CVEN 304 LECTURE NOTE

Lesson 1

Civil Engineering Department, Ahmadu Bello University, Zaria.

By: Engr. I.A Ja’e
1.0 Introduction
According to world steel association (2016) steel is an alloy of iron and carbon containing less
than 2% carbon, 1% manganese and small amounts of silicon, phosphorus, sulphur and oxygen.
Steel is the world's most important engineering and construction material. It is used in every aspect
of our lives; in cars and construction products, cargo ships, and most importantly structural
components.
1.1 Difference between Steel and Metal
The main difference between steel and metal is that steel is an alloy made from iron metal, and
metals are elements naturally present in the earth’s crust, and mined out from various parts of the
world. Metals are nonmagnetic, ductile and non-corrosive elements with high resistance to
tarnishing. Metals are also safe, and have hygienic properties; they are present in the biological
system of the human body, and not harmful when implanted. For example platinum is used as
plates in surgical in-plants because it is bio-compatible.
1.2 Classification of Steel
Steel classification is important in understanding what types are used in certain applications and
which types are used for others. Steel classification systems are set up and updated frequently for
this type of information.
Generally, Carbon is the most important commercial steel alloy. Increasing carbon content
increases hardness and strength and improves hardenability. But carbon also increases brittleness
and reduces weldability because of its tendency to form martensite. This means carbon content can
be both a blessing and a curse when it comes to commercial steel.
And while there are steels that have up to 2 percent carbon content, they are the exception. Most
steel contains less than 0.35 percent carbon. Now, any steel in the 0.35 to 1.86 percent carbon
content range can be hardened using a heat-quench-temper cycle. Most commercial steels are
classified into one of three groups:
i) Plain carbon steels
ii) Low-alloy steels
iii) High-alloy steels
1.2.1 Plain Carbon Steels
These Class of steels are usually iron with less than 1 percent carbon, plus small amounts of
manganese, phosphorus, sulfur, and silicon. The weldability and other characteristics of these
steels are primarily a product of carbon content, although the alloying and residual elements do
have a minor influence.
Plain carbon steels are further subdivided into four groups:
a) Low
b) Medium
c) High
d) Very high
a) Low: Often called mild steels, low-carbon steels have less than 0.30 percent carbon and
are the most commonly used grades. They machine and weld nicely and are more ductile
than higher-carbon steels.

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 b) Medium: Medium-carbon steels have from 0.30 to 0.45 percent carbon. Increased carbon
means increased hardness and tensile strength, decreased ductility, and more difficult
machining.
c) High: With 0.45 to 0.75 percent carbon, these steels can be challenging to weld. Preheating,
post-heating (to control cooling rate), and sometimes even heating during welding become
necessary to produce acceptable welds and to control the mechanical properties of the steel
after welding.
d) Very High: With up to 1.50 percent carbon content, very high-carbon steels are used for
hard steel products such as metal cutting tools and truck springs. Like high-carbon steels,
they require heat treating before, during, and after welding to maintain their mechanical
properties.

1.2.2 Low-alloy Steel

When these steels are designed for welded applications, their carbon content is usually below 0.25
percent and often below 0.15 percent. Typical alloys include nickel, chromium, molybdenum,
manganese, and silicon, which add strength at room temperatures and increase low-temperature
notch toughness.
These alloys can, in the right combination, improve corrosion resistance and influence the steel's
response to heat treatment. But the alloys added can also negatively influence crack susceptibility,
so it's a good idea to use low-hydrogen welding processes with them. Preheating might also prove
necessary. This can be determined by using the carbon equivalent formula.
The equivalent carbon content concept is used on ferrous materials, typically steel and cast iron,
to determine various properties of the alloy when more than just carbon is used as an alloyant,
which is typical. The idea is to convert the percentage of alloying elements other than carbon to
the equivalent carbon percentage, because the iron-carbon phases are better understood than other
iron-alloy phases. Most commonly this concept is used in welding, but it is also used when heat
treating and casting cast iron.
1.2.3 High-alloy Steels
It simply refers to stainless steel, the most important commercial high-alloy steel. Stainless steels
are at least 12 percent chromium and many have high nickel contents. The three basic types of
stainless are:
a) Austenitic
b) Ferritic
c) Martensitic

a) Austenitic stainless steels offer excellent weldability, but austenite isn't stable at room
temperature. Consequently, specific alloys must be added to stabilize austenite. The most
important austenite stabilizer is nickel, and others include carbon, manganese, and
nitrogen.
b) Ferritic stainless steels have 12 to 27 percent chromium with small amounts of austenite-
forming alloys.

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 c) Martensitic stainless steels make up the cutlery grades. They have the least amount of
chromium, offer high hardenability, and require both pre- and post-heating when welding
to prevent cracking in the heat-affected zone (HAZ).
1.3 Advantages and Disadvantages of Steel in Construction
1.3.1 Advantages
Some of the principal reasons for the appeal of steel in construction are as follows:
i) Steel frames are fast and easy to erect.
ii) Steel Structures are lightweight, particularly in comparison with concrete structures.
iii) High strength and stiffness per weight
iv) The accuracy implicit in the manufacturing process by which the elements are produced
enables the designer to take a confident view of the geometric properties of the erected
framework.
v) Uniform quality
vi) The framework is not susceptible to drying-out movement or delays due to slow
strength gain as it is in concrete.
vii) Steel frames have potential for adaptability inherent in their construction. Later
modification to a building can be achieved relatively easily by unbolting a connection;
with traditional concrete construction such modifications would be expensive, and
more extensive and disruptive.
viii) The use of steel makes possible the creation of large, column-free internal spaces which
can be divided by partitions and, by eliminating the external wall as a loadbearing
element, allows the development of large window areas incorporated in prefabricated
cladding systems.
ix) Steel are termite and rot proof.
x) Substantial elimination of delays due to weather
xi) Steel provides more accurate detailing
1.3.2 Disadvantages
Disadvantages of steel in construction include:
i) Susceptibility to corrosion
ii) Low fire resistance
iii) Buckling and high deformation due to small sizes of members

2.0 Steel Production

There are two process routes for making steel:

(a) The electric arc furnace; and
(b) The basic oxygen converter.
The latter requires a charge of molten iron, which is produced in blast furnaces.
2.1 The Raw Material
The raw materials for producing molten iron are iron ore, coking coal and fluxes (materials that
help the chemical process) - mainly limestone.

