PHYSICS FORMULA LIST

u y
0.1: Physical Constants

u sin θ
x
H
Speed of light c 3 × 108m/s Projectile Motion:
θ
Planck constant h 6.63× 10−34Js O u cos θ
hc 1242 eV-nm
R
Gravitation constant G 6.67 × 10−11m3kg−1s−2
Boltzmann constant k 10−23J/K
1.38 ×
R 8.314 J/(mol K) x = ut cosθ, θ − 12 gt2
y = ut sin
Molar gas constant x2
Avogadro’s number NA 6.023× 1023mol−1 g sin2
y = x tanθ −
Charge of electron e 1.602× 10−19C 2u2cos2θ
Permeability of vac- µ0 4π × 10−7N/A2 2u sin
θ u2 θ u2 sin2θ
uum T = , R = , H =
g g 2g
Permitivity of vacuum ε0 8.85 × 10−12F/m
Coulomb constant 1 9 × 109Nm2/C2
Faraday constant 4πε0
96485 C/mol
Mass of electron F 1.3: Newton’s Laws and Friction
9.1 × 10−31kg
Mass of proton me
1.6726× 10−27kg Linear momentum: p~ = m~v
Mass of neutron mp
1.6749× 10−27kg
Atomic mass unit mn
u 1.66 × 10−27kg Newton’s first law: inertial frame.
Atomic mass unit 931.49 MeV/c2
Stefan-Boltzmann u
σ 5.67 × 10−8W/(m2K4) dt
Newton’s second law: F~ = dp~, F~ =m~a
−F~BA
constant
Rydberg constant Newton’s third law: F~AB =
R ∞ 1.097× 107m−1
Bohr magneton
Bohr radius µB 9.27 × 10−24J/T
Standard atmosphere a0 0.529× 10−10m Frictional force: fstatic, max = µsN, fkinetic = µkN
atm 1.01325× 105Pa
2 2
Wien displacement 2.9 × 10−3mK Bankingangle:v rg = tanθ, vrg = 1µ+tanθ
b −µ tan θ
constant
2 2
-------------------------------------------------- Centripetalforce:F c= mvr, ac=r v

Pseudo force: F~pseudo = mv2

MECHANICS −m~a0, Fcentrifugal=−r

1.1: Vectors Minimum speed to complete vertical circle:

Notation: ~a= axı̂ˆ+ay vmin, bottom

√=5gl, = √ gl
vmin, top
√ˆ̂+ak̂ ˆz
Magnitude: a = |~a
|= a2
x+ay+
2 a2z θ
l
cosθ
Dot product: ~a~b Conical pendulum: T=2π √ l θ
T
· = axbx + ayby +az bz = abcosθ g

ı̂ ˆ
~a× ~
b ~
b
mg
Cross product:
θ k̂ ˆ ̂ˆ
~a
1.4: Work, Power and Energy
~a× ~ ı azbx− axbz)̂ˆ+(ax by − ay bx )k̂ ˆ
b = ( ay bz − azby)̂ˆ+(
Work: W = F~S~=FScosθ,
· W= ∫F~· dS~
|~a× ~b| = absinθ p2
Kineticenergy: K = m12 v =2 2m

1.2: Kinematics Potential energy: F = ∂U/∂x

− for conservative forces.

Average and Instantaneous Vel. and Accel.: Ugravitational=mgh, spring

U =1 2 k x2

~v
av = ∆~r/∆t, ~v
inst = d~r/dt Work done by conservative forces ispathindepen-
av = ∆~v/∆t
~a inst = d~v/dt
~a ∮
F~conservatived~r=0.W=∆K
·
Work-energy theorem:
Motion in a straight line with constant a:
1 2 2 Mechanical energy: E = U +K. Conserved if forces are
v = u + at, s =ut+ 2at, v − u 2 = 2 as conservative in nature.

