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Empowering Women for a Holistic Wellbeing

Nadia Mursalen
Supervisor: Dr. David Scott
Abstract
Women’s empowerment has drawn the attention of scholars over the years. Women in several
societies in the world face several challenges which include social, religious, cultural, political
and economic among others. This study focus on investigating the concept of women
empowerment and wellbeing. With the focus on addressing how social and political challenges
contribute to the disempowerment of women in Nigeria and in Afghanistan societies. Using these
two countries as case studies in this study will provide a contextual understanding of the
challenges endured by women in these societies which mirrors the suffering of women in the
global society. These challenges of women impact their wellbeing and bears social, political,
economic, and ethical implications. The central research question the research sets out to answer
is: How can empowering women contribute to their wellbeing? In order to answer this question
and other subresearch questions, the study employs a qualitative research methodology that is
based exclusively on the use of secondary data, the data were collected from the internet, Google
scholar, online and were carefully reviewed, providing the reasons why women are
disempowered in the context of the discussion, how it occurs and the solutions provided in the
empirical studies reviewed.
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Content
Abstract…………………………………………………………………………....2
Chapter One: General Introduction…………………………………………….5

1.1 Background of the Study……………………………………………………………………5

1.2 Statement of the Problem………………………………………………………………….10
1.3 Research Questions………………………………………………………………………....11
1.4 Aims and Objectives of the Study…………………………………………………............11
1.5 Methodology………………………………………………………………………..............12
1.6 Significance of the Study…………………………………………………………………..13
1.7 Scope and Limitations of Study…………………………………………………………...13
1.8 Organization of the Study……………………………………………………………….…14

Chapter Two: Literature Review……………………………………………….16

2.1 Chapter Introduction……………………………………………………………………..16

2.2 Conceptual Review…………………………………………………………………….....17

2.2.1 Women Empowerment…………………………………………………………………17

2.2.2 Holistic Wellbeing………………………………………………………………………18

2.3 Theoretical Review……………………………………………………………………….19

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2.4 How Social and Political Challenges Contribute to the Disempowerment of Women in
Nigeria and Afghanistan………………………………………………………………………21

2.5 Research Gap………………………………………………………………………………27

Chapter Three : Case Studies: Overview………………………………………29

3.1 Research Design……………………………………………………………………………29

3.3 The Disempowerment of Women in Nigeria: A Case Study……………………………..30

3.4 The Study of Women in Afghanistan…………………………………………………..…35

Chapter Four: Data Presentation and Analysis………………………………41

4.1 Chapter Introduction……………………………………………………………………..41

4.2 Data Presentation………………………………………………………………………….41

4.3 Data Analysis………………………………………………………………………………46

4.4 Analysis of Interventions………………………………………………………………….48

4.5 Discussion…………………………………………………………………………………51

Chapter Five: Evaluation, Conclusion and Recommendations………………53

5.1 Evaluation………………………………………………………………………………….53

5.2 Conclusion………………………………………………………………………………….56

5.4 Recommendations…………………………………………………………………………57

References……………………………………………………………………………………..59
Chapter One General
Introduction
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1.1 Background to the study

Women make up half of the global population and about one-third of the workforce, yet they

receive only a tenth of global income and own less than one percent of the world’s property,

despite contributing two-thirds of all working hours. Reports of violations of women’s human

rights continue to surface daily. In many developing countries such as India, Nigeria, and

Afghanistan, women remain marginalized due to deep-rooted socio-economic challenges. Social

problems like dowry-related deaths, polygamy, child marriage, female infanticide, forced

prostitution, and other crimes against women persist, posing serious threats to their safety and

development. These issues also hinder women’s effective involvement in democratic processes

and institutional decisionmaking structures (Mishra, 2014).

The obstacles faced by women in these societies are largely social, economic, and political, but

also include religious and cultural constraints common in patriarchal systems, particularly in

Africa (Adjei, 2015). These barriers not only limit women’s empowerment but also negatively

affect their physical and mental wellbeing. According to Ghafoor and Haider (2018), women’s

participation in political activities remains low worldwide, with the UNDP reporting only 15%

representation globally, and most countries recording less than 33% of women in higher

parliamentary positions. Another critical issue confronting women in developing nations such as

Nigeria and Afghanistan is access to education. Education, recognized as a basic human right, is

essential for both personal and societal advancement. It equips women with knowledge, skills,

and confidence to engage in society, claim their rights, and improve their living conditions.