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The iron ores arrive in a number of forms: lumps of ore in the form in which they were mined;
fine-sized iron ores; and pellets - fine ores which have been processed to stick together to form
hard spheres of iron ore. The coals and ores are transported by conveyor belt or rail to stockyards
where they are stored and carefully blended.
Blended coal is first heated in coke ovens to produce coke. This process is known as carbonisation.
The gas produced during carbonisation is extracted and used for fuel elsewhere in the steelworks.
Other by-products (such as tar and benzole) are also extracted for further refining and sale. Once
carbonised, the coke is pushed out of the ovens and allowed to cool.
Fine-sized ore is first mixed with coke and fluxes and heated in a sinter plant. This is a continuous
moving belt on which the coke is ignited. The high temperatures generated fuse the ore particles
and fluxes together to form a porous clinker called sinter. The use of sinter in the blast furnace
helps make the ironmaking process more efficient.
Iron ore lumps and pellets, coke, sinter and possibly extra flux are carried to the top of the blast
furnace on a conveyor or in skips and then tipped, or charged, into the furnace. Hot air (900 degrees
C etc) is blasted into the bottom of the furnace through nozzles called tuyeres. The oxygen in the
air combusts with the coke to form carbon monoxide gas, and this generates a great deal of heat.
Frequently oil or coal is injected with the air, which enables less (relatively expensive) coke to be
used. The carbon monoxide flows up through the blast furnace and removes oxygen from the iron
ores on their way down, thereby leaving iron. The heat in the furnace melts the iron, and the
resulting liquid iron (or hot metal as it is called in the industry) is tapped at regular intervals by
opening a hole in the bottom of the furnace and allowing it to flow out. The fluxes combine with
the impurities in the coke and ore to form a molten slag, which floats on the iron and is also
removed (tapped) at regular intervals.
2.2 Blast Furnace
The hot metal flows into torpedo ladles. These are specially constructed railway containers which
transport iron, still in liquid form, to the steel furnace.
The process described above goes on continuously for ten years or more. (This is known as a
campaign.) If the furnace were allowed to cool, damage could be caused to its lining of refractory
bricks as a result of their contracting as they cooled. Eventually the refractory brick linings are
worn away, and at that stage the process is stopped and the furnace relined with new bricks, ready
to begin its next campaign.
The iron produced by the blast furnace has a carbon content of 4 to 4.5% as well as a number of
other "impurities". This makes it relatively brittle. Steelmaking refines iron, amongst other things
by reducing its carbon content, to make it a stronger and more manipulable product.
2.3 Basic Oxygen Furnace
The Basic Oxygen Steelmaking (BOS) process is the major modern process for making bulk steels.
In the UK, apart from special quality steels (such as stainless steel), all flat products, and long
products over a certain size, are rolled from steel made by the BOS process.
2.3.1 Basic Oxygen Vessel
The BOS vessel is first tilted to allow materials to be tipped into it (charged). Scrap steel is first
charged into the vessel, followed by hot metal (liquid iron) from the blast furnace. A water-cooled

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lance is lowered into the vessel through which very pure oxygen is blown at high pressure. The
oxygen, through a process known as oxidation, combines with the carbon, and with other unwanted
elements, separating them from the metal, leaving steel. Lime-based fluxes (materials that help the
chemical process) are charged, and they combine with the "impurities" to form slag.
The main gas formed as a by-product of the oxidation process is carbon-monoxide, and this is
sometimes collected for use as a fuel elsewhere in the works.
A careful balance between the amounts of hot metal and scrap charged into the converter is
maintained as a means of controlling the temperature and to ensure that steel of the required
specification is produced. After a sample has been taken to check that the chemical content of the
steel is correct, the vessel is again tilted to allow the molten steel to flow out. This is known as
tapping. The steel is tapped into a ladle, in which secondary steelmaking frequently takes place.
During tapping small quantities of other metals and fluxes are often added to control the state of
oxidation and to meet customer requirements for particular grades of steel.
Finally the vessel is turned upside down and the slag tipped out into a container. Steelmaking slag
is sometimes recycled to make road building materials.
The modern BOS vessel makes up to 350 tonnes of steel at a time, and the whole process takes
about 40 minutes.
2.4 Electric Arc Furnace
The electric arc furnace (EAF) (together with the basic oxygen vessel) is one of the two modern
ways of making steel. In the UK, EAFs are used to produce special quality steels (steels alloyed
with other metals) and some ordinary (non-alloy) quality steels - the lighter long products such as
those used for reinforcing concrete. The EAFs making special quality steels are located in Sheffield
and Rotherham (in Yorkshire), while those making ordinary quality steels are at Sheerness on the
Thames estuary in Kent and Cardiff in South Wales.
Unlike the basic oxygen route, the EAF does not use hot metal. It is charged with "cold" material.
This is normally steel scrap (recycled goods made from steel which have reached the end of their
useful life). Other forms of raw material are however available which have been produced from
iron ore. These include direct reduced iron (DRI) and iron carbide, as well as pig iron, which is
iron from a blast furnace which has been cast and allowed to go cold, instead of being charged
straight into a basic oxygen vessel.
Steel scrap (or other ferrous material) is first tipped into the EAF from an overhead crane. A lid is
then swung into position over the furnace. This lid contains electrodes which are lowered into the
furnace. An electric current is passed through the electrodes to form an arc. The heat generated by
this arc melts the scrap. The electricity needed for this process is enough to power a town with a
population of 100,000.
During the melting process, other metals (ferro-alloys) are added to the steel to give it the required
chemical composition. As with the basic oxygen process, oxygen is blown in to the furnace to
purify the steel and lime and fluorspar are added to combine with the impurities and form slag.
After samples have been taken to check the chemical composition of the steel, the furnace is tilted
to allow the slag, which is floating on the surface of the molten steel, to be poured off. The furnace

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is then tilted in the other direction and the molten steel poured (tapped) into a ladle, where it either
undergoes secondary steelmaking or is transported to the caster.
The modern electric arc furnace typically makes 150 tonnes in each melt, which takes around 90
minutes.
2.5 Secondary Steel Making
After Steel have been tapped (poured) from the furnace undergo a further stage of processing called
secondary steelmaking before the steel is cast. This applies to both the basic oxygen process route
and to the electric arc furnace route.
The molten steel is tapped from the furnace into a ladle. A lid is placed over the ladle to conserve
heat. A range of different processes is then available, such as stirring with argon, adding alloys,
vacuum de-gassing or powder injection. The objective in all cases is to fine tune the chemical
composition of the steel and/or to improve homogenisation of temperature (making sure that the
steel is the same temperature throughout) and remove impurities. Ladle arc heating is a process
used to ensure that the molten steel is at exactly the correct temperature for casting.