Relative Velocity: ~v
A/B =~vA −~vB Power P av =∆W, Pinst=~F ·~v
∆t
 1 mr2
1.5: Centre of Mass and Collision mr2 1
2 mr2 2
3 mr2 2
5 mr2 12 ml2
1 mr2 2 m ( a2 + b 2 )
12

cm = ximi
∑ ∫ xdm
Centre of mass: x
∑ mi
, xcm= ∫ dm
b
a
ring disk shell sphere rod hollow solid rectangle
CM of few useful configurations:
m1 r m2
I‖ Ic
1. m1, m2separated by:
r C Theorem of Parallel Axes: I ‖ = Icm+md2 d
m2r m1r
m1 +m2 m1 +m2 cm

2. Triangle (CM ≡ Centroid)y c = h

3
C
h
h Theorem of Perp. Axes: Iz= I x + I y
z y
x
3

2r
3. Semicircular ring:yc = π
C
2r Radius of Gyration: k = √ I/m
r π

4r Angular Momentum: L~= ~r×p~, L~= Iω~

4. Semicircular disc:yc = 3π C 4 r
r 3π y
dL~ P θ F~
Torque: ~τ = ~r×F~, ~τ= dt
, τ = Iα ~r
r
yc =
5. Hemispherical shell: 2 C r
O x
r 2

6.SolidHemisphere:yc= 3r
8 C 3r
Conservation of L~: ~τext
=0= ⇒L~ =∑const.
r 8
Equilibrium condition: ~, ~τ=~0
∑F~1= 0
7. Cone: the height of CM from the base is h/4 for Kinetic Energy: Krot =
2 I ω2
h 3 for the hollow cone.
the solid cone and
∑/ Dynamics:
Motion of the CM: M = mi
~τ
cm = I cmα~, F~ext = m~acm, p~cm = m~v
cm
mi~vi F~ext
∑=
~vcm , p~cm=M~vcm, ~a
cm = M 1 2 1 ω, L~=I
2
M K = 2 mvcm + I
2cm cmω~
+ ~r
cm ×m~vcm

∫=
Impulse: J~ F~dt=∆p~
1.7: Gravitation
Before collision After collision
Collision: m1 F F m2
m1 m2 m1 m2 Gravitational force: F = G m
r2
1m2
v1 v2 v′ v′ r
1 2
Momentumconservation: m1v1+ m2v2 = m1v1 ′ + m2v2′
2
1
m v 2
1 2 1 Potential energy: U = −GMmr
2 1 1 + 2 22
ElasticCollision:1mv2 = 2m1v1 + 2m2v2
′ ′

Coefficient of restitutio Gravitational acceleration: g = GM

{n: R2
− (v′1 − v′2) 1, completelyelastic
e= = Variation of g with depth: ginside≈ g (1 − 2h
R )
v1−v2
h
Variation of g with height: goutside≈ g (1 − R )
If v2 = 0 and m1 m ′′

Effect of non-spherical earth shape on g :

If v2 = 0 and m1
m 2thenv2=2v1.
1=m2:v1=v2andv2=v1.
′ ′ ∵
gat pole > g at equator ( Re − Rp ≈ 21 km)
Elasticcollisionwithm
Effect of earth rotation on apparent weight:
1.6: Rigid Body Dynamics ω~

Angularvelocity:ω av =∆θ dθ
, ~v=ω~ ×~r mg
m ω 2 R cos θ
∆t, ω=dt mg′θ =mg − mω2Rcos2θ
θ
AngularAccel.:α av =∆ω
∆t, α=dt dω , ~a=α~ ×~r R

Rotation about an axis with constant α:

2 2 2
ω = ω0 + αt, θ = ωt 1 ω∫−ω0=2αθ GM
∑+2αt, Orbital velocity of sat vo = √ R
√ellite:
Moment of Inertia: I = i miri,2 I= 2
rdm
Escapevelocity:v= 2GM
e
 vo
1.9: Properties of Matter
Kepler’s laws:
a Modulus of rigidity: Y = F/A, B = V ∆P F
∆ − ∆V , η= Aθ
First: Elliptical orbit with sun at one of the focus. l/l
∵
Second: Areal velocity is constant. ( dL~ /dt = 0). Compressibility: K = 1 B = 1dV
− V dP
∝
Third: T 2 a3. In circular orbit T2 = 4π2
GM
a3.
Poisson’s ratio: σ = lateral strain = ∆D/D
longitudinal strain ∆l/l

1
1.8: Simple Harmonic Motion Elastic energy: U = stress× strain× volume
2

Hooke’s law: F = −kx (forsmallelongationx .)

d2x
Surface tension: S = F/l
Acceleration: a = dt2 = − x= − ω2x
2π
√km Surface energy: U = SA
= =2π m
Timeperiod:T
ω Excess pressure in bubble:
= sin(ωt+φ)
Displacement:x A
√ ∆pair = 2S/R, = 4 S/R
∆ psoap
cos(ωt +φ)= ω±A2 −x2
Velocity:v=Aω
Capillary rise: h = 2S cos θ
rρg

