BY

Dr. MUTABARUKA Jean de Dieu.

Claver NGIRABAKUNZI
Theodose IRAMBONA

2020-2021 1
IV. STEEL AND TIMBER

Part I: STEEL

2
 IV. STEEL AND TIMBER
IV.1. Introduction
 Metals are derived from ores by removing the impurities.

 Those used for engineering purposes are classified as

Ferrous metals and Non-ferrous metals.

 Ferrous metals , with iron as the main constituent such

as cast iron, wrought iron and steel and others like
aluminium, copper, zinc, lead and tin in which the main
constituent is not iron as non-ferrous metals.

 Metals can be divided into two main groups:

 Ferrous metals are those which contain iron and
 Non-ferrous metals are those which contain no iron
3
Iron: strong, hard magnetic silvery ( chemical element)
 IV. STEEL AND TIMBER
STRUCTURES OF FERROUS METAL

 Iron is a pure element occurring in four different allotropic

structures as alpha, beta, delta, and gamma iron.

α-iron is weak , possesses magnetic properties

β-iron is hard, brittle, non-magnetic.
V-iron has properties similar to β-iron
δ-iron is non-magnetic.

 The steel alloys having same gamma structures are also

called austenitic.
 Similarly alloys having alpha structure are called ferritic.
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IV. STEEL AND TIMBER
1.IRON
 Iron is the most important of the metals used in
engineering construction.

 The iron content of the main ores as follows:

 Magnetite (Fe3O4) 70-75%
 Haematite (Fe2O4) 70%
 Limonite (2Fe3O3.3H2O) 60%,
 Iron pyrite (FeS3) 47%
 Siderite (FeCO3) 40%

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 IV. STEEL AND TIMBER
 Iron can be classified as:
 Pig iron,
 Cast iron and
 Wrought iron.

 All those types of iron can be further treated to produce

steel material.

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IV. STEEL AND TIMBER
1.PIG IRON
 The iron ore is dressed by crushing it to about 50 mm
cubes.
The impurities are knocked off and the ore is then
calcined to drive off moisture.
The calcined ore is smelted in blast furnance .
The iron is deoxidised and a part of sulphur is also
removed.
Then limestone, which acts as flux, is added to finally
remove the sulphur.
The molten metal is tapped from the furnace and is
cast in the form of pigs
7
IV. STEEL AND TIMBER
a) PIG IRON

 Pig iron is classified as :

o Bessemer pig,
o Foundry pig,
o Forge pig, and
o Mottled pig.
 Composition:
• 3–4% carbon,
• 0.5–3.5% silicon,
• 0.5–2% manganese,
• 0.02–0.1% sulphur and
• 0.03–1% Phosphorus. 8
 IV.1. Introduction
PIG IRON
 Properties
 Pig iron is hard and brittle with fusion temperature of
1200°C and melts easily.

 It can be hardened but cannot magnetised.

 Its compressive strength is high but is weak in tension
and shear.

 Pig iron does not rust and cannot be riveted or welded.

 Uses
 Pig iron is most suitable for making columns, base
plates, door brackets, etc.

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IV. STEEL AND TIMBER
b. CAST IRON
 Cast iron is pig iron remelted with limestone and
coke and refined in Cupola furnace which is then
poured into moulds of desired size and shape.

 Classification of Cast iron :

 Cast iron is classified as: grey, white, malleable,
mottled, chilled and toughened.
 Uses:
 Ornamental castings such as lamp posts; bathroom
fittings, water pipes, sewers, manhole covers, sanitary
fittings and; rail chairs, carriage wheels and machine
parts subjected to shocks etc

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IV. STEEL AND TIMBER
c. WROUGHT IRON
 Wrought iron considered to be pure iron, is produced by removing
the impurities of cast iron.
 The total impurities are limited to 0.5 per cent with a maximum
percentage of:
 carbon as 0. 15,
 silicon 0.15–0.2%,
 Phosphorus 0.12–0.16%,
 sulphur 0.02–0.03% and
 manganese 0.03–0.1%.
 Uses:
 Roof coverings
 chains,
 ornamental iron works such as gates,
 etc. 11
 IV. STEEL AND TIMBER
2.STEEL
 Steel is the most suitable building metallic materials.
On the basis of carbon content, steel may be classified
as under:

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IV. STEEL AND TIMBER
2.STEEL
2.1. Manufacturing methods
The prominent steel-making process are:
 Bessemer process
 Cementation process
 Crucible process
 Open hearth process
 Electric smelting process
 Duplex process
 Lintz and Donawits (LD) process

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IV. STEEL AND TIMBER
2.STEEL
2.2. Properties and uses
1.Mild steel
 Mild steel also known as low carbon or soft steel.
 It is ductile, malleable; tougher and more elastic
than wrought iron.
 Mild steel can be forged and welded, difficult to
temper and harden.