3.0 Types of steel Structures

There are two type of steel building: single and Multi-storey steel Structures
3.1 Single Storey Structures
This type of steel structure is use as aircraft hangers, Workshops, Exhibition Hall etc. Clients
expect their buildings to have the potential for easy change of layout several times during the
building’s life. This is true for both institutional investors and owner users. The primary feature is
therefore flexibility of planning, which, in general terms, means as few columns as possible
consistent with economy. The ability to provide spans up to 60m, but most commonly around 30m,
gives an extremely popular structural form for the supermarkets and other types of constructions.
3.2 Anatomy of Single Storey Structure
A typical single storey building consist of Cladding, secondary steel and a frame Structure.
3.2.1 Cladding
Cladding is required to be weathertight, to provide insulation, to have penetrations for daylight
and access, to be aesthetically pleasing, and to last the maximum time with a minimum of
maintenance consistent with the budget.
The requirements for the cladding to roofs and walls are somewhat different.
3.2.2 Secondary elements
In the normal single-storey building the cladding is supported on secondary members which
transmit the loads back to main structural steel frames. The spacing of the frames, determined by
the overall economy of the building, is normally in the range 5–8m, with 6m and 7.5m as the most
common spacing.
A combination of cladding performance, erectability and the restraint requirements for
economically-designed main frames dictates that the purlin and rail spacing should be 1.5–2m.

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Because of the high volumes, manufacturers have been encouraged to develop and test all material-
efficient sections. These fall into three main categories:
Zed, modified Zed and Sigma sections as shown in Figure 1

Figure 1: popular purlin and frame sections

The Zed section was the first shape to be introduced. It is material-efficient but the major
disadvantage is that the principal axes are inclined to the web. If subject to unrestrained bending
in the plane of the web, out-of-plane displacements occur:
If these are restrained, out-of-plane forces are generated.
As roof pitches become lower, modified Zed sections have been developed with the inclination of
the principal axis considerably reduced, so enhancing overall performance. Stiffening has been
introduced, improving material efficiency.
The Sigma shape, in which the shear Centre is approximately coincident with the load application
line, has advantages. One manufacturer now produces, using rolling, a third-generation product of
this configuration, which is economical.
3.2.3 Primary frames
The frame supports the cladding but, with increasing architectural and service demands, other
factors are important. The basic structural form has developed against the background of achieving
the lowest cost envelope by enclosing the minimum volume. Plastic design of portal frames brings
limitations on the spacing of restraints of around 1.8–2m. The cladding profiles are economic in
this range: they can support local loads and satisfy drainage requirements.
The regime is therefore for the loads to be transferred from the sheeting on to the purlins and rails,
which in turn must be supported on a primary structure.

4.0 Multi-Storey Structure

The term multi-Storey building encompasses a wide range of building forms.
4.1.1 Design aims
For the full potential of the advantages of steel-frame construction to be realized, the design of
multi-storey buildings requires a considered and disciplined approach by the architects, engineers
and contractors involved in the project. They must be aware of the constraints imposed on the
design programme by the lead time between placing a contract for the supply of the steel frame
and the erection of the first pieces on site. The programme should include such critical dates on

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information release as are necessary to ensure that material order and fabrication can progress
smoothly.
The designer must recognize that the framework is the skeleton around which every other element
of the building will be constructed. The design encompasses not only the structure but also the
building envelope, services and internal finishes. All these elements must be co-ordinated by a
firm dimensional discipline, which recognizes the modular nature of the components, to ensure
maximum repetition and standardization. Consequently it is impossible to consider the design of
the framework in isolation. It is vital to see the frame as part of an integrated building design from
the outset: the most efficient solution for the structure may not be effective in achieving a
satisfactory solution for the total building.
In principle, the design aims can be considered under three headings:
 Technical
 Architectural
 Financial.
4.1.2 Technical aims
The designer must ensure that the framework, its elements and connections are strong enough to
withstand the applied loads to which the framework will be subjected throughout its design life.
The system chosen on this basis must be sufficiently robust to prevent the progressive collapse of
the building or a significant part of it under accidental loading. This is the primary technical aim.
However, as issues related to strength have become better understood and techniques for the
strength design of frameworks have been formalized, designers have progressively used lighter
and stronger materials. This has generated a greater need to consider serviceability, including
dynamic floor response, as part of the development of the structural concept.
Other important considerations are to ensure adequate resistance to fire and corrosion. The design
should aim to minimize the cost, requirements and intrusion of the protection systems on the
efficiency of the overall building.
4.1.3 Architectural aims
For the vast majority of buildings the most effective structural steel frame is the one which is least
obtrusive. In this way it imposes least constraint on internal planning, and produces maximum
usable floor area, particularly for open-plan offices. It also provides minimal obstruction to the
routeing of building services. This is an important consideration, particularly since building
services are becoming more extensive and demanding on space and hence on the building
framework.
Occasionally the structure is an essential feature of the architectural expression of the building.
Under these circumstances the frame must achieve, among other aims, a balance between internal
planning efficiency and an expressed structural form. However, these buildings are special, not
appropriate to this manual, and will not be considered in more detail, except to give a number of
references.

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4.1.4 Financial aims
The design of a steel frame should aim to achieve minimum overall cost. This is a balance between
the capital cost of the frame and the improved revenue from early occupation of the building
through fast erection of the steel frame: a more expensive framework may be quicker to build and
for certain uses would be more economic to a client in overall terms. Commercial office
developments are a good example of this balance.