U
2 kx2
1
Potential energy: U = x
−A 0 A Hydrostatic pressure: p = ρgh

Buoyant force: FB = ρVg = Weight of displaced liquid

2 mv2
1
Kinetic energy K = K
x
−A 0 A Equation of continuity: A 11=
v A 22v v2
v1
12
Total energy: E = U + K = mω22
A Bernoulli’s equation: p + 12ρv2+ ρgh=constant
√=
Torricelli’s theorem: vefflux 2gh

Simple pendulum: T=2π √lg l Viscous force: F = − ηAdv

dx

I
Stoke’s law: F = 6 πηrv
Physical Pendulum: T=2π √ mgl
v

Volume flow πpr4 r

Poiseuilli’s equation: time = 8ηl
l
Torsional Pendulum T =2π √Ik
2r 2 (ρ −σ)g
Terminalvelocity: vt = 9η

Springs in series: 1
= 1 + 1 k1 k2
keq k2
k1

Springs in parallel: keq= k1 + k2 k2

k1

A~
A~2
Superposition of two SHM’s: ε δ
A~1

x 1=A1sinωt, x2=A2sin( ωt + δ )
x=x
√1+x2=Asin(ωt+ε)
A = A2+A2
1 2+2A1A2cosδ
A 2 sin δ
tan ε =
A1 + A2 cos δ
 Waves 4. 1st overtone/2nd harmonics:
ν1 =
2
2L
√

2.1: Waves Motion 5. 2nd overtone/3rd harmonics: 3

ν2 = 2L √TµTµ
∂2y 2
General equation of wave: ∂ x 2 = 1 v ∂2 y∂ t 2 . 6. All harmonics are present.

Notation: AmplitudeA,Frequencyν,Wavelengthλ ,Pe-

ω , Wave Number
riod T , Angular Frequency k , L

1 2π 2π
T = = , v = νλ, k= String fixed at one end: N A
ν ω λ A N

λ/2
Progressive wave travelling with speed v:
1. Boundary conditions: y = 0 at x = 0
y = f ( t − x/v ), +x; y = f ( t + x/v ), −x
2. Allowed Freq.: L = (2n + 1)λ 4 , ν = 2n+1 √ T
, n =
y 0,1,2,.... √4L µ
A
λ
λ
x 3. Fundamental/1st harmonics: 0 ν =4L
1
Progressive sine wave: 2
√Tµ
4. 1st overtone/3rd harmonics:1ν = 3
4L
y = A sin(kx − ωt) = A sin(2π (x/λ − t/T )) √ TµTµ
5.2ndovertone/5thharmonics:ν 5
2= 4L
2.2: Waves on a String 6. Only odd harmonics are present.
Speed of waves on a string with mass per unit length
µ
Tv: = T/µ
and tension √
Transmittedpower: P av=2 π2µvA2ν2
Sonometer: ν ∝ 1
L
,ν ∝ √T , ν ∝ √ µ .ν=n
1
2L
√ T

Interference: 2.3: Sound Waves

y1 = A1 sin(kx −ωt), y2=A2sin( kx − ωt + δ ) Displacement wave: s = s0sinω(t −x/v )

y = y1 + y2 = A sin(kx −ωt+ε) Pressure wave: p = p0 cosω( t − x/v), p0 = ( B ω /v )s0

√ 1
A = A2+ A22+2A1A2cosδ Speed of sound waves:
A2 sin δ
tan ε = A1 + A2 cos δ √ B √ Y √ γP
vliquid = ρ, vsolid= , vgas=
ρ ρ
2nπ, constructive;
δ={
(2n+1)π, destructive.
2π2B 2 2 p20v p20
Intensity: I = v s0 ν = = 2ρv
2B
2A cos k x

x
Standing Waves: A N A N A
Standing longitudinal waves:
λ/4
p1=p0sin ωt( x/v),
− p2=p0 sinω( t+ x/v)
y 1 = A 1 sin(kx − ωt,) y2= A 2sin(kx + ωt) p =p1+ 2=2
p p0coskxsinωt
y = y1 + 2y = A cos kx) sin
ωt
)(2
n +1 λ
, nodes; n , , ,...
=012
x= { ( λ 2
n2, , , ,...
antinodes. n =012
L
Closed organ pipe:
L