 It rusts quickly and can be permanently magnetized.

 The properties are:
 specific gravity = 7.30,
 ultimate compressive and tensile strengths 800-1200
N/mm2 and 600-800 N/mm2. 14
IV. STEEL AND TIMBER
2.STEEL
2.2. Properties and uses
 Mild steel is used in the form of rolled sections,
reinforcing bars, roof coverings and sheet piles and in
railway tracks.

2.High carbon steel:

The carbon content in high carbon steel varies from 0.55
to 1.50%.
It is also known as hard steel.
It is tougher and more elastic than mild steel.
It can be forged and welded with difficulty.
Its ultimate compressive and tensile strengths are 1350
N/mm2 and 1400-2000 N/mm2, respectively.
Its specific gravity is 7.90. 15
IV. STEEL AND TIMBER
2.STEEL
2.2. Properties and uses
3.High carbon steel
 is used in the for reinforcing concrete and prestressed concrete
members.
 It can take shocks and vibrations and also used for making
tools and machine parts.

4.High tensile steel:

 The carbon content in high tensile steel is 0.6-0.8%,
manganese 0.6%, silicon 0.2%, Sulphur 0.05% and phosphorus
0.05%.
 It is also known as high strength steel and is essentially a
medium carbon steel.
 The ultimate tensile strength is of the order of 2000 N/mm2 and
a minimum elongation of 10%. High tensile steel is used in
prestressed concrete construction. 16
IV. STEEL AND TIMBER
2.STEEL
2.2. Properties and uses
 Practically, metals are rolled, forged, drawn,
stamped and pressed.

 Most of steel building components such as beams,

rails, steel bars, reinforcement, pipes are
manufactured by rolling.

 Rivets and bolts are made by forging operations.

 Thin-walled items (tubes) and round, square,
hexagonal rods of small cross-sectional areas (up to 10
mm2) are manufactured by drawing. 17
IV. STEEL AND TIMBER
2.STEEL
2.2. Properties and uses

 Stamping and pressing increases the buckling

strength of plates to be used for making them suitable
for steel tanks and containers.

 some of the examples of structures made of steel are:

material Steel trusses, towers, tanks, bridges and
frames of multi-storey buildings .

 The most common and important application of

steel in buildings is the rolled steel sections and
reinforcing bars.
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 IV. STEEL AND TIMBER
2.STEEL
2.3. Factors influencing the properties of steel

 The factors influencing the properties of steel are: chemical

composition,
 heat treatment and
 mechanic work.

a. Chemical composition
The presence of carbon in steel gives high degree of
hardness and strength.
The addition of carbon to iron decreases the malleability
and ductility of the metal, and reduces its permeability to
magnetic forces.
The tensile strength of hot rolled steel bars is maximum
between 1.0 and 1.2 % carbon content. 19
IV. STEEL AND TIMBER
2.STEEL
2.3. factors influencing the properties of steel

b. Heat treatment
 The object of heat treatment is to develop desired
properties in steel.

 The properties of steel can be controlled and changed by

various heat treatments.
 A steel of given composition may be made soft, ductile and
tough by one heat treatment, and the same steel may
be made relatively hard and strong by another.

 Heat treatment affects the nature, amount and character

of the metallographic properties. 20
 2.STEEL
2.3. factors influencing the properties of steel
Some of the principal purposes of heat treatment are as
follows:
1. To enhance properties of steel such as strength,
ductility and toughness
2. To relieve/ release internal stresses and strains
3. To remove gases
4. To normalize steel after heat treatment etc

The heat treatment may consist of the following operations:

 Hardening
 Tempering
 Normalizing
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IV. STEEL AND TIMBER
2.STEEL
2.3. factors influencing the properties of steel
c. Mechanical works
 Steel products are made by casting molten refined
steel of suitable composition into the desired form

 by mechanically, working steel, forms the desired

product.

 Mechanical work may be hot or cold.

 Mechanical working involves many stages of hot
working and may or may not include eventual cold
working.
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 IV. STEEL AND TIMBER
2.STEEL
2.3. factors influencing the properties of steel
 The most important methods of hot working steel are:

 hot rolling,
 hammer forging,
 hydraulic and mechanical press forging and
 hot extrusion.

 Miscellaneous hot working methods include hot spinning, hot deep

drawing, hot flanging and hot bending.
 Heat treatment after hot working is seldom used with low carbon steels,
whereas high carbon steels are always hardened and tempered.