Nevertheless, despite some progress, millions of girls and women in developing countries

continue to face significant barriers to education (Reshi, Sudha, & Dar, 2022). Addressing these

challenges to enhance women’s wellbeing is one of the central aims of this study.
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According to Anandalakshmy and Keerthana (2023), women’s empowerment is a vital

component in advancing gender equality and fostering social progress globally. It entails

equipping women with the tools, opportunities, and resources they need to participate fully in

economic, social, political, and cultural life. A central aim of women’s empowerment is to

challenge and dismantle traditional gender roles and stereotypes that have historically restricted

women’s potential. By confronting societal norms and discriminatory practices, women can

attain equal status with men and enjoy the same access to education, healthcare, and

employment.

Ajawani and Ajawani (2025) describe women’s empowerment for holistic well-being as

encompassing five essential dimensions. The first is cultivating a strong sense of self-worth and

confidence. The second is ensuring that women have the autonomy to make decisions that

directly impact their lives. The third involves granting access to vital opportunities and resources

such as education, healthcare, and economic means. The fourth focuses on enabling women to

maintain control over their lives, both in personal and domestic settings as well as in the public

sphere. Finally, the fifth dimension is empowering women to drive social change, thereby

contributing to the creation of a more equitable and just society at national and global levels,

paving the way for a brighter future for all.

The endeavor for women empowerment could be seen essentially as increasing women's

ownership and control over economic and non-economic resources (Purnamawati & Utama,

2019). Empowering women within the context of societies like Nigeria and Afghanistan is to

recognize the important roles women play in environmental management and development.
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Therefore, their full participation is essential for sustainable development. One of the instruments

for realizing women empowerment in these societies is by enhancing gender equality. This is due

essentially to two reasons. First, equality between men and women—equal rights, opportunities,

and responsibilities—is a matter of human rights and social justice. Second, greater equality

between men and women is also a precondition for (and effectively an indicator of) sustainable

peoplecentered development. Both the perceptions and the interests of women and men, their

needs, and their priorities cannot only be treated as a matter of social justice, but rather need to

be included to enrich the development processes (Meenakshi & Loai, 2017).

The case studies of women in Nigeria and Afghanistan highlight the social and political

challenges they face, which mirror, to some degree, the struggles experienced by women

worldwide. Given the magnitude of the hardships in these contexts, the case studies concentrate

on issues of gender inequality, particularly limited access to education and restricted political

participation. These two countries were selected because of the similarities in women’s

experiences, as both are conflictaffected and deeply patriarchal societies where women have few

opportunities for recognition and advancement. Including these case studies in the research

provides valuable contextual and experiential insights that enrich the overall discussion.

According to Obayelu and Chime (2020), a greater proportion of rural women in Nigeria are

disempowered compared to men, with the “agency” dimension contributing most to their

disempowerment. Women in Nigeria’s northern zones are less empowered than those in the

south. This is due to the fact that these women are in conflict-affected region where their rights

are easily trampled upon since the terrorists in these areas have no value for women and also

because of Islamic laws in this region which puts limitations on women and girls, in terms of
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access to education, political participation and economic opportunities. According to Adesina,

Adesanya, and Olufadewa, (2020), women and girls in the northeast are frequently subjected to

sexual assault by Boko Haram militants. Such violence often leads to social isolation, depression,

suicidal thoughts, and, in some cases, suicide. The intense nature of armed conflict and terrorism

further heightens the risk of mental illness among affected women.

Similarly, Ayevbuomwan, Popoola, and Adeoti (2016) found that when the empowerment cutoff

(k) was set at 2, about 43% of rural women were classified as disempowered. Education and

access to resources had the highest relative contributions to the multidimensional

disempowerment index, at 33.59% and 31.61% respectively. Factors such as a woman’s age, the

age of the household head, and employment in both skilled and unskilled sectors significantly

increased the likelihood of empowerment, while being in a household headed by a man, working

in agriculture or allied sectors, living in a larger household, and residing in northern rural areas

decreased it. Limited access to productive resources, low educational attainment, and high

illiteracy rates all contribute to rural women’s poverty. