ENDOCRINE SYSTEM

Prepared BY :– NEHA PETHANI

M. Pharm (Pharmacology)
Akshar-Preet institute of pharmacy, Jamnagar
Mail ID – [Link]@[Link]
Contents
GTU syllabus
• Classification of hormones,
• Mechanism of hormone action,
• Structure and functions of :
• pituitary gland,
• thyroid gland,
• parathyroid gland,
• adrenal gland,
• pancreas,
• pineal gland,
• thymus and their disorders.
Introduction
• The endocrine system controls body activities by releasing mediators, called hormones.
• A hormone is a mediator molecule that is released in one part of the body but regulates the
activity of cells in other parts of the body.
• Most hormones enter interstitial fluid and then the bloodstream.
• Thecirculating blood delivers hormones to cells throughout the body. Both
neurotransmitters and hormones exert their effects by binding to receptors on or in their
“target” cells.
• Several
mediators act as both neurotransmitters and hormones. One familiar example is
norepinephrine, which is released as a neurotransmitter by sympathetic postganglionic
neurons and as a hormone by chromaffin cells of the adrenal medullae.
• some hormones act within seconds, most take several minutes or more to cause a response.
Glands
• The body contains two kinds of glands: exocrine glands and endocrine
glands.
1. Exocrine glands secrete their products into ducts that carry the secretions
into body cavities, into the lumen of an organ, or to the outer surface of the
body. Exocrine glands include sudoriferous (sweat), sebaceous (oil),
mucous, and digestive glands.
2. Endocrine glands (endo-within) secrete their hormones into the interstitial
fluid surrounding the secretory cells rather than into ducts.
• From the interstitial fluid, hormones diffuse into blood capillaries and blood
carries them to target cells throughout the body. Because most hormones are
required in very small amounts, circulating levels typically are low.
• The endocrine glands include the pituitary, thyroid, parathyroid, adrenal,
and pineal glands. In addition, several organs and tissues are not
exclusively classified as endocrine glands but contain cells that secrete
hormones. These include the hypothalamus, thymus, pancreas, ovaries,
testes, kidneys, stomach, liver, small intestine, skin, heart, adipose tissue, and
placenta.
Functions of Hormones
1. Helps to regulate:
• Chemical composition and volume of internal environment (interstitial fluid).
• Metabolism and energy balance.
• Contraction of smooth and cardiac muscle fibers.
• Glandular secretions.
• Some immune system activities.
2. Control growth and development.
3. Regulate operation of reproductive systems.
4. Help establish circadian rhythms.
Hormone Activity
• Although a given hormone travels throughout the body in the
blood, it affects only specific target cells.
• Hormones, like neurotransmitters, influence their target cells by
chemically binding to specific protein receptors.
• Only the target cells for a given hormone have receptors that bind
and recognize that hormone. For ex. thyroid-stimulating hormone
(TSH) binds to receptors on cells of the thyroid gland, but it does
not bind to cells of the ovaries because ovarian cells do not have
TSH receptors.
▪ Receptors are continually being synthesized and broken down.
▪ Receptors may be down-regulated in the presence of high
concentrations of hormone.
▪ Receptors may be up-regulated in the presence of low
concentrations of hormone.
Hormone Activity
• Most endocrine hormones are circulating
hormones—they pass from the secretory cells
that make them into interstitial fluid and then
into the blood.
• Other hormones, termed local hormones, act
locally on neighboring cells or on the same cell
that secreted them without first entering the
bloodstream.
• Local hormones that act on neighboring cells
are called paracrines (para- beside or near),
and those that act on the same cell that secreted
them are called autocrines.
Chemical classes of hormones
• Chemically, hormones can be divided into two broad classes: those that are soluble in lipids,
and those that are soluble in water.
• This chemical classification is also useful functionally because the two classes exert their
effects differently.
• Hormones are either :
1) lipid-soluble (steroid hormones, thyroid hormones, nitric oxide) or
2) water-soluble (amine hormones, peptide and protein hormones, eicosanoid
hormones).
▪ Water-soluble hormones circulate freely in the plasma.
▪ Lipid-soluble hormones circulate bound to transport proteins.
Chemical classes of hormones
Chemical classes of hormones
Mechanisms of Hormone Action
• Action of lipid soluble hormones
1. A free lipid-soluble hormone molecule diffuses
from the blood, through interstitial fluid, and through
the lipid bilayer of the plasma membrane into a cell.
2. If the cell is a target cell, the hormone binds to and
activates receptors located within the cytosol or
nucleus. The activated receptor–hormone complex then
alters gene expression: It turns specific genes of the
nuclear DNA on or off.
3. As the DNA is transcribed, new messenger RNA
(mRNA) forms, leaves the nucleus, and enters the
cytosol. There, it directs synthesis of a new protein,
often an enzyme, on the ribosomes.
4. The new proteins alter the cell’s activity and cause
the responses typical of that hormone.
Mechanisms of
Hormone
Action
 Water-soluble
hormones bind to
receptors on the
exterior surface of the
target cell.
Mechanisms of Hormone Action
How a target cell responds to a hormone is based on:
▪ The hormone’s concentration in the blood.
▪ The number of hormone receptors on the target cell.
▪ Influences exerted by other hormones.
▪ Some hormones work more effectively when a second hormone is present to assist
them (synergistic effect).
▪ Some hormones oppose the action of others (antagonistic effect).
Control of Hormone Secretion
Hormones are secreted in short bursts when needed.
Secretion is regulated by:
▪ Signals from the nervous system.
▪ Chemical changes in the blood.
▪ Other hormones.
• For example, nerve impulses to the adrenal medullae regulate the release of epinephrine;
blood Ca2 level regulates the secretion of parathyroid hormone; and a hormone from the
anterior pituitary (adrenocorticotropic hormone) stimulates the release of cortisol by the
adrenal cortex.
Hypothalamus and Pituitary Gland
The hypothalamus and pituitary gland work together
to control other endocrine glands. They are
connected by the infundibulum.
▪ The anterior lobe (adenohypophysis) makes
up 75% of the weight of the pituitary gland and
secretes 7 hormones.
▪ The posterior lobe (neurohypophysis) is
made of neural tissue and releases two
hormones made by the hypothalamus.
▪ The hypothalamus secretes releasing and
inhibiting hormones that control the release of
hormones by the pituitary gland. They reach the
pituitary gland via the hypophyseal portal system.
Hypothalamus
and Pituitary
Gland
Hypothalamus and Pituitary Gland
The anterior
pituitary
gland
secretes 7
hormones
produced by
5 different
types of cells.
Hypothalamus and
Pituitary Gland
 Negative feedback
loops control the
secretions of
thyrotrophs,
gonadotrophs and
corticotrophs.
Hypothalamus and
Pituitary Gland
▪ Human growth hormone (hGH) is
the most plentiful anterior pituitary
hormone.
▪ It is released in bursts every few
hours by somatotrophs.
▪ Their activity is controlled by two
hypothalamic hormones: growth
hormone-releasing hormone
(GHRH) and growth hormone-
inhibiting hormone (GHIH).
Hypothalamus and Pituitary Gland
 In summary, the
anterior pituitary
gland secretes human
growth hormone
(hGH), thyroid-
stimulating hormone
(TSH), follicle-
stimulating hormone
(FSH), luteinizing
hormone (LH),
prolactin (PRL),
adrenocorticotropic
hormone (ACTH)
and melanocyte-
stimulating hormone
(MSH).
Hypothalamus and Pituitary Gland
▪ The posterior pituitary gland does
not synthesize any hormones, but
stores and releases from axon
terminals two hormones produced by
the neurosecretory cells of the
hypothalamus: oxytocin (OT) and
anti- diuretic hormone (ADH).
▪ Axons from the neurosecretory cells
form the hypothalamohypophyseal
tract.
Hypothalamus and
Pituitary Gland
▪ The amount of antidiuretic hormone
(ADH) secreted varies with blood
osmotic pressure. Its function is to
decrease urine output. Osmoreceptors
(neurons) in the hypothalamus monitor
blood osmotic pressure.
▪ An increase in blood volume
causes a decrease in ADH
secretion.
▪ A decrease in blood volume
causes an increase in ADH
secretion.
Thyroid Gland
 The thyroid gland is a butterfly-shaped gland
located inferior to the larynx and anterior to
the trachea. It has right and left lateral lobes
connected by an isthmus.
 Some glands also have a pyramidal lobe
projecting from the isthmus.
 Microscopic spherical sacs called thyroid
follicles make up most of the thyroid gland.
The wall of each follicle consists primarily of
cells called follicular cells, most of which
extend to the lumen (internal space) of the
follicle. A basement membrane surrounds each
follicle.
Thyroid Gland
▪ Follicular cells are stimulated by TSH
to produce thyroxine
(tetraiodothyronine, T4) and
triiodothyronine (T3) known as
thyroid hormones.
▪ Parafollicular cells produce the
hormone calcitonin to help regulate
calcium homeostasis.
Thyroid Gland
 T3 and T4 are synthesized and
secreted in an 8 step process.
Actions of thyroid hormones
Thyroid hormones:
▪ Increase basal metabolic rate (BMR)
▪ Help maintain normal body temperature
▪ Stimulate protein synthesis
▪ Increase the use of glucose and fatty acids for ATP production
▪ Upregulate beta (β) receptors that attach to catecholamines
▪ Work with hGH and insulin to accelerate body growth
Thyroid Gland
 Thyrotropin-releasing
hormone (TRH) from the
hypothalamus and thyroid-
stimulating hormone (TSH)
from the anterior pituitary
stimulate synthesis and
release of thyroid hormones
in a 5 step process.
Thyroid
Gland
Parathyroid Glands
 Located on the posterior aspect of each
lobe of the thyroid gland are 2
parathyroid glands (one inferior and
one superior).

 Parathyroid glands contain 2 types of

cells:

1. Chief cells (principal cells) that

produce parathyroid hormone (PTH,
parathormone).
2. Oxyphil cells whose function is not
known in normal parathyroid glands but
which secrete excess PTH in cases of
parathyroid cancer.
Parathyroid
Glands
•Calcitonin produced by
the thyroid gland works
in conjunction with PTH
and calcitriol to regulate
calcium homeostasis.
Parathyroid Glands
Adrenal Glands
 The adrenal glands (suprarenal
glands) are located on top of each
kidney.

 The glands are divided into two

regions: the outer cortex and the
medial medulla. The glands are
covered by a connective tissue
capsule.
Adrenal Glands
The cortex is divided histologically into 3
regions:
1. The zona glomerulosa: The
zona glomerulosa secretes
hormones called
mineralocorticoids used to
regulate mineral homeostasis.
2. The zona fasciculata: The zona
fasciculata secretes hormones
called glucocorticoids that
affect glucose homeostasis.
3. The zona reticularis: The zona
reticularis secretes weak
androgens (hormones with
Adrenal Glands
▪ Aldosterone is the major
mineralocorticoid secreted by
the adrenal gland. It helps
regulate sodium and potassium
homeostasis.
▪ The renin-angiotensin-
aldosterone (RAA)
pathway controls
secretion of aldosterone.
Adrenal Glands
•Secretion of glucocorticoids (cortisol
[hydrocortisone]-the most produced, cortisone
and corticosterone) is regulated by negative
feedback.
•They help control:
▪ Protein breakdown
▪ Glucose formation
▪ Lipolysis
▪ Resistance to stress
▪ Inflammation
▪ Immune responses
Adrenal Glands
▪ The major androgen secreted by the adrenal cortex is dehydroepiandrosterone
(DHEA). In males, after puberty the hormone testosterone is secreted in much larger
quantities so DHEA has virtually no effect.
▪ In females, DHEA and other adrenal androgens play a major role in promoting
libido and are converted to estrogens. In menopausal women, all female estrogens
come from adrenal androgens.
▪ The adrenal medulla is stimulated by sympathetic preganglionic neurons of the
autonomic nervous system (ANS).
▪ Chromaffin cells secrete epinephrine (adrenaline) and norepinephrine
(noradrenaline) both of which are involved in the fight-or-flight response.
Adrenal
Glands
Pancreatic Islets
•The pancreas is both an endocrine and
exocrine gland. It is located in the curve
of the duodenum.
•Almost all of the exocrine cells of the
pancreas are arranged in clusters called
acini. These produce digestive enzymes
that are delivered to the gastrointestinal
tract through ducts.
•Scattered among the acini are clusters
of endocrine tissue called pancreatic
islets (islets of Langerhans).
Pancreatic Islets
 The islets include 4 types of cells that
secrete different hormones:
▪ Alpha (A) cells - glucagon
▪ Beta (B) cells - insulin
▪ Delta (D) cells - somatostatin
▪ F cells - pancreatic polypeptide
Pancreatic Islets
Pancreatic Islets
Pancreatic Islets
 Secretion of insulin
and glucagon are
controlled by
negative feedback.
Ovaries and Testes
▪ Gonads (ovaries and testes)
produce gametes (oocytes
and sperm respectively).
▪ Ovaries produce two estrogens
(estradiol and estrone),
progesterone, relaxin and
inhibin.
▪ Testes produce testosterone.
Pineal Gland and Thymus
▪ The pineal gland is attached to the
roof of the third ventricle of the brain
and secretes melatonin which helps to
regulate the body’s biological clock.
▪ The thymus is located behind the
sternum between the lungs. It
produces thymosin, thymic humoral
factor (THF), thymic factor (TF)
and thymopoietin, all of
which promote maturation of the
immune system’s T cells.
Other Endocrine
Tissues and Organs,
Eicosanoids, and
Growth Factors
• Several tissues and organs
which are not part of the
endocrine system are able to
produce hormones.
Other Endocrine Tissues
and Organs, Eicosanoids,
and Growth Factors
▪ Eicosanoids are locally-acting
hormones derived from the 20-
carbon fatty acid arachadonic
acid.
▪ Certain hormones stimulate cell
growth and division. Several
newly discovered hormones called
growth factors are involved in
tissue development, growth and
repair.
The Stress Response
▪ Eustress is helpful, everyday
stress that prepares us to
meet challenges.
▪ Distress is any type of harmful stress
that may be damaging.
▪ The fight-or-flight response (first
stage of the stress response)
stimulates the body’s resources to
prepare for immediate activity.
▪ The resistance reaction is the
second stage in the stress response
and lasts longer than the fight-or-
flight response.
Aging and the Endocrine System
▪ Aging brings about changes in the levels of most hormones. Some increase while some
decrease. In addition, levels of some hormones, like epinephrine and norepinephrine,
remain the same.
▪ Histologically, most endocrine glands reduce in size and contain increasingly more
fibrous connective tissue with age.
Endocrine Disorders
▪ There are many endocrine disorders. Some are
more common than others.
1. Pituitary gigantism and acromegaly are caused
by excess secretion of growth hormone.
2. Goiter is caused by a reduction in the production
of thyroid hormone.
3. Graves disease (with associated exophthalmos)
develops due to excess thyroid hormone.
4. Cushing’s syndrome is caused by excess
secretion of glucocorticoids.
Endocrine Disorders
Reference
• Principles of anatomy and physiology by Tortora and Derrickson, 12th edition, pg. no. 642
to 688.
Assignment
• Define hormones and explain how it maintains body equilibrium.
• Explain hormone secreted from gonads.
• Explain the regulation and functions of hormone secreted by adrenal glands.
• Name the hormones secreted by pituitary glands. Detail the disorders related to pituitary
glands.