 The principal methods of cold working steel are:

 cold rolling,
 cold drawing and
 cold extrusion.
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IV. STEEL AND TIMBER
2.STEEL
2.4. Steel market forms
 Most common types of steel forms available on
market are:
 Rolled steel sections and
 Reinforcing steel bars.

A.Rolled steel sections

Structural steel can be rolled into various shapes
and sizes in rolling mills.

Usually sections having larger moduli of section

in proportion to their cross-sectional areas are
preferred. 24
 IV. STEEL AND TIMBER
2.STEEL
2.4. Steel market forms
 Steel sections are usually designated by their cross-
sectional shapes.

 The shapes of the rolled steel sections available today have

been developed to meet structural needs.
 Cross-section and size are governed by a number of
factors:
• Arrangement of material for optimum structural
efficiency;
• Functional requirements (surfaces that are easy to
connect to, flat surfaces suitable for supporting other
materials, etc.);
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IV. STEEL AND TIMBER
2.STEEL
2.4. Steel market forms
 The types of rolled structural steel sections are as follows:

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 IV. STEEL AND TIMBER
2.STEEL
2.4. Steel market forms
 Angle sections were probably the first shapes rolled and
produced in 1819 in America.

 I-beam shape was introduced by Zores in France in 1849.

By 1870 Channels and Tees were developed.
 All these shapes were made of wrought iron.

 The first true skeletal frame structure, the Home Insurance

Company Building, was built in Chicago in 1884.

 An I-section is designated by its depth and weight, e.g., ISLB

500 @735.7 N/m means that the I-section is 500 mm deep
and self-weight is 735.7 N per metre length.
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IV. STEEL AND TIMBER
2.STEEL
2.4. Steel market forms
 An angle section is designated by its leg lengths and
thickness.

 For example, ISA 40 x 25 x 6 mm means that the section is

an unequal angle with legs 40 mm and 25 mm in length and
thickness of the legs 6 mm.

 Steel tubes are designated by their outside diameter and self

weight.

 Steel flats are designated by width and thickness of section,

e.g., 30 ISF 10 mm means the flat is 30 mm wide and 10 mm
thick.
 Steel plates are designated by length, width and thickness,
e.g., ISPL 2000 mm x 1000 mm x 8 mm, means the plate is
2000 mm long, 1000 mm wide and 8 mm thick.
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IV. STEEL AND TIMBER
2.STEEL
2.4. Steel market forms
Steel sheets are designated by length, width and
thickness, e.g., ISSH 2000 mm x 600 mm x 4 mm, means
the sheet is 200 mm long, 600 mm wide and 4 mm thick.

Steel strips are designated by width and thickness, e.g.,

ISST 200 mm x 2 mm, means the strip is 200 mm wide
and 2 mm thick.

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IV. STEEL AND TIMBER
2.STEEL
2.4. Steel market forms
B. Reinforcing steel bars
 The round bars are generally used as reinforcement in reinforced
concrete structures.

 Steel reinforcement is available in the form of bars of

specific diameters with different chemical composition,

 Cement concrete is one of the most versatile and established

construction material worldwide. Concrete being extremely weak in
tension requires reinforcement, which is in variably steel.

 Steel reinforcement is available in the form of bars of specific

diameters with different chemical composition, e.g., mild steel and
high tensile steel, and surface characteristics i.e. plain or deformed
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IV. STEEL AND TIMBER
2.STEEL
2.4. Steel market forms
 The types and grades of reinforcing bars are given in table
below.

 Good steel should not have carbon content of more than

0.25%, Sulphur content of more than 0.05% and
phosphorus content of more than 0.05%.

 Effectiveness of concrete reinforcement may be enhanced by

the use of low-alloy steel, or by mechanical strengthening, or
by heat treatment.
 Mechanical strengthening of steel is done by drawing,
stretching, twisting; the yield of steel rises by about 30%.
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IV. STEEL AND TIMBER
2.STEEL
2.4. Steel market forms

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 2.STEEL
Classification of reinforcing steel bars
 Steel for reinforcing bars can be classified according to
its use.

1.High yield strength deformed (HYSD) bars

have deformations on the surface which prevent
longitudinal movement of the bar relative to the
surrounding concrete.

Deformed surface ensures better bond between

reinforcement and concrete

These bars do not have a definite yield point. HYSD

bars result in a considerable increase in yield, tensile
and bond strength when twisted hot or cold.
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IV. STEEL AND TIMBER
2.STEEL
2.4. Steel market forms
Classification of reinforcing steel bars

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 IV. STEEL AND TIMBER
2.STEEL
2.4. Steel market forms
Classification of reinforcing steel bars

 Cold twist deformed (CTD) bars are most suitable for

building purposes.