String fixed at both ends: N N

A N A

λ/2 1. Boundary condition: y = 0 at x = 0

2. Allowed freq.: L = (2n + 1) λ 4, ν = (2n+1) v
4L , n=
1. Boundary conditions: y = 0 at x = 0 and atx = L
0,1,2,...
2.AllowedFreq.:L=nλ 2,ν =n √2LT µ,n=123
, , ,.... 3. Fundamental/1st harmonics: 0 ν =4Lv
√
0 ν=1
3. Fundamental/1st harmonics: 4.1stovertone/3rdharmonics:ν=3ν=3v
T
2L 1 0 4L
µ
 5. 2nd overtone/5th harmonics: ν2 =0 5ν
= 45 Lv S1 P
dy y
Path difference: ∆x= D d
θ
6. Only odd harmonics are present.
S2
D

A
Phase difference: δ = 2π
λ∆x
N Interference Conditions: for integer n,
Open organ pipe: L A
2nπ, constructive;
N
δ{ = (2n + 1) π, destructive,
A

1. Boundary condition: y = 0 at x = 0
constructive;
2 ν=
Allowed freq.: L = nλ, n 4L,n=1,2
v ,... ∆x= { n
(λ,n+)12 λ , destructive
2.Fundamental/1stharmonics:ν
0= v
2L
3.1stovertone/2ndharmonics:ν1=20=ν 2v Intensity:
2L

4.2ndovertone/3rdharmonics:ν ν
2=30= 3v I=I1+I2+2 √ II cosδ,
2L
√1)2222δ
5. All harmonics are present. Imax= ( √ I1+ I , I min = ( √ I 1 − √I2=0
)2
I1=I2:I=4I0cos 2, I max = 4 I0, I min

Fringe width: w=λDd

l+d1
l+d2

Resonance column: Optical path: ∆x′ = µ∆x

Interference of waves transmitted through thin film:

l+d
1 = λ,
2 l 2+ =4, 3λ
d v=2(l2 − l1)ν
nλ, constructive;
∆x=2 µd = { 1
≈ ωω1
Beats: two waves of almost equal frequencies 2 (n + 2)λ, destructive.

p1 = p0 sin ω1(t −x/v), p2=p0sinω2(t−x/v)

− x/v) y
p = p1 + p2 = 2p0 cos∆ω(t
− x/v)sinω(t Diffraction from a single slit: b θ
y
ω=(ω1+ω2)/2, ∆ω=ω1 ω2 − (beatsfreq.) D
For Minima: nλ = b sin θ
≈ b(y /D )
Doppler Effect:
Resolution: sin θ = 1.22λ
v+uo b
ν= −us ν0
v θ
Law of Malus: I=Icos2
0 θ I0 I
where, v is the speed of sound in the medium,

u0 is
the speed of the observer w.r.t. the medium,
consid-
ered positive when it moves towards the source
and
negative when it moves away from the source,
and us
2.4:isLight
the Waves
speed of the source w.r.t. the medium,
consid- ered positive when it moves towards
Planethe Wave: 0 sin
E = Eand
observer ω(t − xv ), when
negative I = I 0it moves away
from the observer.
aE0 r I0
Spherical Wave: E = r sinω(t − v ), I = r2

Young’s double slit experiment

 Optics Lens maker’s formula: 1f=(µ 1
− 1) [ R 1 −
1
]
R2

3.1: Reflection of Light f

1 1 1 v
normal Lens formula: − = , m= u
v u f
Laws of reflection: (i)
incident i r reflected
u v
Incident ray, reflected ray, and normal lie in the same
∠ ∠
plane (ii) i = r
Power of the lens: P = 1 f , P in diopter if f in metre.

Two thin lenses separated by distance d:

Plane mirror:
d d
(i) the image and the object are equidistant from mir- 1 1 1 d
= + f2− d
ror (ii) virtual image of real object F f1 f 1f 2
f1 f2

I
Spherical Mirror: O
f 3.3: Optical Instruments
v
u
Simplemicroscope: m = D/f in normal adjustment.
1. Focal length f = R/2 2. Ob jective Eyepiece
Mirror equation: 1 +v 1 = u1
f O ∞
3. Magnification: m =−vu Compound microscope:
u v fe

3.2: Refraction of Light D

Refractive index: µ =
speed of light in vacuum
speed of light in = c
v
m = v D
1. Magnification in normal adjustment:
medium ufe
2. Resolving power: R =∆d
1 = 2µsinθ
λ
incident reflected
sin i µ µ i
Snell’s Law: sin r = 2 fo fe
µ 1
r refracted
1 µ
2 Astronomical telescope:
real depth d d′
Apparent depth: µ = apparent depth = d′ d I
O

Critical angle: θc = sin−11 µ

µ
θc
1. In normal m = − fo
f,e L = f o + f e
1 1
adjustment: 2. ∆θ = 122
. λ

Resolving power: R =
A 3.4: Dispersion
δ
Deviation by a prism: i r r′ i′ Cauchy’s equation: µ = µ0 + A, A>0
λ2
µ Dispersion by prism with small A and i:
1. Mean deviation: δy = (µy −1)A
δ =i+i′ − A, general result
sin A+δm 2. Angulardispersion:θ =( µv − µ r )A
2
µ = sinA , i = i′ for minimum deviation
2 Dispersive power: ω=µvµr
−
µy − 1 ≈
θ
δy (ifA andi small)
δ
δm = (µ−1) A, for smallA δm A
µ′
Dispersion without deviation:
i′ i A′
µ
( µy − 1) A+(µ ′y− 1) A ′ = 0
µ1 µ2

Refraction at spherical surface: Deviation without dispersion:

P O Q (µ v − µr ) A = ( µ′v − µ′r) A ′
u v

µ2 µ1 µ2 − µ 1 , µ1v
= R m=
v − u µ2u
Heat and Thermodynamics 4.4: Theromodynamic Processes

4.1: Heat and Temperature First law of thermodynamics: Q∆ =∆U+∆W

Temp. scales: F = 32 + 9C, K = C +27316

. Work done by the gas:
5
V2
Ideal gas equation: pV = nRT , n :numberofmoles ∫
∆W = pV,
∆ W= pV
aV2 )d V1
vanderWaalsequation: (p+ ) ( V−b )=nRT V2
Wisothermal = nRTln (
Thermalexpansion: L = L 0(1+ ∆α) T ,
A=A0 (1+ ∆β) T , V = V0(1+ ∆γ) T,γ =2β=3α Wisobaric = pV2
( −V1)
Y∆l p1V1− p2V2
Thermal stress of a material: F = l Wadiabatic = −1
A
γ
Wiso choric= 0
4.2: Kinetic Theory of Gases

General: M = mNA, k = R/NA T1

Q1
n Efficiency of the heat engine: W
Q2
Maxwell distribution of speed: T2

vp v̄ ¯ vrms v work done by the engineQ1 − Q 2

η= heat supplied to it =
Q1
RMSspeed:v rms= √ 3kT
m = √ 3RT
M Q T
ηcarnot = −1 =1−
2 2
Averagespeed:v̄¯= √ 8kT = √ 8πRT Q T
πm M
1 1 T1
Q1
Most probable speed: vp = √ 2kmT Coeff. of performance of refrigerator: W
Q2
T2
Pressure: p = 1ρv2rms
3 COP= Q2 = Q2
W Q1− Q 2
Equipartition of energy: K = 12kT for each degree of
f
freedom. Thus,K = kT f Entropy: ∆ S = ∆QT,S− S i=i ∫ ∆Q
2 for molecule having f de- f
VaryingT:∆S=
grees of freedoms.
Const. T : ∆S = QT, Tf
ms ln Ti
Internal energy of n moles of an ideal gas is U2=nRT
f .
Adiabatic process: ∆Q = 0, pV γ = constant

4.3: Specific Heat

4.5: Heat Transfer
Specific heat: s= Q
m∆T
∆t= − K A ∆ xT
Conduction: ∆Q
Latent heat: L = Q/m
Thermal resistance: R = x

Specific heat at constant volume: vC = ∆Q

n∆T
∣
∣∣
V
KA

A
R series = R 1 +R=12 A
( x1
K1 + x2
K2
) K1 K2

Specific heat at constant pressure: C p = ∆Q ∣∣ x1 x2

∣
n∆T
p
K2 A2
Relation between Cp and C
v: pC − C v= R
1
R parallel
= 1
R1
+ 1
R2
= 1x (K1A1 + K2A2) K1 A1

x
Ratioofspecificheats: γ= p v
C/C
emissive power E body
C=
RelationbetweenUand v:∆ U nC∆Tv Kirchhoff’s Law: absorptive power = a b o d y = E blackb o dy