5.0 Factors Influencing Choice of Form

5.1 Environmental
There are a number of factors which influence the choice of structural form that are particular to
the site location. These can have a dominant effect on the framing arrangement for the structure.
The most obvious site-dependent factors are related to the ground conditions. A steel-framed
building is likely to be about 60% of the weight of a comparable reinforced concrete building. This
difference will result in smaller foundations with a consequent reduction on costs. In some cases
this difference in weight enables simple pad foundations to be used for the steel frame where the
equivalent reinforced concrete building would require a more complex and expensive solution.
For non-uniformly loaded structures it will also reduce the magnitude of differential settlements
and for heavily loaded structures may make possible the use of a simple raft foundation in
preference to a large capacity piled solution. Difficult ground conditions may dictate the column
grid. Long spans may be required to bridge obstructions in the ground. Such obstructions could
include, for example, buried services, underground railways or archaeological remains. Generally,
a widely spaced column grid is desirable since it reduces the number of foundations and increases
the simplicity of construction in the ground.
Other site-dependent constraints are more subtle. In urban areas they relate to the physical
constraints offered by the surrounding street plan, and the rights of light of adjoining owners. They
also relate to the planning and architectural objectives for specific sites. The rights of light issues
or planning considerations may dictate that upper floors are set back from the perimeter resulting
in stepped construction of the upper levels. Invariably the resulting framing plan is not rectilinear
and may have skew grids, cantilevers and re-entrant corners.
These constraints need to be identified early in the design in order that they are accommodated
efficiently into the framing. For example, wherever possible, stepped-back façades should be
arranged so that steps take place on the column grid and hence avoid the need for heavy bridging
structures. In other situations the designer should always investigate ways in which the impact of
lack of uniformity in building form can be contained within a simple structural framing system
which generates a minimum of element variations and produces simple detailing.
5.2 Building use
The building use will dictate the planning module of the building, which will in turn determine the
span and column grids. Typical grids may be based on a planning module of 600/1200 mm or
500/1500mm. However, the use has much wider impact, particularly on floor loadings and
building services. The structural arrangement, and depth selected, must satisfy and accommodate
these requirements. For example, financial-dealing floors require clear open spaces located on the
lower floors, which would dictate a different structural solution to the rest of the building. This

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may necessitate the use of a transfer structure to carry the upper floors on an economical column
grid.
5.3 Floor loadings
Because steel-framed buildings are relatively light in weight, excessive imposed loadings will have
a greater effect on the sizing of structural components, particularly floor beams, than with
reinforced concrete structures.
The floor loadings to be supported by the structure have two components:

• The permanent or dead loading comprising the self-weight of the flooring and the supporting
structure together with the weight of finishes, raised flooring, ceiling, air-conditioning ducts and
equipment.
The imposed loading, which is the load that the floor is likely to sustain during its life and which
will depend on the building use. Imposed floor loads for various types of building are governed by
BS 6399 but the standard loading for office buildings is usually 4kN/m2 with an additional
allowance of 1kN/m2 for movable partitioning. For normal office loadings, dead and imposed
loadings are roughly equal in proportion but higher imposed load allowances will be necessary in
plantrooms or to accommodate special requirements such as storage or heavy equipment. Floor
beams will be designed to limit deflection under the imposed loadings. British Standard BS 5950
governing the design of structural steelwork sets a limit for deflection under imposed loading of
(span/200) generally and (span/360) where there are brittle finishes. Edge beams supporting
cladding will be subject to restriction on deflection of 10–15mm. Deflections may be noticeable
in the ceiling layout and should be taken into account when determining the available clearance
for service routes. The designer should therefore check the cumulative effect of deflections in the
individual members of a floor system although the actual maximum displacement is in practice
almost always less than that predicted. In some instances, vibrations of floor components may
cause discomfort or affect sensitive equipment, and the designer should check the fundamental
response of the floor system. The threshold of perceptible vibrations in building is difficult to
define, and present limits are rather arbitrary. There is some evidence that modern lightweight
floors can be sensitive to dynamic loads, which may have an effect on delicate equipment.
However, in most situations a simple check on the natural frequency of the floor system is all that
is required.
5.4 Building services and finishes
In buildings requiring anything other than minimal electrical services distribution, the inter-
relationship of the structure, the mechanical and electrical services and the building finishes will
need to be considered together from the outset. It is essential to co-ordinate the details of the
building services, cladding and structure at an early stage of the project in order to produce a
building which is simple to fabricate and quick to erect. Apparently minor variations to the
steelwork, brought about by services and finishes requirements defined after a steel fabrication
contract has been let, can have a disproportionate effect on the progress of fabrication and erection.
Steel buildings impose a strict discipline on the designer in terms of the early production of final
design information. If the designer fails to recognize this, the advantages of steel-framed building
cannot be realized.

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The integration of the building services with the structure is an important factor in the choice of
an economic structural floor system. The overall depth of the floor construction will depend on the
type and distribution of services in the ceiling void.
The designer may choose to separate the structural and services zones or accommodate the services
by integrating them with the structure, allowing for the structural system to occupy the full depth
of the floor construction.
Separation of zones usually requires confining the ducts, pipes and cables to a horizontal plane
below the structure, resulting in either a relatively deep overall floor construction or close column
spacings. Integration of services with structure requires either deep perforated structural
components or vertical zoning of the services and structure.
For the range of structural grids used in conventional building, traditional steel floor construction
is generally deeper than the equivalent reinforced concrete flat slab: the difference is generally
100–200 mm for floor structures which utilize composite action and greater for non-composite
floors. The increased depth is only at the beam position; elsewhere, between beams, the depth is
much less and the space between them may accommodate services, particularly if the beams may
be penetrated. The greater depth of steel construction does not therefore necessarily result in an
increase in building height if the services are integrated within the zone occupied by the structure.
5.5 External wall construction
The external skin of a multi-storey building is supported off the structural frame. In most high
quality commercial buildings the cost of external cladding systems greatly exceeds the cost of the
structure. This influences the design and construction of the structural system in a number of ways:

• The perimeter structure must provide a satisfactory platform to support the cladding system and
be sufficiently rigid to limit deflections of the external wall.

• A reduction to the floor zone may significantly reduce the area and hence cost of cladding.
• Fixings to the structure should facilitate rapid erection of cladding panels.
• A reduction in the weight of cladding at the expense of cladding cost will not necessarily lead to
a lower overall construction cost.
5.6 Lateral stiffness
Steel buildings must have sufficient lateral stiffness and strength to resist wind and other lateral
loads. In tall buildings the means of providing sufficient lateral stiffness forms the dominant design
consideration. This is not the case for low- to medium-rise buildings.
Most multi-storey buildings are designed on the basis that wind and/or notional horizontal forces
acting on the external cladding are transmitted to the floors, which form horizontal diaphragms
transferring the lateral load to rigid elements and then to the ground. These rigid elements are
usually either braced-bay frames, rigid jointed frames, reinforced concrete or steel–concrete–steel
sandwich shear walls.

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Low-rise unbraced frames up to about six storeys may be designed using the simplified wind-
moment method. In this design procedure, the frame is made statically determinate by treating the
connections as pinned under vertical load and rigid under horizontal loads. This approach can be
used on both composite and noncomposite frames, albeit with strict limitations on frame geometry,
loading patterns and member classification. British Standard BS 5950 sets a limit on lateral
deflection of columns as height/300 but height/600 may be a more reasonable figure for buildings
where the external envelope consists of sensitive or brittle materials such as stone facings.
5.7 Accidental loading
A series of incidents in the 1960s culminating in the partial collapse of a system built tower block
at Ronan Point in 1968 led to a fundamental reappraisal of the approach to structural stability in
building.
Traditional load-bearing masonry buildings have many in-built elements providing inherent
stability which are lacking in modern steel-framed buildings. Modern structures can be refined to
a degree where they can resist the horizontal and vertical design loadings with the required factor
of safety but may lack the ability to cope with the unexpected.
It is this concern with the safety of the occupants and the need to limit the extent of any damage
in the event of unforeseen or accidental loadings that has led to the concept of robustness in
building design. Any element in the structure that supports a major part of the building either must
be designed for blast loading or must be capable of being supported by an alternative load path. In
addition, suitable ties should be incorporated in the horizontal direction in the floors and in the
vertical direction through the columns. The designer should be aware of the consequences of the
sudden removal of key elements of the structure and ensure that such an event does not lead to the
progressive collapse of the building or a substantial part of it. In practice, most modern steel
structures can be shown to be adequate without any modification.
5.8 Cost considerations
The time taken to realize a steel building from concept to completion is generally less than that for
a reinforced concrete alternative. This reduces time-related building costs, enables the building to
be used earlier, and produces an earlier return on the capital invested.
To gain full benefit from the ‘factory’ process and particularly the advantages of speed of
construction, prefabrication, accuracy and lightness, the cladding and finishes of the building must
have similar attributes. The use of heavy, slow and insitu finishing materials is not compatible with
the lightweight, prefabricated and fast construction of a steel framework.
The cost of steel frameworks is governed to a great extent by the degree of simplicity and repetition
embodied in the frame components and connections. This also applies to the other elements which
complete the building.
The criterion for the choice of an economic structural system will not necessarily be to use the
minimum weight of structural steel. Material costs represent only 30–40% of the total cost of
structural steelwork. The remaining 60–70% is accounted for in the design, detailing, fabrication,
erection and protection. Hence a choice which needs a larger steel section to avoid, say, plate

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stiffeners around holes or allows greater standardization will reduce fabrication costs and may
result in the most economic overall system.
Because a steel framework is made up of prefabricated components produced in a factory,
repetition of dimensions, shapes and details will streamline the manufacturing process and is a
major factor in economic design.
5.9 Fabrication
The choice of structural form and method of connection detailing have a significant impact on the
cost and speed of fabrication and erection. Simple braced frameworks with bolted connections are
considered the most economic and the fastest to build for low- to medium-rise buildings.
Economy is generally linked to the use of standard rolled sections but, with the advent of
automated cutting and welding equipment, special fabricated sections are becoming economic if
there is sufficient repetition. The development of efficient, automated, cold-sawing techniques and
punching and drilling machines has led to the fabrication of building frameworks with bolted
assemblies. Welded connections involve a greater amount of handling in the fabrication shop, with
consequent increases in labour and cost. Site-welded connections require special access, weather
protection, inspection and temporary erection supports. By comparison, on-site bolted connections
enable the components to be erected rapidly and simply into the frame and require no further
handling.
The total weight of steel used in continuous frames is less than in semi continuous or simple
frames, but the connections for continuous frames are more complex and costly to fabricate and
erect. On balance, the cost of a continuous frame structure is greater, but there may be other
considerations which offset this cost differential. For example, in general the overall structural
depth of continuous frames is less. This may reduce the height of the building or improve the
distribution of building services, both of which could reduce the overall cost of the building.
Corrosion protection to internal building elements is an expensive and time consuming activity.
Experience has shown that it is unnecessary for most internal locations and consequently only
steelwork in risk areas should require any protection.
Factory-applied coatings of intumescent fire protection can be cost-effective and time-saving by
removing the operation from the critical path.
5.10 Construction
A period of around 8–12 weeks is usual between placing a steel order and the arrival of the first
steel components on site. Site preparation and foundation construction generally take a similar or
longer period. Hence, by progressing fabrication in parallel with site preparation, significant on-
site construction time may be saved, as commencement of shop fabrication is equivalent to start-
on-site for an in situ concrete-framed building. By manufacturing the frame in a factory, the risks
of delay caused by bad weather or insufficient or inadequate construction resources in the locality
of the site are significantly reduced.
Structural steel frameworks should generally be capable of being erected without temporary
propping or scaffolding, although temporary bracing will be required, especially for welded
frames. This applies particularly to the construction of the concrete slab, which should be self-

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supporting at all stages of erection. Permanent metal or precast concrete shutters should be used
to support the in situ concrete.
In order to allow a rapid start to construction, the structural steelwork frame should commence at
foundation level, and preference should be given to single foundations for each column rather than
raft or shared foundations.
Speed of erection is directly linked to the number of crane hours available. To reduce the number
of lifts required on site, the number of elements forming the framework should be minimized
within the lifting capacity of the crane age provided on site for other building components. For
similar-sized buildings, the one with the longer spans and fewer elements will be the fastest to
erect. However, as has been mentioned earlier, longer spans require deeper, heavier elements,
which will increase the cost of raw materials and pose a greater obstruction to the distribution of
building services, thereby requiring the element to be perforated or shaped and hence increasing
the cost of fabrication. Columns are generally erected in multi-storey lengths: two is common and
three is not unusual. The limitation on longer lengths is related more to erection than to restrictions
on transportation, although for some urban locations length is a major consideration for
accessibility.
To provide rapid access to the framework the staircases should follow the erection of the frame.
This is generally achieved by using prefabricated stairs which are detailed as part of the steel frame.
The speed of installation of the following building elements is hastened if their connection and
fixing details are considered at the same time as the structural steel frame design. In this way the
details can be either incorporated in the framework or separated from it, whichever is the most
effective overall: it is generally more efficient to separate the fixings and utilize the high inherent
accuracy of the frame to use simple post-fixed details, provided these do not require staging or
scaffolding to give access.
Finally, on-site painting extends the construction period and provides potential compatibility
problems with following applied fire protection systems. Painting should therefore only be
specified when absolutely necessary.