 CTD bars with trademark TOR are called TOR-steel.

 Tor-steel is high strength deformed bars with high yield
and bond strength.

 These bars result in almost 40% economy.

35
IV. STEEL AND TIMBER
2.STEEL
2.4. Steel market forms
Classification of reinforcing steel bars
2.Thermo-mechanically treated (TMT) bars
 Are extra high strength reinforcing bars, which eliminate
any form of cold twisting.

 The reduction in temperature converts the surface layer of

steel bar into a hardened structure.
 These bars can be used for general concrete reinforcement in
buildings, bridges and various other concrete structures.

 They are highly recommended for use in high-rise buildings

because of the saving in steel due to the high strength.
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IV. STEEL AND TIMBER
2.STEEL
Classification of reinforcing steel bars
 A comparison for saving in steel by using TMT bars is
given in table below.

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IV. STEEL AND TIMBER
2.STEEL
2.4. Steel market forms
Classification of reinforcing steel bars
 The advantages of TMT-HCR rebars over conventional
CTD rebars are many and include:
 saving in steel,reduction in costs,
 enhanced strength combined with high ductility,
superior atmospheric and marine corrosion
resistance,
 good weldability and no loss of strength at welded
joints,
 better high temperature thermal resistance,
 easy welding at site owing to better ductility and
bendability.
IV. STEEL AND TIMBER
2.STEEL
2.5. Rusting and corrosion
 When steel is exposed to atmosphere, it is subjected
to action of atmospheric agencies.

 The humid air causes the rusting of steel, also the

atmospheric conditions along with rain produces
oxidation and corrosion. Consequently, the physical
and mechanical properties are affected.

 In due course of time cracks and discontinuities may

form in the oxide film, due to electro-chemical
action on the metal surface, providing a fresh source
of atmospheric action resulting in further corrosio
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IV. STEEL AND TIMBER
2.STEEL
2.5. Rusting and corrosion

 Once rusting is initiated, it gradually increases and corrodes

iron. Rusts in the form of scales are peeled off from the
swelled surface of iron.

 Rusting and corrosion is serious problem as the surface

becomes rough with rusted iron projections.
 This may injure users.

 Also, the loss of steel sectional area may cause failure of

structural elements.

 Rusting is caused by action of oxygen, carbon dioxide and

moisture converting the iron into ferrous bicarbonate.
40
IV. STEEL AND TIMBER
2.STEEL
2.5. Rusting and corrosion
Further, the ferrous bicarbonate on oxidation changes to
ferric bicarbonate and subsequently to hydrated ferric
oxide.

Fe + O + 2CO2 + H2O = Fe (HCO3)2

2Fe (HCO3)2 + H2O + O 2Fe (OH)CO3 +

2CO2 + H2O

Fe (OH)CO3 + H2O Fe (OH)3 + 2CO2

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IV. STEEL AND TIMBER
2.STEEL
2.6. Deterioration of RC and concrete-like structures
 Reinforced concrete (RC) is a versatile/ important, economical and
successful used construction material.

 In most of cases it is durable and strong, performing well throughout it

service life.

 In addition to that, RC structures are deteriorating due to:

 Ageing,
 Revision of loading standards,
 Changes in use and functionality,
 Corrosion of reinforcement steel bars,
 Lack of adequate maintenance among others.

 The corrosion of the reinforcing steel in concrete is a major problem

facing civil engineers today as they maintain an ageing infrastructure.
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IV. STEEL AND TIMBER
2.STEEL
2. 6. 2.Causes of corrosion on RC structures
Corrosion of reinforcement is the principal cause of
deterioration of structural concrete.

Direct effects of corrosion are:

a. Loss of bar cross-section
b. Volumetric expansion of corrosion products,
leading to longitudinal cracking of concrete
cover.

c. Change at the bar-concrete interface on

formation of corrosion products.

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IV. STEEL AND TIMBER

Part II: TIMBER

44
IV. STEEL AND TIMBER
3.TIMBER
 Wood is a hard and fibrous substance which forms a
major part of the trunk and branches of a tree.

Advantages of wood is very widely in buildings as:

 Doors,
 Windows,
 Frames,
 Temporary partition walls, etc. and
 In roof trusses and
 Ceilings apart from formwork.

45
IV. STEEL AND TIMBER
2.TIMBER
2.1. Introduction
 Wood is a hard and fibrous substance which forms a major
part of the trunk and branches of a tree.

 It can also be defined as a natural polymeric material which

practically does not age.
 Wood as a building material falls in two major classes:
natural and man-made.

 With the advances in science and technology, wood in its

natural form as timber, lumber, etc. is being rapidly
replaced by composite wood materials in which natural
wood is just a basic ingredient of a matrix or a laminate.

