat it and its prey is
no longer eaten by it. Changes in these populations affect others.

Energy Pyramids

An energy pyramid is a way of showing how energy flows through an

ecosystem specifically on a certain food chain (predators and their prey).
Energy – The energy for all living things comes from the sun

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Producers – Plants that capture the light energy and turn it into chemical
energy (stored in sugar)
Consumers – Organisms that can't make their food
Carnivores - Consumers that eat animals
Example. Lion eat Zebra
Herbivores – Consumers that eat plants (producers)
Example. Chipmunks and Armadillos
Omnivores - Consumers that eat both animals and plants
Example. Badgers
Scavengers are consumers who eat dead animals
Example. Vultures
Decomposers are consumers who eat and/or break down waste products
Example. Fungus and Mold

Competition
Competition is when organisms compete for the same resources. This is a
negative relationship because both organisms are harming each other
Campbell).

Intraspecies competition
Organisms competing can be from within the same species, for example, two
male elk fighting for a female mate. Elephants also fight each other so that the
dominant elephant will get to breed with the female.
Another species that shows great competition between each other is the
dolphin. Dolphins go along together and play with each other, but when it is
time to eat; all dolphins have to compete for a meal.
Interspecies competition
Competition can be also found in two different species. A lizard and a frog can
compete for a similar food they eat such as a small insect. This type of
competition is only found when two different species share an ecological niche
that they must compete over.

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Competitive exclusion principle
"Direct competition between different species almost always produces a
winner and a loser- and the losing species dies out," or is forced to migrate to
another ecosystem that can support them Levine, 2010. This is the
competitive exclusion principle. This principle says that two species that need
the same resources cannot survive together in the same habitat. One organism
will eventually die off, thus, Symbiotic relationships.

Mutualism

Mutualism is a relationship in which organisms benefit from each other. This is

a positive, positive relationship.
An example of this would be the bee and flower. Bee gets nectar and honey
from flowers. The bee contributes back to the flower by spreading the pollen
so that the flowers can reproduce. This is a very common contribution to both
the flower and the bee, they both rely on each other to survive.
Another example would be when the ox pecker lands on an impala's back and
eats the ticks that are a parasite to the impala. The oxpecker is benefited
because it gets a meal from the tick and the impala gets benefited because the
tick is no longer on it. Similarly, monkeys pick fleas from other monkeys which
benefits both because it's like a treat.
There is a mutualistic relationship between spider crabs and algae. The algae
live on the crabs' backs, allowing the spider crab to blend in with its
environment so that predators can't find them. The algae get a nice place to
live, while in turn, the spider crab gets camouflaged. Thus, both organisms are
benefited.
The Clownfish and Anemone would also be a good fit for mutualism because
the Anemone protects the clownfish while the clownfish protects the Anemone.
"The clownfish benefits by having a protected home territory."
Finally, there is even a mutualistic relationship within the human body. Bacteria
live inside our intestines (getting a good place to live) and help us break down
our food and get vitamins.

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Commensalism
Commensalism is a relationship in which one organism benefits from another
organism that is not affected. This is a positive, neutral relationship.

For example, a small fish called the Pilot Fish follows underneath a shark, and
when the shark eats something the pilot fish eats the scrap pieces of the
shark's original kill. Blue Planet BBC Documentary 2001.
Another example is a bird's nest in a tree. The bird is benefitting because the
tree is giving the bird shelter and the tree is not getting anything in return.
Similarly, the transparent shrimp benefits from a reef because it hides within it
(camouflaging), but the coral is not affected.
Additionally, the relationship between an infectious disease and its carrier, an
animal such as a mosquito, could be classified as commensalism because the
mosquito is unaffected by the presence of the disease, but the mosquito
transfers it to a host in which the disease can reproduce or spread more easily
to others.
"Often, the host species provides a home and/or transportation for the other
species.) The whale and barnacles are a perfect example of this. "Barnacles
are crustaceans that have jointed legs and shells of connected overlapping
plates. Instead of crawling after food, they glue themselves to rocks, ships,
pilings, abalones, and maybe even whales and wait for food to wash by. The
barnacles attach themselves to the whale. This way, the barnacle can get food
faster. This does not affect the whale so he does not take the barnacle off.

Parasitism

Parasitism is a relationship in which one organism (the parasite) benefits while

the other(the host) is harmed. This is a positive, negative relationship.
The parasite usually lives on or inside the other organism.
For example, mosquito is a parasite, feeding on a human while transferring the
disease called Malaria. Other examples would be ticks or fleas that live off of

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many large mammals. Similarly, head lice are an example of parasitism because
they feed on blood from the human head.
In Colorado, the pine bark beetle is a common parasite. The pine beetles lay
their eggs in the pine trees, and then when the babies are born, they eat the
layers of the tree which stops the tree from growing.
"Natural Selection favors parasites that are best able to locate hosts and feed
on themˮʼ

EVALUATION
1. The following primary source of energy for organism -------a.Moon b.Star.
c.Carbohydrate d.Sun
2. The path through which food energy is transferred from one organism to
another is called ------- a.Food Transfer b.Food path c.Food Chain d.Food
Web
3. The organism that feeds directly on plants are called -------
a.Primary consumer b.Secondary Consumer c.Tertiary Consumer d.University
consumer.
4. Define the following
Prey, predator, herbivores carnivores, scavengers, omnivores..

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 WEEK 4 MAN AS AN INTELLIGENT ANIMAL
1. The human brain possesses qualities that have no parallel in the animal
world. One consequence is manʼs explicit mental capabilities.

Man possesses the faculty of speech and his creative communication using his
vocal system is completely different from those of animals Give orange me give
eat orange me eat orange give me eat orange give me you."

That's the longest string of words that Nim Chimpsky, a chimpanzee who
scientists raised as a human and taught sign language in the 1970s, ever
signed. He was the subject of Project Nim, an experiment conducted by
cognitive scientists at Columbia University to investigate whether chimps can
learn language.

After years of exposing Nim to all things human, the researchers concluded
that although he did learn to express demands — the desire for an orange, for
instance — and knew 125 words, he couldn't fully grasp the language, at least
as they defined it. Language requires not just vocabulary but also syntax, they
argued. "Give orange me," for example, means something different than "give
me orange." From a very young age, humans understand that; we have an
innate ability to create new meanings by combining and ordering words in
diverse ways. Nim had no such capacity, which is presumably true for all
chimps. He has the unique ability to pay attention.

2. Only man can express emotions (e.g., joy, sadness, hope, laughter, shyness).
Some animals seem to have similar abilities, but they cannot be compared with
human emotions.

3. Hands: All animals have hands but we can move our thumbs all across the
palm to our ring and little fingers. We can also flex the ring and little fingers
toward the base of our thumb. This gives humans a powerful grip and
exceptional dexterity to hold and manipulate tools. Monkeys have thumbs on
their feet as well as on their hands, which helps in climbing trees (they can grab
with their feet as well as with their hands). The human thumb is proportionately

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longer than those of apes and man can oppose his thumb to his fingers
whereas apes and monkeys cannot. Without this uniquely designed hand, no
ape could be competent in using tools. The ape lacks the dexterity that humans
enjoy.

4.. Only man walks upright in an erect posture. Man can walk comfortably and
naturally on two feet. This is his normal posture. Monkeys, apes, bears,
chipmunks, and other animals may occasionally walk on two feet, but this is not
their normal mode of transportation. They usually move on all fours.

5. The brain of a human is normally two or three times larger than the brain of
the largest ape, which is the gorilla. Our brains weigh an average of three
pounds, which is enormous for an animal of our body size. By comparison,
chimpanzees, our closest living relatives, have brains that are one-third the
size of our own, although they are very similar to us in body size. Most of this
brain-size difference reflects the evolutionary expansion of the association
cortex, a group of regions that supports such sophisticated cognitive functions
as language, self-awareness, and problem-solving.

The size of the human association cortex is only part of what makes this region
unusual in humans. In addition to having more neurons in the association
cortex, brain imaging studies comparing the brains of humans to other primates
show humans have a greater number of fibers connecting the brain regions
involved in such human-specialized functions as language, tool-making,
reasoning, and social cognition.

6. A manʼs body is relatively hairless. Monkeys and apes are very hairy. Some
evolutionists refer to man as "the naked ape." However, have you ever seen a
naked ape (an ape not covered by hair)? Apes by definition are very hairy. If
man is not hairy, then he must not be an ape!

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7. The human nose has a prominent bridge and an elongated tip which is
lacking in the apes. God knew that some of us would one day need to wear
glasses, and so He formed us in such a way that we would have a place to
hang them!

8. Manʼs arms are very short in comparison to the arms of monkeys and apes.
The arms of apes hang down to the ground and like its legs, are used for
transportation. Monkeys have thumbs on their feet as well as on their hands,
which helps in climbing trees (they can grab with their feet as well as with their
hands). The human thumb is proportionately longer than those of apes and
man can oppose his thumb to his fingers whereas apes and monkeys cannot.
Without this uniquely designed hand, no ape could be competent in using tools.
The ape lacks the dexterity that humans enjoy.

9. Human babies are far more helpless and dependent on their parents than
any of the infants of apes and monkeys.

10. A manʼs head is balanced on top of his spinal column. The head of the ape
is hinged at the front instead of on top. Instead of having the head balanced on
top of the spinal column as in humans, the heads of apes project forward. Also,
there is a great difference between men and apes in the way the spine is
curved. Men have what is called the "lumbar curve;" apes do not.

11. The chromosome count differs between men and apes. The chromosome
number of a man is 46. The chimpanzee and the gorilla have a count of 48.

EVALUATION

1. Examples of Mammals are the following except---a. Fish b.Man c.Giraffe

d.Elephants

2. Human basic intelligence skills include the following except

a.Measurement b.Interference c.Inference d.Reasoning and problem-solving.

In what way is man different from animals?

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 WEEK 5 DEFINITION OF GROWTH AND
DEVELOPMENT
Growth is the progressive increase in the size of a child or parts of a child.
Development is the progressive acquisition of various skills (abilities) such as
head support, speaking, learning, expressing feelings, and relating with other
people. Growth and development go together but at different rates.
Maturity refers to when the body is fully developed.

Importance of assessing growth and development

The assessment of growth and development is very helpful in finding out the
state of health and nutrition of a child. Continuous normal growth and
development indicate a good state of health and nutrition of a child. Abnormal
growth or growth failure is a symptom of disease. Hence, measurement of
growth is an essential component of the physical examination.

Factors affecting growth and development

Each childʼs path or pattern of growth and development is determined by
genetic and environmental factors. The genetic factors determine the potential
and limitations of growth and development. If favourable, environmental
factors, such as adequate nutrition, facilitate the achievement of the genetic
potential for growth and development. Unfavourable factors, acting singly or in
combination, slow or stop growth and development. Some of the unfavourable
factors are malnutrition, infections, congenital malformations, hormonal
disturbances, disability, lack of emotional support, lack of play, and lack of
language training. To promote optimum growth, these environmental factors
can be removed or minimized. Once they are removed, there follows a period
of catch-up growth. During this period the growth rate is greater than normal.
This growth rate continues until the previous growth pattern is reached. Then
the growth rate is reduced to the normal rate determined by the individualʼs
genetic factors. A child genetically determined to be tall grows slightly more
rapidly than a child genetically determined to be short. Similarly, a child

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genetically determined to be clever develops their intellect more rapidly than a
child genetically determined to be less intelligent.

Measuring Growth
Various measurements are used to measure growth. These are:
1. Weight,
2. Height,
3. Head circumference,
4. Mid-upper arm circumference MUAC
5. The eruption of teeth.
To be useful, these measurements must be taken accurately using reliable
equipment and correct measuring techniques. Measuring weight For measuring
the weight, a beam balance or spring balance is used the weighing pants on
the hook of the scale. .

Measuring the Head Circumference The head circumference is measured by

encircling the head with an unstretchable tape measure, or a piece of string in
the absence of a tape measure. This is passed over the most prominent part of
the occiput posteriorly and just above the supraorbital ridges anteriorly to
obtain the greatest distance around the head. The piece of string used in the
absence of a tape measure is then measured with a ruler to obtain the head
circumference.

Measuring the head circumference.

Measuring the mid-upper arm circumference MUAC The mid-upper arm
circumference is measured using a tape or string in the absence of a tape. The
tape or string is placed around the upper arm, midway between the olecranon
and acromion processes. Care is taken not to pull the tape or string too tightly.
The measurement is read. The string used in the absence of tape measures is
then measured with a ruler to obtain the mid-upper arm circumference.
Illustrates how to measure the mid-upper arm circumference.

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Measuring the mid-upper arm circumference. The length of a child is measured
in the first 3 years and the height is measured after 3 years of age. The length
is measured using a horizontal measuring board put on the ground or a table.
The child is laid on his back with the head against the fixed headboard. A
helper holds the childʼs head so that the eye angle- external ear canal line is
vertical and also keeps the body straight. With one hand of the health worker,
the childʼs knees are pressed down to straighten the childʼs legs fully while,
with the other hand, the sliding footboard is placed to touch the childʼs heels
firmly. With the footboard in place, the childʼs length is read on the meter scale.
Illustrates how the length of a child is measured.
To measure the height, a barefoot child stands with the feet together. The
heels, the buttocks, and the occiput lightly touch the measuring device. The
head is aligned so that the external eye angle- the external ear canal plane is
horizontal. The child is told to stand tall and is gently stretched upward by
pressure on the mastoid processes with the shoulders relaxed. The sliding
headpiece is lowered to rest firmly on the head. The height is read and
recorded.

The factors that promote development include good nutrition, emotional

support, play, and language training. We shall discuss each of them in detail,
starting with good nutrition.

GOOD NUTRITION Good nutrition is essential for normal growth and

development. Unlike most other organs in the body, the brain is not fully
developed at birth. Good nutrition in the first 6 months of life is extremely
important. Malnutrition in this period may inhibit the growth of the brain. As a
result of impaired brain growth, the child may suffer for the rest of life if the
child does not get enough good food. A malnourished child is often tired,
apathetic, and not interested in learning new things that will promote normal
development. Nutrition is discussed in detail in Unit 7

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EMOTIONAL SUPPORT The first 5 years of life are critical for the foundation of
the skills that are developed in the following periods of the childʼs life. A
newborn starts with no knowledge and learns a great deal during his/her first
year of life. It is very important to realize that a child is a growing and
developing human being right from birth. He ought to be treated very carefully,
with love and respect, so that he can develop normally. He needs full emotional
support. There are eight basic needs for the healthy emotional development of
a child.
These are:
Love;
Security;
Acceptance and an individual;
Self-Respect Self-Esteem);
Achievement;
Recognition;
Independence;
Authority.

Let us briefly look at each in detail.

Love A child needs to feel loved continuously. A child who does not feel loved
will not develop properly, and will not learn as quickly as other children.
Instead, he becomes sad and lonely and no longer interested in what goes on
around him.

Security A child needs to feel safe. He can only feel safe if his parents show
that they love him and take good care of him. He must know that his parents
will look after him and help him, that they will feed him when he is hungry, play
with him, and keep him happy and comfortable. The love and security a child
gets from the mother and family helps him to develop a sense of trust in
people, initially the family members and later people outside the family.

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Acceptance as an individual: A child enjoys being accepted as an individual. A
child needs to know that his mother and family love him for what he is. They
should not compare him with other children and tell him that he is slow to do
this or that, or that he is not as good as some other child. They should show
him that they respect him as an individual with his likes and dislikes and that
they realize he is unique, as all children are unique.

Self-respect (self-esteem)
Children need to feel that they are of great value, that they can do things by
themselves, that they can achieve success, and that their success will be
recognized. Anything suggesting that a child is inferior is very disturbing to the
child.

Achievements
The child feels the need to achieve. The parents should not do anything that
the children can do for themselves.

Recognition
A child enjoys recognition by his or her parents. A child needs to know that his
parents are happy when he has learned to do something new. Parents should
help a child to do things and encourage him to make achievements. They
should also teach the child because they love him and show that they are proud
of him. This helps the young child to feel secure and to learn more easily.

Independence
A child needs to learn how to make decisions. As the child grows he needs to
be allowed to decide more and more things for himself and learn how to be
independent. The parents must not unnecessarily limit the childʼs
independence and exploration by overprotection and over-anxiety.

Authority

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A child needs his parentsʼ authority mixed with affection. The parents train the
child to learn to obey the rules of the home, the neighbourhood, the school,
and society. The rules indicate what the child may do and what he may not do.
What a child may do is approved and encouraged with rewards. What the child
may not do is clearly and firmly disproved and discouraged. The
discouragement is achieved by permitting consequences of undesired
behaviour. The child thus learns to accept the restrictions that are there in life.

Play
Play is an essential factor in the development of a child. Play is an irreplaceable
source of information, stimulation for the brain, stimulation for the muscles, and
a lot of fun. All these are necessary for physical, mental, and social
development. All normal children like to play. If a young child does not play, he
may be ill. Encourage playing, even if it may be noisy sometimes.

STAGES OF DEVELOPMENT.
Childhood is the stage from birth to puberty. It is characterized by light body
weight, small size, very rapid growth, very active body, and restlessness.

Puberty is the transition stage from childhood to adolescence. It is the period

when the body of a school-age child turns into that of an adolescent. It is
characterized by a very active body, well-formed bones, rapid gain in height
and weight, and development of secondary sexual characteristics.

Adolescence is the stage before adulthood. It is characterized by a well-formed

reproductive system, with height and weight still increasing.

Adulthood is the stage of full maturity. It is characterized by no change in

height but changes in weight and body size. Aging is indicated by the
appearance of grey hair, and gradual decline in the body (reproductive
capacity and functioning of body organs.

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 STAGES OF DEVELOPMENT
0 - 6 years - First stage of development
6 - 12 years - Second stage of development
12 - 18 years - Third stage of development
18 --🡒 - Fourth stage of development

EVALUATION
1.------- refers to when the organs in the body are fully developed.
A.develpoment b.Growth c.Maturity d.measurement.
2. A stage in life in which individuals grow into adults is termed a.Adult stage
b. Developmental stage c.Ovulation stage d.Puberty Stage.
3. All these factors influence growth and development except
a.Environment b.Genetics c.Nutrition d.Enzymes d.Hormones
4. Changes that occur in an organism that leads to maturity is called a.Called
b.Maturity c.Development d.Growth e.Growth and Development.
5. ------------ is an irreversible increase in size .a.Development
b.Maturity c.Growth D.Enlargement.
6. Developmental stages include the following except a.Childhood
b.Puberty c.Adolescence d.Manhood e.Adulthood.
7.--------- is the transferring of genes from parents to offspring. A.genetice
b.genetics c.Heredity d.Puberty.

Define Growth and Development

What are the factors responsible for growth and development?
State the various stages of Development.

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WEEK 6 TEMPORARY AND PERMANENT CHANGES
The developmental changes could be permanent or temporary. Permanent
changes are irreversible. Examples are the changes that occur during body
growth i.e. those features associated with the development stages of
childhood, Adolescence, and Adulthood are permanent changes.

Temporary changes may disappear after some time. They can be corrected
medically or changed by behavior whereas permanent changes remain with the
individual through life. Examples of permanent changes are the growth of
pimples in males and females during Adolescence, malnutrition or kwashiorkor,
fatness and enlargement of the stomach after a meal or intake of water,
bedwetting, sweating, and a rise in body temperature.

5 to 7Year-Olds

General Characteristics

1. Eager to learn; easily fatigued; short periods of interest.

2. Learn best when they are active while learning.

3. Self-assertive, boastful; less cooperative, more competitive.

4. Physical Characteristics

5. Very active; need frequent breaks from tasks to do things that are
energetic and fun for them.

6. Need rest periods—good quiet activities include reading books together

or doing simple art projects.

7. Large muscles are well developed. Activities involving small muscles (for
example, building models that have small pieces) are difficult.

8. May tend to be accident-prone.

9. Social Characteristics

10. Enjoy organized games and are very concerned about following rules.

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11. Can be very competitive—this may lead them to cheat at games.

12. Very imaginative and involved in fantasy-playing.

13. Self-assertive, aggressive, boastful, want to be first; becoming less

cooperative.

14. Emotional Characteristics

15. Alert to the feelings of others but unaware of how their actions affect
others.

16. Very sensitive to praise and recognition; feelings are easily hurt.

17. Inconsistent in level of maturity; regress when tired; often less mature at
home than with outsiders

18. Mental Characteristics

19. Very eager to learn.

20. Like to talk.

21. Can be inflexible about their idea of fairness.

22. Difficulty making decisions.

8 to 10Year-Olds

General Characteristics

1. Interested in people; aware of differences; willing to give more to others

but also expect more.

2. Busy, active, full of enthusiasm; may try too much; accident prone;
interested in money and its value.

3. Sensitive to criticism; recognize failure; have the capacity for

self-evaluation.

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4. Capable of prolonged interest; may make plans on their own.

5. Decisive; dependable; reasonable; strong sense of right and wrong.

6. Spend a great deal of time in talk and discussion; often outspoken and
critical of adults, although still dependent on adult approval.

Physical Characteristics

1. Very active and need frequent breaks from tasks to do things that are
energetic and fun for them.

2. Early maturers may be upset about their size—as their adult supporter,
you can help by listening and explaining.

3. May tend to be accident-prone.

4. Social Characteristics

5. Can be very competitive.

6. Are choosy about their friends.

7. Acceptance by friends becomes very important.

8. Team games become popular.

9. Often idolize heroes, television stars, and sports figures.

Emotional Characteristics

Very sensitive to praise and recognition; feelings are easily hurt.

Because friends become very important, there can be conflicts between adultsʼ
rules and friendsʼ rules—your honesty and consistency can be helpful.

Mental Characteristics

Can be inflexible about their idea of fairness.

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Eager to answer questions.

Very curious; collectors of everything, but may jump to other objects of interest
after a short time.

Want more independence while knowing they need guidance and support.

Wide discrepancies in reading ability.

11 to 13Year-Olds

General Characteristics

Testing limits; a “know-it-allˮ attitude.

Vulnerable; emotionally insecure; fear of rejection; mood swings.

Identification with admired adults.

Bodies go through physical changes that affect personal appearance.

Physical Characteristics

Good coordination of small muscles; interest in art, crafts, models, and music.

Early maturers may be upset about their size—as their adult supporter, you can
help by listening and explaining.

Very concerned with their appearance; and very self-conscious about their
physical changes.

May have a bad diet and sleep habits and, as a result, low energy levels.

Social Characteristics

Acceptance by friends becomes very important.

Cliques start to develop.

Team games become popular.

Often have “crushesˮ on other people.

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Friends set the general rules of behavior.

Feel a strong need to conform; dress and behave like their peers to “belong.ˮ

Very concerned with what others say and think about them.

Tend to try to manipulate others to get what they want.

Interested in earning own money.

Emotional Characteristics

Very sensitive to praise and recognition; feelings are easily hurt.

Because friends are very important, there can be conflicts between adultsʼ
rules and friendsʼ rules.

Caught between being a child and being an adult.

Loud behavior may hide their lack of self-confidence.

Look at the world more objectively; look at adults more subjectively, and are
critical of them.

Mental Characteristics

Tend to be perfectionists; if they try to attempt too much, may feel frustrated.

Want more independence but know they need guidance and support.

May have lengthy attention span.

14 to 16Year-Olds

General Characteristics

Testing limits; a “know-it-allˮ attitude.

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Vulnerable; emotionally insecure; fear of rejection; mood swings.

Identification with admired adults.

Bodies go through physical changes that affect personal appearance.

Physical Characteristics

Very concerned with their appearance; and very self-conscious about their
physical changes.

May have a bad diet and sleep habits and, as a result, low energy levels.

Often a rapid weight gain at the beginning of adolescence; and enormous

appetite.

Social Characteristics

Friends set the general rules of behavior.

Feel a strong need to conform; dress and behave like their peers to “belong.ˮ

Very concerned with what others say and think about them.

Tend to try to manipulate others to get what they want.

Go to extremes; often appear to be unstable emotionally while having a

“know-it-allˮ attitude.

Fear of ridicule and of being unpopular.

Strong identification with admired adults.

Emotional Characteristics

Very sensitive to praise and recognition; feelings are easily hurt.

Caught between being a child and being an adult.

Loud behavior may hide their lack of self-confidence.

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Mental Characteristics

Understand moral principles. May have lengthy attention span

EVALUATION

Infancy and Adolescent stages are —--stages b. permanent stages c.

temporary and permanent stages d.Irreversible stages

Differentiate between permanent change and temporary changes.

Give examples

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 WEEK 7 & 8 HUMAN GROWTH AND DEVELOPMENT 2
PUBERTY
Puberty is the transitional biological stage between childhood and adulthood.
It is the stage when the body matures. Puberty involves changes in primary
sexual characteristics.
It starts when the pituitary gland at the base of the brain produces hormones.
Hormones are chemical substances, which control the bodyʼs development and
growth. At puberty, these hormones are secreted to the reproductive organs,
that is, the testes and the ovaries in females and males respectively. The
reproductive organs thereafter produce sex hormones, which cause changes in
the adolescentʼs body.
Adolescence begins with puberty. Most girls reach puberty between the ages
of 913 while boys reach puberty between the age of 1214. However, children
grow at different rates so some may mature later than others.

DIFFERENCES BETWEEN MALES AND FEMALES AT PUBERTY

1. Boys: there is a rapid increase in Height. Boys later catch up with girls in
height and may overcome them.
Girls: there is a rapid increase in Height. Girls tend to be taller than boys of the
same age.
2 . Boys: voice becomes deeper
Girls: Breast develops
3. Boys: semen discharge during sleep.
Girls: Menstruation begins
4. Boys: Hairs are noticed under the armpits and on the external parts of the
Reproductive organs.
Girls: Hairs are noticed under the armpits and on the external parts of the
reproductive organs.
5. Boys: The shoulder becomes broader
Girls: the hip becomes broader
6. Boys: pimples sometimes appear on the face but they usually disappear after
a time.

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Girls: pimples sometimes appear on the face but they usually disappear after a
time.

EVALUATION
Describe the changes that take place in boys and girls during puberty.

38
 WEEK 9 HANDLING PUBERTAL CHANGES IN BOYS
AND GIRLS
Pubertal changes could be physical, emotional, social, and internal. These
changes must be well-handled

In Adolescents.

Adolescents often enter puberty with a heightened sense of sexuality

accompanied by a great deal of confusion. At this stage, they are faced with
the challenges of forming an identity, false feelings of independence, questions
about conformity as well as confusion about values and views of life.

Hence, pubertal changes must be well handled by applying basic coping

strategies or identity. Some strategies for handling pubertal changes are as
follows:

a.Personal hygiene and cleanliness

b.Self-acceptance.

c.Emotional Development

d.Developing decision-making skills which are

1 . Identifying and defining a problem

2. Gather information about the problem

3. Consider the advantages and the disadvantages

4. Consider personal and family values about the possible alternatives.

5. Consider the impact of your decision on other people around you.

6. Choose one option that will have the best outcome.

7. Decide and act on the decision cautiously and

8. Evaluate the outcome of your decision.

How can a teenager handle pubertal changes?

EMOTIONAL DEVELOPMENT EVALUATION

Emotional changes accompany the physical changes of Adolescence. The ups

and downs of being a teenager can be difficult for both boys and girls.

39
Hormones affect a young personʼs moods and emotions. An example is feelings
of sadness and depression, and shifting feelings about relationships with family
and friends.

Adolescents need to be assured that all of these changes are a normal part of
growing. As boys and girls enter puberty, their interest in the expression of
their sexuality increases. They attain sexual maturity before achieving
emotional or social maturity and economic independence. Because of the
health risks involved with premarital sex, young peopleʼs decisions and
experiences during this transition can affect the rest of their lives.

SOME ASPECTS OF EMOTIONAL DEVELOPMENT EXPERIENCED DURING

ADOLESCENCE

1. Self-consciousness

2. Increased desire to be more independent

3. Feelings of discomfort due to rapid physical development

4. Mood swings

5.Egocentric tendencies

6. Anger and disillusionment when oneʼs ideas are unmet.

7. Secrecy: Adolescents become isolated and seek more privacy

8. Inquisitiveness and

9. Struggle for acceptance by peer group.

EVALUATION

1. Puberty involves changes in a.Tertiary sexual characteristics secondary

sexual characteristics c. primary sexual characteristics d. Normal sexual
characteristics.

2. Which of the following is not part of body changes during puberty? A.voice
change b.body shape change c.development of breast d.growth in cheek

3. How can a teenager handle pubertal changes?

40
 WEEK 10 BODY IMAGE
Meaning of Body Image.
Body image refers to the way a person feels about his or her physical
appearance.
People have differences in their physical appearances, some of these are in
terms of:
1. Height
2. Size or shape of the body
3. Race or Ethnicity and
4. Colour of the skin, eye, and hair.

PHYSICAL FEATURES
Physical features or an individualʼs appearance and attributes are inherited
From parentsorgrandparents,this is called HEREDITY.
Examples of traits usually inherited from parents or grandparents are
1. Skin colour
2. Hair
3. Eye colour
4. Shape of the body.
5.Heighte.t.c.
Some of these differences may be valued while others may not. For example, a
tall person may feel bad about his body, yet he cannot change his Height. In
some cultures, a person with lighter colour may be given more privileges than
someone with darker skin. Someone with darker skin may try to lighten his or
her skin to feel better.

EVALUATION
1. Body image problem is a.more in girls than boys b.more in boys than girls
c. Equal in boys and girls d.Not real
2. Body image problems involve the following except a., need to look perfect
b. desire to have a perfect body c.it affects both boys and girls please with
self.

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3. Teenagerʼs body images are strongly affected by what they see on the
following EXCEPT A.Television b.Movies c.Magazines d.Religion Centre.

Define body image.

What is Heredity?
State the various traits that can be transmitted from parents to offspring.

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