Specific heat of gas mixture: Eλ

Wien’s displacement law: λmT = b
n1 Cv +1 n2 Cv 2 n1Cp1 + n2Cp2
Cv = , γ = n1Cv1 + n2Cv2 λ
n1 n2
+ λm

∆Q
Molar internal energy of an ideal gas: U = f2 R T , Stefan-Boltzmann law: ∆t = σeAT 4
f = 3 for monatomic and f = 5 for diatomic gas. dT
Newton’s law of cooling: d = −bA(T − T 0)
t
Electricity and Magnetism 5.3: Capacitors

5.1: Electrostatics Capacitance: C = q/V

Coulomb’s law: F~ = 1 q1q2

r 2 r̂ ˆ q1 r q2 −q +q
4πε0
q
Parallel plate capacitor: C = ε0 A/d
A A
d
Electric field: E~(~r) = 1
r2r̂ ˆ E~
4πε0 q ~r
r2
q1 q2
1
Electrostatic energy: U = −πε0 r Spherical capacitor: C = 4 π ε r r1 2
4 0 r2 1 −q +q r1
−r
1 q
Electrostatic potential: V = 4π ε 0 r

~r
()= − ∫
dV = −E~·~r, V ~r E~· d~r 2π ε0l
∞ Cylindrical capacitor: C = ln( r/r
2 1)
r2 l
r1
p~
Electric dipole moment: p~= qd~ d
−q +q A
Capacitors in parallel: C eq = C 1 + C 2 C1 C2
B
1 p cos θ V(r)
Potential of a dipole: V = 4πε0 r 2
θr
p~ Capacitorsinseries: 1
Ceq
=1+1
C1 C2
C1C2
A B

Er Force between plates of a parallel plate capacitor:

Field of a dipole: θr F = 2Q
2

Eθ Aε 0
p~
Q2 = 12QV
Er = 1 2p cosθ
, Eθ =
1 p sinθ Energy stored in capacitor: U = 12 C V 2 = 2C
4πε0 r 3 4 π ε0 r 3

Torque on a dipole placed in E~: ~τ= p~× E~ Energy density in electric field E: U/V = 1
εE2
2 0

εKA
Pot. energy of a dipole placed in E~: U= − p~E~ Capacitor with dielectric: C = 0
· d

5.2: Gauss’s Law

∮anditsApplications 5.4: Current electricity
Electricflux: E~·dS~
∮E~·dS~=qin/ε0
φ=
Current density: j = i/A = σE
Gauss’slaw: Driftspeed:v=1eE
d 2mτ=neAi

Fieldofauniformlychargedring on its axis: Resistance of a wire: R = ρl/A , where ρ = 1/σ

1 qx a
EP = 4πε0 ( a 2 +x) 2 3/ 2 q E~ Temp. dependence of resistance: R = R0(1 + α∆T )
x P
Ohm’s law: V = iR
E and V of a uniformly charged sphere:
{ 4 1π ε 0Qr (i) The Junction
Kirchhoff’s Laws: Law: The algebraic
R3 ,
fo r < R E
E= sum of all the currents directed towards a node is zer
1 Q
4π ε 0 r 2 , r r ≥ R O
r
R i.e., ΣnodeIi = 0. (ii)The Loop Law: The algebraic
2 fo sum of all the potential differences along a closed loo
{ = 4π1 ε 0 RQr3 , rfor r < R V
V 1 Q in a circuit is zero i.e., Σloop∆ Vi = 0.
4π ε 0 r , for r ≥ R r
O R
A
Resistors in parallel: 1 = 1 + 1
E and V of a uniformly charged spherical shell: R eq R1 R2 R1 R2
B
0, fo r < R
E= { 1 Q
r r ≥ R
E
π
4 0 ε r 2 , O
r Resistors in series: R eq = R 1 + R 2 R1 R2
R A B
fo
1 Q
{= 4 , fror r < R V
V πε 0R
Q
R1 R2
1
4πε0 r, for r ≥ R r
O R ↑ G
Wheatstone bridge:
R3 R4
Field of a line charge: E = λ
2π ε0 r V

Field of an infinite sheet: E = σ Balanced ifR1/R2 = R3/R4.

2ε0

σ Electric Power: P=V2/R=I2R = IV

Field in the vicinity of conducting surface: E = ε0
 i ig G i Energy of a magnetic dipole placed in B~:
Galvanometer as an Ammeter: i − ig U = − µ~B~
·
S
B~
igG =(i − i g ) S Hall effect: Vw = Bi l
y
ned w
x
R G i d z
Galvanometer as a Voltmeter: ↑
A ig B
VAB= ig(R + G)
5.6: Magnetic Field due to Current
R C
Charging of capacitors: µ0 i d~l i ⊗ B~
Biot-Savart law: dB~= 4π r3
×~r θ
~r
V d~l
t
q( t) = C V [ 1 − e− RC ]
θ2

C
Field due to a straight conductor: d
Discharging of capacitors: q( t) = qe−0R C
t
q(t)
i ⊗ B~
θ1
R
µ0i
B = 4 π d(cosθ1 − cosθ2 )
Time constant in RC circuit: τ = RC
µ0i
Field due to an infinite straight wire: B = 2πd

∆H Peltier heat
Peltier effect: emfe = ∆Q = charge transferred. dF µ0 i 1i 2 i1 i2
Force between parallel wires: dl = 2πd

e d
Seeback effect: T
T0 Tn Ti
a P
1. Thermo-emf: e = aT + 21bT2 Field on the axis of a ring: i B~
d
2. Thermoelectric power: de/dt = a + bT.
2
µ0ia
3. Neutral temp.: Tn = −a/b. BP = 2( a2+d 23/2
)

4. Inversion temp.: Ti =−2a/b. a

µ0iθ
Thomsoneffect: emfe= H=
∆ Thomsonheat
∆ chargetransferred=σ∆T.
Field at the centre of an arc: B = 4πa B~ θ i
Q
a
Faraday’s law of electrolysis: The mass deposited is
µ0i
Field at the cen B=
m=Zit=1 FEit ∮treofaring: 2a

Ampere’slaw: B~·d~l=0in
µ I
where i is current, t is time, Z is electrochemical equiv-
alent, E is chemical equivalent, and F = 96485 C/g is Field inside a solenoid: B µ0ni,n
= = N
l
Faradayconstant. l

µ0Ni
5.5: Magnetism Field inside a toroid: B = 2πr
r
Lorentz force on a moving charge: F~ = q~v×B~+ qE~
B~2
Charged particle in a uniform magnetic field: S d
v Field of a bar magnet:
N B~1
q mv 2πm
r = q B ,T = qB d
⊗
B~ r µ02M
B 1 = 4π d3 , B 2 = µ0M
4πd3

B~ Horizontal Bh
Force on a current carrying wire: ~l Angle of dip: B h = B cosδ δ

Bv B
F~ i
F~= i~l× B~
Tangentgalvanometer: hB tan θ= µ ni02r , i = K tanθ
Magnetic moment of a current loop (dipole): Moving coil galvanometer: niAB = kθ, k
i= nAB θ
µ~ A~
µ~= iA~
i I
Time period of magnetometer: T = 2 π√
MBh
Torque on a magnetic dipole placed in B~ : ~τ
= µ~
×B~ Permeability: B~ = µH~
5.7: Electromagnet C
∮icInduction
R Z
1
RC circuit: i ωC
φ
B~·S~
Magneticflux:φ = d
e0 sin˜ωt
1
R

Faraday’s law: e = −dφdt

2
, tan φ =
Z = √ R +(1 /ω C )2
ωCR

Lenz’s Law: Induced current create aB -field that op- L R R

poses the change in magnetic flux. LR circuit: i φ
ωL

+
√
e0
ωL
sin˜
ωt
Z

Z = R 2 + ω2L2, tan φ = R
Motional emf: e = Blv l ~v ⊗ B~
L C R 1
− ωC Z
LCR Circuit: i φ
1
ωC − ωL