46
IV. STEEL AND TIMBER
2.TIMBER
2.1. Introduction
 The latter are found to be more useful and adaptable as they
may be treated chemically, thermally or otherwise as per
requirements.

 Some examples are plywood, fibre-boards, chipboards,

compressed wood, impregnated wood, etc.
 Wood has many advantages due to which it is preferred over
many other building materials.

 It is easily available (this won’t be true after some years)

and easy to transport and handle, has more thermal
insulation, sound absorption and electrical resistance as
compared to steel and concrete.
 It is the ideal material to be used in sea water
47
IV. STEEL AND TIMBER
3.TIMBER
3.2.Properties of wood

a. Physical properties : Density ,specific weight ,Moisture

movement, Shrinkage .etc

 Density and specific weight: The true specific

gravity of wood is approximately equal for all species
and averages 1.54.
 Moisture movement: Recommended moisture
content for structural elements is 12–20 per cent for
doors and 10–16 per cent for windows.
 Shrinkage is the reduction in linear and volumetric
dimensions in drying of wood.
IV. STEEL AND TIMBER
2.TIMBER
2.2.Properties of wood

 Swelling :is the capacity of wood to increase both its

linear and volumetric dimensions when it absorbs
water.

 Heat conductivity is quite low.

 Sound conductivity: The velocity of sound in wood
is 2 to 17 times greater than that in air and as such
wood may be considered to have high sound
conductivity.
 2.TIMBER
2.2.Properties of wood
b. Mechanical properties
 Compressive strength ,Tensile strength , Bending strength,
Shearing strength ,Stiffness ,Toughness, Hardness etc.

 The mechanical properties of timber that need elaboration are

as follows.
 Compressive strength When subjected to compressive
force acting parallel to the axis of growth, wood is found to
be one of the strongest structural material.
 Tensile strength when a properly shaped wooden stick is
subjected to tensile forces acting parallel to the grain it is
found to have greater strength.
 Bending strength Wood well withstands static bending,.
50
IV. STEEL AND TIMBER
2.TIMBER
2.2.Properties of wood

 Shearing strength: Wood has low shearing strength of 6.5–

14.5 N/mm2 along the fibers. Resistance of wood to cutting
across the fibers is 3 to 4 times greater than that along the
fibers,

 Stiffness: A green timber is less stiff than when seasoned..

 Toughness :A wood which has a large capacity to resist shock is
called tough. In general, green wood is tougher than seasoned
wood..

 Cleavability :is the measure of the ease with which wood may
split. Woods which must be fastened by nails and screws should
have a high resistance to splitting.
 Hardness: is defined and measured as resistance to indentation
IV. STEEL AND TIMBER
3.TIMBER
3.3. Classification of trees
 Trees are classified as:
 Endogenous and
 Exogenous according to the mode of growth.

1. Endogenous trees: Trees grow endwards, e.g., palm,

bamboo, etc.

2. Exogenous trees: Trees grow outwards and are used for

making structural elements. They are further subdivided as
conifers and deciduous.
a. Conifers :Are evergreen trees having pointed needle like
leaves.
 They show distinct annual rings, have straight fibres and
are soft with pine as an exception, light in colour, resinous
and light weight. 52
IV. STEEL AND TIMBER
3.TIMBER
3.3. Classification of trees
b. Deciduous trees have flat board leaves, e.g. oak, teak,
shishum, poplar and maple.

The annual rings are indistinct with exception of poplar and

bass wood, they yield hard wood and are non-resinous, dark in
colour and heavy weight

Note:
• Conifers, as compared to deciduous, are used for
construction purposes for their long straight trunk and the
better quality of wood.
• Characteristic differences between soft woods and hard
woods are given in table below.
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IV. STEEL AND TIMBER
IV. 8. Classification of trees (3 of 3)

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IV. STEEL AND TIMBER
2.TIMBER
2.5. Classification of timber
 The terms timber and wood are often used synonymously,
but they have distinct meanings in the building industry.

 Wood is the hard, fibrous material that makes up the

tree under the bark, whereas timber may be defined as a
wood which retains its natural physical structure and
chemical composition and is suitable for various
engineering works.

 The classification of timber is done based on IS:399, except
the classification of timber based on grading which is
provided in IS: 6534.

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IV. STEEL AND TIMBER
2.TIMBER
2.5. Classification of timber
a. On the basis of its position
 Standing timber implies a living tree
 Rough timber forms a part of the felled tree
 Converter timber or lumber are log of timber
sawn into planks, posts, etc.

b. On the basis of grading (IS:6534)

All grading specifications are clearly distinguished
between structural or stress grading and commercial
or utility grading based on Indian Standard
classification.

56
 IV. STEEL AND TIMBER
2.TIMBER
2.5. Classification of timber
b.1.Structural grading
 is also known as stress grading. However, there is a small
distinction between the two.

 Structural grading refers to the principle by which the

material is graded on the basis of visible defects which
have known effects on the strength properties of the
material.

 Structural grading is further divided as:

 Grading based on known effects of defects and
estimating accumulative value.
 Machine grading
57
IV. STEEL AND TIMBER
2.TIMBER
2.5. Classification of timber
b.2.Stress grading
 refers to the principle by which the material is graded
by consideration of maximum principle stresses to
which it can be subjected to.

b.3.Commercial grading
 also known as yard grading or utility grading
refers to the principle by which the material is graded
by consideration of usefulness of the material and
price factors.
 Commercial grading is further divided in the following
classes: Grade A, grade B, grade C and grade D. 58
IV. STEEL AND TIMBER
2.TIMBER
2.5. Classification of timber
c. On the basis of modulus of elasticity

The species of timber recommended for construction

purpose are classified as:
 Group A: Modulus of elasticity in bending above
12.5 kN/mm2
 Group B: Modulus of elasticity in bending above 9.8
kN/mm2 and below 12.5 kN/mm2
 Group C: Modulus of elasticity in bending above 5.6
kN/mm2 and below 9.8 kN/mm2
59
IV. STEEL AND TIMBER
2.TIMBER

2.5. Classification of timber

d. On the basis of durability

 Test specimens of size 600 x 50 x50 mm are buried in
the ground to half their lengths.
 The condition of the specimen at various time intervals
are noted and from these observations their average
life is calculated.
 Timber are classified based upon such observations as
follows:

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STEEL AND TIMBER
2.TIMBER
2.5. Classification of timber
IV. STEEL AND TIMBER
2.TIMBER
2.5. Classification of timber
e. On the basis of seasoning characteristics

 Timbers are classified depending upon their behaviour to

cracking and splitting during normal air-seasoning practice
under three categories:
 Highly refractory (Class A) are slow and difficult to
season-free from defects.
 Moderately refractory (Class B) may be seasoned
free from surface defects, etc. if some protection is
given against rapid drying.
 Non-refractory (Class C): These can be rapidly
seasoned free from defects.
62
IV. STEEL AND TIMBER
2.TIMBER
2.5. Classification of timber
f. On the basis of treatability

 This classification is based on the resistance offered by the

heartwood of species to preservatives under a working
pressure of 1.05 N/mm2 as:
a. Easily treatable
b. Treatable but complete preservation not easily
obtained
c. Only partially treatable
d. Refractory to treatment
e. Very refractory to treatment, penetration of
preservative being practically nil from the sides and
ends 63
IV. STEEL AND TIMBER
2.TIMBER

2.6. Structure of timber

 A tree can be divided into three portions, crown
which is composed of branches and leaves, trunk
and roots. The trunk accounts for about 80% of the
total bulk of wood.

 The structure of timber visible to naked eye or at a

small magnification is called macro structure and that
apparent only at great magnifications, the micro
structure.
 The figure below shows the structure of well grown
timber from trunk of the exogenous tree. 64
IV. STEEL AND TIMBER
3.TIMBER
3.6. Structure of timber

65
IV. STEEL AND TIMBER
2.TIMBER
2.6. Structure of timber

 The bark protects the wood against mechanical

damage.
 Bast conveys the nutrients from the crown downwards
and stores them.
 Cambium is to grow wood cells on the inside and
smaller bast cells on the outside.

 The sapwood assists in the life process of tree by

storing up starch and conducting sap.

 The heart wood gives a strong and firm support to the

tree (these are cells in the inner older portion of trunk
which gradually become inactive and lifeless with the
growth of tree but do not decay).
IV. STEEL AND TIMBER
2.TIMBER
2.6. Structure of timber
Pith At the centre of the cross-section is the, it is a
small area occupied by friable tissues consisting of thin
walled, loosely connected cells.

Medullary rays cells running at right angles to the

cambium layers and they pass nutrients from bast to
the heart.
IV. STEEL AND TIMBER
3.TIMBER
3.7. Characteristics of good timber
 The principal characteristics of timber are strength,
durability and finished appearance.
• Narrow annual rings, closer the rings greater is the
strength
• Compact medullary rays
• Dark colour
• Uniform texture
• Sweet smell and a shining fresh cut surface
• When struck sound is produced
• Free from defects in timber
• No woolliness at fresh cut surface
• Heavy weight etc 68
IV. STEEL AND TIMBER
3.TIMBER
3.8.Seasoning of timber
 Seasoning is the process of reducing the moisture
content (drying) of timber in order to prevent the
timber from possible fermentation and marking it
suitable for use.