6.0 Anatomy of Multi-Storey structure

In simple terms, the vertical load-carrying structure of a multi-storey building comprises a system
of vertical column elements interconnected by horizontal beam elements which support floor-
element assemblies. The resistance to lateral loads is provided by diagonal bracing elements, or
wall elements, introduced into the vertical rectangular panels bounded by the columns and beams
to form vertical trusses, or walls. Alternatively, lateral resistance may be provided by developing
a continuous or semi-continuous frame action between the beams and columns. The flexibility of
connections should be taken into account in the analysis. All structures should have sufficient sway
stiffness, so that the vertical loads acting with lateral displacements of the structure do not induce
excessive secondary forces or moments in the members or connections. A building frame may be
classed as ‘non-sway’ if the sway deformation is sufficiently small for the resulting secondary
forces and moments to be negligible. In all other cases the building frame should be classed as
‘sway sensitive’. The stiffening effect of cladding and infill wall panels may be taken into account
by using the method of partial sway bracing. The floor-element assemblies provide the resistance
to lateral loads in the horizontal plane.
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In summary, the components of a building structure are columns, beams, floors and bracing
systems.
6.1 Columns
These are generally standard, universal column, hot-rolled sections. They provide a compact,
efficient section for normal building storey heights. Also, because of the section shape, they give
unobstructed access for beam connections to either the flange or web. For a given overall width
and depth of section, there is a range of weights which enable the overall dimensions of structural
components to be nominally maintained for a range of loading intensities.
Where the loading requirements exceed the capacity of standard sections, additional plates may be
welded to the section to form plated columns, or fabricated columns may be formed by welding
plates together to form a plate-column.
The use of circular or rectangular tubular elements marginally improves the load carrying
efficiency of components as a result of their higher stiffness-to-weight ratio.
Concrete filling significantly improves the axial load-carrying capacity and fire resistance.

Figure 2: Conventional Steel Frame Components

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Figure 3: Types of Steel Column Sections (a) Plated (by addition of plate to U.C section) (b)
Universal (c) Tubular (d) Fabricated Plate

6.2 Beams
Structural steel floor systems consist of prefabricated standard components, and columns should
be laid out on a repetitive grid which establishes a standard structural bay. For most multi-storey
buildings, functional requirements will determine the column grid which will dictate spans where
the limiting criterion will be stiffness rather than strength.
Steel components are uni-directional and consequently orthogonal structural column and beam
grids have been found to be the most efficient. The most efficient floor plan is rectangular, not
square, in which main, or ‘primary’, beams span the shorter distance between columns and closely-
spaced ‘secondary’ floor beams span the longer distance between main beams. The spacing of the
floor beams is controlled by the spanning capability of the concrete floor construction. Having
decided on the structural grid, the designer must choose an economic structural system to satisfy
all the design constraints. The choice of system and its depth depends on the span of the floor. The
minimum depth is fixed by practical considerations such as fitting practical connections. As the
span increases, the depth will be determined by the bending strength of the member and, for longer
spans, by the stiffness necessary to prevent excessive deflection under imposed load or excessive
sensitivity to induced vibrations. For spans up to 9m, shallow beams with precast floors or deep
composite metal deck floors can be used to minimize the floor zone. Simple universal beams with
precast floors or composite metal deck floors are likely to be most economic for spans up to 12m.
A range of section capacities for each depth enables a constant depth of construction to be
maintained for a range of spans and loading. As with column components, plated beams and
fabricated girders may be used for spans above 10–12m. They are particularly appropriate where
heavier loading is required and overall depth is limited.
For medium to lightly loaded floors and long spans, beams may also take the form of castellated
beams fabricated from standard sections, cellular sections or plates.

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Above 15m, composite steel trusses may be economic. As the span increases, the depth and weight
of the structural floor increase, and above 15m spans depth predominates because of the need to
achieve adequate stiffness.
6.3 Floors
These take the form of concrete slabs of various forms of construction spanning between steel
floor beams. The types generally found are:

• in situ concrete slab cast on to permanent profiled shallow or deep metal decking, acting
compositely with the steel floor beams;

• Precast concrete slabs acting non-compositely with the floor beams:

• Insitu concrete slab, with conventional removable shuttering, acting compositely with the floor
beams;

• in situ concrete slab cast on thin precast concrete slabs to form a composite slab, which in turn
acts compositely with the floor beams as shown in figure 4.
The most widely used construction internationally is profiled shallow metal decking.
Composite action with the steel beam is normally provided by shear connectors welded through
the metal decking on to the beam flange. Shallow floor systems using deep metal decking are
gaining popularity in the UK although precast concrete systems are still used extensively.
Composite action enables the floor slab to work with the beam, enhancing its strength and reducing
deflection.
Because composite action works by allowing the slab to act as the compression flange of the
combined steel and concrete system, the advantage is greatest when the beam is sagging.
Consequently composite floor systems are usually designed as simply supported.

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Figure 4:Floor construction: (a) precast (non-composite); (b) in situ (composite); (c) insitu/precast
(composite); (d) in situ/shallow metal decking (composite); (e) Slimfloor insitu/deep metal
decking (Composite);(f)Slimdek-insitu/deep metal decking (Composite)

6.4 Precast floor systems

Universal beams supporting precast Prestressed floor units have some advantages over other forms
of construction. Although of heavier construction than comparable composite metal deck floors,
this system offers the following advantages.

• Fewer floor beams since precast floor units can span up to 6–8m without difficulty.
• No propping is required.
• Shallow floor construction can be obtained by supporting precast floor units on shelf angles or
on wide plates attached to the bottom flanges of universal columns acting as beams (Slim floor).

• Fast construction because no time is needed for curing and the development of concrete strength.
On the other hand the disadvantages are:

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• Composite and diaphragm action is not readily achieved without a structural floor screed.
• Heavy floor units are difficult to erect in many locations and require the use of a tower crane,
which may have implications for the construction programme.

7.0 Bracings
Three structural systems are used to resist lateral loads: continuous or wind-moment frames,
reinforced concrete walls and braced-bay frames. Combinations of these systems may also be used.
7.1 Continuous Construction
Continuous frames are those with rigid moment-resisting connections between beam and columns.
It is not necessary that all connections in a building are detailed in this way: only sufficient frames
to satisfy the performance requirements of the building.
The advantage of a continuous frame is:

• Provides total internal adaptability with no bracings between columns or walls to obstruct
circulation.
However, the disadvantages are:

• Increased fabrication for complex framing connections

• Increased site connection work, particularly if connections are welded
• Columns are larger to resist bending moments
• Generally, less stiff than other bracing systems.
Wind-moment frames are limited in application.

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Figure 5: Bracing structures: (a) continuous frame; (b) reinforced concrete wall; (c) braced

7.2 Shear walls

Reinforced concrete walls constructed to enclose lift, stair and service cores generally possess
sufficient strength and stiffness to resist the lateral loading. Cores should be located to avoid
eccentricity between the line of action of the lateral load and the Centre of stiffness of the core
arrangement. However, the core locations are not always ideal because they may be irregularly

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shaped, located at one end of the building or are too small. In these circumstances, additional
braced bays or continuous frames should be provided at other locations.
Although shear walls have traditionally been constructed in in situ reinforced concrete they may
also be constructed of either precast concrete or brickwork.
The advantages of shear walls are:

• The beam-to-column connections throughout the frame are simple, easily fabricated and rapidly
erected.

• Shear walls tend to be thinner than other bracing systems and hence save space in congested
areas such as service and lift cores.

• They are very rigid and highly effective.

• They act as fire compartment walls.
The disadvantages are:

• The construction of walls, particularly in low- and medium-rise buildings, is slow and less
accurate than steelwork.

• The walls are difficult to modify if alterations to the building are required in the future.
• They are a separate form of construction, which is likely to delay the contract programme.
• It is difficult to provide connections between steel and concrete to transfer the large forces
generated.
Recent developments in steel–concrete–steel composite sandwich construction (Bi-steel®) largely
eliminate these disadvantages and allow pre-fabricated and fully assembled lift shafts to be erected
simultaneously with the main steel framing. Steel–concrete–steel construction can also be used for
blast-resistant walls and floors.
7.3 Braced-bay frames
Braced-bays are positioned in similar locations to reinforced concrete walls, so they have minimal
impact upon the planning of the building. They act as vertical trusses which resist the wind loads
by cantilever action. The bracing members can be arranged in a variety of forms designed to carry
solely tension or alternatively tension and compression. When designed to take tension only, the
bracing is made up of crossed diagonals. Depending on the wind direction, one diagonal will take
all the tension while the other remains inactive.
Tensile bracing is smaller than the equivalent strut and is usually made up of flat plate, channel or
angle sections. When designed to resist compression, the bracings become struts and the most
common arrangement is the ‘K’ brace.
The advantages of braced-bay frames are:

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• All beam-to-column connections are simple
• The braced bays are concentrated in location on plan
• The bracing configurations may be adjusted to suit planning requirements (eccentric bracing)
The system is adjustable if building modifications are required in the future

• Bracing can be arranged to accommodate doors and openings for services

• Bracing members can be concealed in partition walls
• They provide an efficient bracing system.
A disadvantage is:

• Diagonal members with fire proofing can take up considerable space.

8.0 Connections
The most important aspect of structural steelwork for buildings is the design of the connections
between individual frame components. The selection of a component should be governed not only
by its capability to support the applied load, but also by its ease of connection to other components.
Basically there are three types of connection, each defined by its structural behaviour: simple,
continuous and semi-continuous:
(1) Simple connections transmit negligible bending moment across the joint: the connection is
detailed to allow the beam end to rotate. The beam behaves as a simply supported beam.
(2) Continuous connections are designed to transmit shear force and bending moment across the
joint. The connection should have sufficient stiffness or moment capacity as appropriate to justify
analysis by either elastic or plastic analysis. Beam end moments are transmitted into the column
itself and any beam framing into the column on the opposite side.
(3) Semi-continuous connections are designed to transmit the shear force and a proportion of the
bending moment across the joint. The principle of these connections is to provide a partial restraint
to beam end-rotation without introducing complicated fabrication to the joint. However, the design
of such joints is complex, and so simple design procedures based upon experimental evidence have
been developed for wider application. The advantages of semi continuous design are lighter beams
without the corresponding increase in column size and joint complexity that would be the case
with fully continuous connections.

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Figure 6: Connections: (a) simple; (b) continuous; (c) semi-continuous

9.0 Other structural applications of steel

9.1 Towers and masts
Self-supporting and guyed towers have a wide variety of uses, from broadcasting of television and
radio, telecommunications for telephone and data transmission to overhead power lines, industrial
structures, such as chimneys and flares, and miscellaneous support towers for water supply,
observation or lighting. These structures range from minor lighting structures, where collapse

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might have almost no further consequences, to major telecommunications links passing thousands
of telephone calls or flare structures on which the safety of major chemical plant can depend. The
term ‘mast’ describes a tower which depends on cable guys for its stability.
9.2 Structural types
Steel towers can be constructed in a number of ways but the most efficient use of material is
achieved by using an open steel lattice. Typical arrangements for microwave radio and
transmission towers are shown in Figure 7. The use of an open lattice avoids presenting the full
width of structure to the wind but enables the construction of extremely lightweight and stiff
structures. Most power transmission, telecommunication and broadcasting structures fall into this
class.

Figure 7: Lattice towers: (a) microwave tower. (b), (c) and (d) transmission towers

Lattice towers are typically square or triangular and have low redundancy. The legs are braced by
the main bracings: both of these are often propped by additional secondary bracing to reduce the
effective buckling lengths. The most common forms of main bracing are shown in Figure 8. Lattice
towers for most purposes are made of bolted angles. Tubular legs and bracings can be economic,

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especially when the stresses are low enough to allow relatively simple connections. Towers with
tubular members may be less than half the weight of angle towers because of the reduced wind
load on circular sections. However, the extra cost of the tube and the more complicated connection
details can exceed the saving of steel weight and foundations. Connections are usually arranged to
allow site bolting and erection of relatively small components. Angles can be cut to length and
bolt holes punched by machines as part of the same operation. Where heavy-lift cranes are
available much larger segments of a tower can be erected but often even these are site bolted
together.

Figure 8: Main bracing arrangements

Guyed towers provide height at a much lower material cost than self-supporting due to the efficient
use of high-strength steel in the guys. They are normally guyed in three directions over an anchor
radius of typically 2–3 of the tower and have a triangular lattice section for the central mast.
Tubular masts are also used, especially where icing is very heavy and lattice sections would ice up
fully. A typical example of a guyed tower is shown in Figure 9. The range of structural forms is
wide and varied. Other examples are illustrated in Figure 10, which include modular tower
arrangement capable of extension for an increased number of antennas and Flare tower
arrangement which is adopted for supporting flare risers where maintenance of the flare tip is
carried out at ground level.
A significant influence on the economics of tower construction is the method of erection, which
should be carefully considered at the design stage.

