Endocrinology
DR. VICTORIA G. GIANGO
Chair, Dept. of Physiology
Introduction to
Endocrinology
Coordination of Body Functions by
Chemical Messenger
1. Neurotransmitters- released by axon
terminals of neurons into synaptic
junctions and act locally to control nerve
cell functions
2. Endocrine hormones- released by glands or
specialized cells into circulating blood and
influence the function of cells at another
location in the body
3. Paracrines- secreted by cells into ECF and
affect neighboring cells
4. Autocrines – secreted by cells into the ECF
and affect function of same cells
5. Cytokines – peptides secreted by cells into
the ECF and can function as autocrines,
paracrines or endocrine hormones
General Classes of Hormones
1. Proteins and Peptides – including hormones secreted by
the anterior and posterior pituitary gland, pancreas
( insulin and glucagons), parathyroid hormone
(parathyroid hormone)
2. Steroids – secreted by the adrenal cortex (cortisol and
aldosterone) the ovaries (estrogen and progesterone)
the testes (testosterone) and placenta (estrogen and
progesterone)
3. Derivatives of amino acid tyrosine- secreted by the
thyroid ( thyroxine and triiodothyronine) and adrenal
medulla (epinephrine and norepinephrine)
Polypeptides and Protein Hormones are
Stored in Secretory Vesicles Until
Needed
Polypeptides with 100 or more amino acids
are called Proteins and those with fewer
than 100 amino acids are referred to as
peptides
Protein and peptide hormones are
synthesized on the rough end of the
endoplasmic reticulum of endocrine cells
Steroid Hormones are Usually Synthesized
from Cholesterol and Are Not Stored
Amine Hormones are Derived from Tyrosine
Hormone secretion, Transport and Clearance
Onset of Hormone Secretion After a Stimulus,
and Duration of Action of Different
Hormones
- norepinephrine and epinephrine are secreted
within seconds after the gland is stimulated
- thyroid and growth hormone require months for
full effect
Concentration of Hormones in
the Circulating Blood, and
Hormonal Secretion Rates
- The concentration of
hormones required to
control most metabolic
and endocrine functions
are incredibly small.
Feedback Control of Hormone
Secretion
• Negative Feedback prevents
Overactivity of Hormone System
• Surges of Hormones Can Occur with
Positive Feedback
– Surge of luteinizing hormone (LH)
• Cyclical Variations Occur in Hormone
Release
Transport of Hormones in the
Blood
• Water soluble hormones (peptides and
catecholamines) are dissolved in the
plasma and transported from their sites of
synthesis to target tissues
• Steroid and thyroid hormones circulate in
the blood mainly bound to plasma proteins
Mechanisms of Action of
Hormones
Hormone Receptors and Their Activation
- The first step of a hormone’s action is to bind to specific
receptors at the target cell
The locations of Hormone Receptors
1. In or on the surface of the cell membrane
Specific mostly for protein, peptide and
catecholamine hormones
2. In the cytoplasm
Primary receptors for different steroid hormones
3. In the cell nucleus
Receptors for thyroid hormones
The Number and Sensitivity of Hormone Receptors are Regulated
Down- regulation of the receptors can occur as a result of:
1. inactivation of some receptor molecules
2. inactivation of some intracellular protein
signaling molecules
3. temporary sequestration of the receptor to
the inside of he cell
4. destruction of the receptors by lysosomes
5. decreased production of the receptors
- some hormones cause up-regulation of
receptors and intracellular signaling
proteins
Intracellular Signaling After
Hormone Receptor Activation
• Ion Channel-Linked Receptors
• G Protein-Linked Hormone Receptors
Enzyme-Linked Receptors
Intracellular Hormone Receptors and Activation of Genes
Second Messenger Mechanisms for
Mediating Intracellular Hormonal
Functions
Adenyl Cyclase-cAMP Second
Messenger System
Cell Membrane Phospholipid
Second Messenger System
Hormones That Act Mainly on the
Genetic Machinery of the Cell
Steroid Hormones Increase Protein Synthesis
(Sequence of Events)
1. Steroid hormone diffuses across the cell membrane
and enters the cytoplasm where it binds with s
specific receptor protein
2. The combined receptor protein-hormone diffuses
into or transported to nucleus
3. The combination binds at specific points on the DNA
strands in the chromosome, which activates
transcription process of specific genes to form
Mrna
4. mRNA diffuses into the cytoplasm, where it
promotes the translation process at the ribosomes
fo form new proteins
Thyroid Hormones Increase Gene
transcription in the Cell Nucleus
Important Features of Thyroid Hormone
function in the Nucleus
1. They activate the genetic mechanisms for
the formation of many types of intracellular
proteins – probably 100 or more
2. Once bound to the intranuclear receptors,
the thyroid hormones can continue to
express their control functions for days or
even weeks