 Very rapid seasoning after removal of bark

should be avoided since it causes case hardening
and thus increases resistance to penetration of
preservatives.
69
IV. STEEL AND TIMBER
3.TIMBER
3.8.Seasoning of timber
 Some of the objects of seasoning wood are as follows:
1. Reduce the shrinkage and warping after placement
in structure
2. Increase strength, durability and workability
3. Reduce its tendency to split and decay
4. Make it suitable for painting
5. Reduce its weight

70
IV. STEEL AND TIMBER
Methods of seasoning
Timber can be seasoned naturally or artificially
a. Natural or air seasoning:
 The log of wood is sawn into planks of convenient sizes
and stacked under a covered shed in cross-wise direction
in alternate layers so as to permit free circulation of air
(see figure below).

71
IV. STEEL AND TIMBER
2.TIMBER
Methods of seasoning
a. Natural or air seasoning:
 The duration for drying depends upon the type of wood
and the size of planks.

 The rate of drying is however very slow.

 Air seasoning reduces the moisture content of the wood
to 12-15%.
 It is used very extensively in drying ties and the large
size structural timbers.

72
IV. STEEL AND TIMBER
3.TIMBER
Methods of seasoning
b. Artificial seasoning:
Water seasoning:
 The logs of wood are kept completely immersed in
running stream of water, with the larger ends
pointing upstream.

 The logs are then kept out in air to dry.

 It is a quick process but the elastic properties and
strength of the wood are reduced.

73
IV. STEEL AND TIMBER
3.TIMBER
Methods of seasoning
b.2.Boiling in water or exposing the wood to the action of
steam spray is a very quick but expensive process of
seasoning.
b.3.Kiln seasoning
 The scantlings/boards are arranged for free
circulation of heated air with some moisture or
superheated steam.
 The circulating air takes up moisture required from
wood and seasons it.

b.4.Chemical or salt seasoning:

 Use an aqueous solution of chemicals have lower
vapour pressures than that of pure water. 74
 3.TIMBER
Methods of seasoning
b.5.Electric seasoning:
 The logs are placed in such a way that their two ends
touch the electrodes.

 Current is passed through the setup, being a bad

conductor, wood resists the flow of the current,
generating heat in the process, which results in its
drying.

75
IV. STEEL AND TIMBER
3.TIMBER
3.9.Defects in timber
 Defects can be due to:
• The abnormal growth;
• The conversion; and
• The seasoning.

76
 3.TIMBER
3.9.Defects in timber
1.Defects due to abnormal growth
 Some of those defects are:
 Checks (cracks),
 Shakes (heart shake, cup shake and star shake),
 Rindgall,
 Knots (dead knot and live knot),
 End splits,
 Twisted fibres,
 Upsets,
 Foxiness (discoloration of wood is indicted by red
or yellow tinge in wood)and
 Rupture (see figures below). 77
IV. STEEL AND TIMBER
3.TIMBER
3.9.Defects in timber
Defects due to abnormal growth

78
IV. STEEL AND TIMBER
3.TIMBER
3.9.Defects in timber
Defects due to abnormal growth

79
IV. STEEL AND TIMBER
3.TIMBER

3.9.Defects in timber
 The common types of seasoning defects are:
 checks i.e. longitudinal separation of fibres not
extending throughout the cross-section of wood;

 splitting i.e. separation of fibres extending

through a piece of timber from one face to
another;

 warpage which is consisting of cupping, twisting

and bowing.
 3.10. DECAY OF TIMBER
Decay Control
 Fungal  Felled trees should be air-dried rapidly
and  timber should be kiln-seasoned
bacterial Attack properly
 they should be protected from rain and
other sources of moisture
 adequate ventilation

 Insects(Termites • use of insecticide

, Beetles ,
and Carpenter
ants )

Rodents (small  The guiding principle is to close all

animals getting their openings or passages and making doors
food from trees) and windows capable of closure in a rat-
tight manner by fixing metal sheets 82
 IV. STEEL AND TIMBER
3.TIMBER
3.11.Preservation of timber
Preservative treatment of timber is not supposed to
improve its basic properties like mechanical, electrical or
chemical properties.