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Figure 9: Guyed tower

11: Modular tower and Flare Tower

Figure 10:

9.3 Environmental loading

The primary environmental loads on tower structures are usually due to wind and ice, sometimes
in combination. Earthquakes can be important in some parts of the world for structures of high
mass, such as water towers. Loading from climatic temperature variations is not normally
significant but solar radiation may induce local stresses or cause significant deflections, and
temperatures can influence the choice of ancillary materials.
Most wind codes use a simple quasi-static method of assessing the wind loads, which has some
limitations for calculating the along-wind responses but is adequate for the majority of structures.
Tower structures with aerodynamically solid sections and some individual members can be subject

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to aero-elastic wind forces caused by vortex shedding, galloping, flutter and a variety of other
mechanisms which are either poorly covered or ignored by current codes of practice.
Such factors have been responsible for more tower collapses and serviceability failures worldwide
than any shortfall in resistance to along-wind loads.
Most national and international design codes now specify wind loads in terms of design wind
speeds, either mean hourly or gust, that will recur on average once in a 50 year period (i.e. with an
annual probability of 2%). Guidance is sometimes given on wind shape factors for typical sections
and lattices. Consideration of dynamic response to the wind is not always covered in depth and
there is still a mixture of limit state and working stress codes.
9.4 Analysis
In the analysis of towers the largest uncertainty is accurate knowledge of the wind loads. Highly
sophisticated methods of analysis cannot improve this. A static linear three-dimensional structural
analysis is sufficient for almost all lattice tower structures.
For transmission towers, line break conditions can also be critical. Line breakage will in general
induce dynamic loads in addition to any residual static loads. Detailed consideration of
transmission tower loading is outside the scope of this section. For lattice towers with large
complicated panel bracing, the secondary bracing forces can be significantly altered by non-linear
effects caused by curvature of the panels under the influence of the design loads. Generally the
rules in the codes are sufficient, but where structures are of particular importance or where there
is much repetition of a design, a non-linear analysis may be necessary.
Dynamic analyses of self-supporting lattice towers are rarely necessary unless there are special
circumstances such as high masses at the top, use as a viewing platform, or circular or almost solid
sections of mast which could be responsive to vortex shedding or galloping. Knowledge of the
dynamic response is also necessary for assessment of fatigue of joints if this is significant.
For guyed towers the non-linear behaviour of the guys is a primary influence and cannot be
ignored. The choice of initial tension, for example, can have a very great effect on the deflections
(and dynamic behaviour). The effects of the axial loads in the mast on column stiffness can be
significant. Methods of static analysis are given in the main international codes for the design of
guyed towers. Guyed towers can also be particularly sensitive to dynamic wind effects especially
those with cylindrical or solid sections.
9.4.1 Serviceability
Serviceability requirements vary greatly depending on the purpose of the structure and its location.
Steel towers and connections arc normally galvanized and are also painted with a durable paint
system if the environment is likely to be polluted or otherwise corrosive. It is important that regular
maintenance is carried out; climbing access is normally provided for inspections.
Deflections of towers are generally significant only if they would result in a loss of serviceability.
This can be critical for the design of telecommunication structures using dish antennas. In the past
signal losses due to deflection have often been assessed on the misunderstanding that the
deflections under the design wind storm would occur sufficiently often to affect the signals. Studies
have demonstrated that short periods of total loss of signal during storms smaller than the design

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wind storm have a negligible effect on the reliability of microwave links compared with losses due
to regular atmospheric conditions.
9.5 Space frames
Steel skeletal space frames are three-dimensional structures capable of very large column-free
spans. These structures, constructed from either individual elements or prefabricated modules,
process a high strength-to-weight ratio and stiffness. Steel space frames may be used efficiently to
form roofs, walls and floors for projects such as shopping arcades, but their real supremacy is in
providing roof cover for sports stadia, exhibition halls, aircraft hangars and similar major
structures.
9.6 Structural types
Space frames are classified as single-, double- or multi-layered structures, which may be flat,
resulting in grid structures, or may be curved in one or two directions,forming barrel vaults and
dome structures.
Grid structures can be further categorized into lattice and space grids in which the members may
run in two, three or four principal directions. In double-layer lattice grids the top and bottom grids
are identical, with the top layer positioned directly over the bottom layer. Double-layer space grids
are usually formed from pyramidal units with triangular or square bases resulting in either identical
parallel top and bottom grids offset horizontally to each other, or parallel top and bottom grids
each with a different configuration interconnected at the node points by inclined web members to
form a regular stable structure.
Single-layer grids are primarily subject to flexural moments, whereas the members in double- and
triple-layer grids are almost entirely subject to axial tensile or compressive forces. These
characteristics of single-, double- and triple-layer grids determine to a very large extent their
structural performance. Single-layer grids, developing high flexural stresses, are suitable for clear
spans up to 15m while double-layer grids have proved to be economical for clear spans in excess
of 100m.
Skeletal space frames curved in one direction forming single- or double-layer barrel vaults also
provide elegant structures capable of covering large clear spans.
Single-layer vaults are suitable for column-free spans of up to 40m, which may be substantially
increased by incorporating selected areas of double-layer structure forming stiffening rings.
Double-layer barrel vaults are normally capable of clear spans in excess of 120m.
Dome structures present a particularly efficient and graceful way of providing cover to large areas.
Single-layer steel domes have been constructed from tubular members with spans in excess of 50
m while double-layer dome structures have been constructed with clear spans slightly greater than
200m. Skeletal dome structures can be classified into several categories depending on the
orientation and position of the principal members. The four most popular types usually constructed
in steel are ribbed domes, Schwedler domes, three-way grid domes and parallel lamella domes.
Ribbed domes, as the name suggests, are formed from a number of identical rib members, which
follow the meridian line of the dome and span from the foundations up to the top of the structure.
The individual rib members may be of tubular lattice construction and are usually interconnected
at the crown of the dome using a small diameter ring beam.

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The Schwedler dome is also formed from a series of meridional ribs but, unlike the ribbed dome,
these members are interconnected along their length by a series of horizontal rings. In order to
resist unsymmetric loads the structure is braced by diagonal members positioned on the surface of
the dome bisecting each trapezium formed by the meridional ribs and horizontal rings.

Figure 12:Bracing of single-layer barrel vaults

Three-way grid domes are formed from three principal sets of members arranged to form a
triangular space lattice. This member topology is ideally suited to both single-layer and double-
layer domes, and numerous beautiful large-span steel three way domes have been constructed
throughout the world.
The steel lamella dome is formed from a number of ‘lozenge’-shaped lamella units which are
interconnected together to form a diamond or rhombus arrangement. The spectacular Houston
Astrodome is an excellent example of this type of construction.
This impressive steel double-layer dome was constructed from lamella units 1.52 m deep and has
an outside diameter of 217 m with an overall height of 63.4m.
References

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