Self inductance: φ = Li, e = − didt

Self inductance of a solenoid: L
e sin˜ωt
ωL R

L=µ 0n(π
2 2
) Z = √ R 2 + ( ω C ) 0ω L1, tan φ =
1 2 1
ωC −ωL
R
[rl √ −
νresonance= 21
tL/R
eR 1 ]
Growth of current in LR circuit: i= − e
−
π LC

i
L R Power factor: P = e r ms ir cos
msφ
0.63 eR
e
N1 =e1 e1 e2

˜ ˜
N1 N2
Transformer: e2 , e1 i1 = e2 i2
t
S i L N2
R
i1 i2
t
Decay of current in LR circuit: i = ie−0 L/R
Speed of the EM waves in vacuum: c = 1 √/µ0ε0
L R i
i0
0.37i 0
t
S i L
R

Time constant of LR circuit: τ = L/R

Energy stored in an inductor: U = 1Li2
2
B2
Energy density of B field: u = U
V = 2µ0

Mutual inductance: φ = Mi, e = − M di

dt

EMF induced in a rotating coil: e = NABω sinωt

i
Alternating current: t
T
i = i 0 sin(ωt +φ), T = 2 π/ω

Average current in AC: ī¯=1 ∫ T idt=0

0
T

T
1/2 i2
RMS current: irms= [ 1 ∫ 0 i 2 d] t = i
√0
2
t
T
T

Energy:E=i 2

1
Capacitive reactance: Xc = ωC

Inductive reactance: XL = ωL

Imepedance: Z = 0e/i
0
Modern Physics N
N0
Population at time t:N = Ne−0λt
0
N
6.1: Photo-electric effect 2

O t1/2 t
Photon’s energy: E = hν = hc/λ

Photon’s momentum: p = h/λ = E/c Half life: t1/2 = 0.693 /λ

Max. KE of ejected photo-electron: K max = hν − φ Average life: tav = 1 /λ

Threshold freq. in photo-electric effect: ν0= φ/h Populationafter n halflives: N = N/2n.

0

V0 Massdefect:∆ =[m Z m p+( A −Z m )] n −M

hc φ hc
Stopping potential: Vo = () 1−λ e − M]c2
e
e φ 1
Bindingenergy: B =[ Zm p+( A Zm
− ) n
hc
φ λ
− e
h/p Q-value: Q= i U − Uf
de Broglie wavelength: λ =
Energy released in nuclear reaction: ∆E = ∆ mc2
where∆m = mreactants − mpro ducts.
6.2: The Atom

n Bohr’s orbit:
Energy in th 6.4: Vacuum tubes and Semiconductors

Z24
e .Z2
136 D
En = − m , En = − eV Half Wave Rectifier:
8ε222
0hn n2
˜
R Output

Radius of the nth Bohr’s orbit:

2 2
ε0hn n2a0 Full Wave Rectifier:
Z , a0 = 0.529 Å˚
˜
rn = , rn =
πmZe2 Output

Quantization of the angular momentum: l = nh Grid

2π
Triode Valve: Catho de
Photon energy in state transition: E2 − E 1 = hν Filament Plate

E2 E2

hν hν
rp =
∆Vp
∣
∣
Plate resistance of a triode:
∣
E1 E1
Emission Absorption ∆ip
∆Vg =0

Wavelength of emitted radiation: for a transition

∣∣∣
∆ip
Transconductance of a triode: gm = ∆Vg
fromnthto mth state: ∆Vp =0
∣∣
1
λ n
1
= RZ2 [ 2 −
1 ]
m2
Amplification by a triode: µ= −
∆Vp
∆Vg ∣ i
∆p=0

Relation between rp, µ, and gm: µ = rp × gm

I Kα
Kβ
hc
X-ray spectrum: λmin= eV
Ie Ic
Current in a transistor: Ie = Ib+ Ic
λmin λα λ
Ib
√
Moseley’slaw: ν=a(Z − b ) Ic
X-ray diffraction: 2dsinθ = nλ α and β parameters of a transistor: α = Ie, β =
Ic
Ib, β
= 1 −α α
Heisenberg uncertainity principle:
Transconductance: gm = ∆I c

∆ E ∆ t ≥ h/ (2π) ∆V
∆p∆x ≥ h/ (2π ), be

Logic Gates:
AND OR NAND NOR XOR
A B AB A+B AB A+B AB̄¯+Ā¯B
6.3: The Nucleus 0 0 0 0 1 1 0
0 1 0 1 1 0 1
Nuclear radius: R=R 0A1 / 3 , R 0 ≈ 1.1 × 10− 15 m 1
1
0
1
0 1 1 0 1
1 1 0 0 0
Decay rate: dN
dt
= −λN