 Some of the methods used to poison the food

supply to fungus are as below:
1. Oil type preservative
2. Organic solvent preservative
3. Water soluble preservatives

83
IV. STEEL AND TIMBER
3.TIMBER
3.11.Preservation of timber
Various treatment process (IS: 401)
1. Surface application
2. Soaking treatment
3. Hot and cold process
4. Boucherie process (under pressure)
5. Full cell process (preservative chemical partially or
completely fills the cells in the treated portion)

6. Empty cell process (preservative coats the cell walls,

the cell cavities remaining nearly empty — compare full-cell
process)

7. Diffusion process (is a physical process that refers to

movement of molecules from a region of high concentration
to lower concentration)
84
IV. STEEL AND TIMBER
4.WOOD BASED PRODUCTS

4.1.PLYWOOD
 Plywood is an engineered sheet timber product that is
widely used for construction purposes.

 It is manufactured from three or more thin layers of wood

veneer, or 'plies', that are glued together to form a thicker,
flat sheet

 They are then fed into a lathe machine, which peels the log
into thin plies of wood.
 Each ply is usually between 1 and 4mm thick.

85
IV. STEEL AND TIMBER
4.WOOD BASED PRODUCTS
4.1.1. TYPES OF PLYWOOD AS A CONSTRUCTION
MATERIAL
1.Structural plywood:
 Used in permanent structures where high strength is
needed.
2.External plywood:
 Used on exterior surfaces where a decorative or
aesthetic finish is important.
3.Internal plywood:
 This has a beautiful finish, for non-structural applications
like wall paneling, ceilings, and furniture.
4.Marine plywood:
 It is treated using preservatives, paint, or varnish, to resist
water damage. 86
 IV. STEEL AND TIMBER
4.WOOD BASED PRODUCTS
4.1.1. PROPERTIES OF PLYWOOD
a. High Strength:
 Plywood has the structural strength of the wood it is made
from. This is in addition to the properties obtained from its
laminated design.
 The grains of each veneer are laid at 90 degree angles to
each other. This makes the whole sheet resistant to splitting,
especially when nailed at the edges.
 It also gives the whole sheet uniform strength for increased
stability.
 Furthermore, plywood has a higher strength to weight ratio
as compared to cut lumber. This makes it ideal for flooring,
webbed beams, and shear walls.
87
IV. STEEL AND TIMBER
4.WOOD BASED PRODUCTS
4.1.1. PROPERTIES OF PLYWOOD
b. High panel shear:
 Plywood is made with an odd number of layers,
making it tough to bend.
 The angle at which the veneer grains are laid
against each other may be varied from 90 degrees.

 Each veneer can be laid at a 45 or 30 degree angle

to the next one, increasing the plywood’s strength
in every direction.
 This cross lamination increases the panel shear of
plywood, important in bracing panels and fabricated
beams.
IV. STEEL AND TIMBER
4.WOOD BASED PRODUCTS
4.1.1. PROPERTIES OF PLYWOOD
c. Flexibility:
 Unlike cut timber, plywood can be manufactured to fit
every requirement.
 The thickness of each veneer can vary from a few
millimeters to several inches.

 The number of veneers used also ranges from three to

several, increasing the thickness of the sheet.
 The extra layers add more strength to the plywood.
 Thinner veneers are used to increase flexibility for use in
ceilings and paneling.
89
d. Moisture resistance:

 The type of adhesive used to bind the veneers makes the

plywood resistant to moisture and humidity.
 A layer of paint or varnish can also increase resistance to
water damage.

 These types of veneers are suitable for exterior use such as

cladding, sheds, and in marine construction.
 They are also suited for holding concrete while it sets.
 Moisture resistance is important in interior applications as
well, including on floors.
 The cross lamination ensures the veneers do not warp,
shrink, or expand when exposed to water and extreme
temperature.
e. Chemical resistance:
 Plywood treated with preservative does not corrode when
exposed to chemicals.
 This makes it suitable for chemical works and cooling towers.

f. Impact resistance:
 Plywood has high tensile strength, derived from the cross
lamination of panels.
 This distributes force over a larger area, reducing tensile
stress.
 Plywood is therefore able to withstand overloading by up to
twice its designated load.
 This is critical during short-term seismic activity or high winds.
 It is also useful in flooring and concrete formwork.
g. Fire resistance:
 Plywood can be treated with a fire resistant chemical
coating.
 More commonly, it is combined with non combustible
materials such as plasterboard or fibrous cement.
 This makes it ideal for use in fire resistant structures.

H. Insulation:
 Plywood has high thermal and sound insulation.
 This makes it a useful insulating material for flooring,
ceilings, roofing, and wall cladding.
 Insulation offered by plywood can greatly reduce heating
and cooling costs.
USES OF PLYWOOD AS A BUILDING MATERIAL

Some of most common uses of Plywood are:

 To make light partition or external walls

 To make formwork or a mould for wet concrete
 To make furniture, especially cupboards, kitchen
cabinets, and office tables

 As part of flooring systems

 For packaging
 To make light doors and shutters 93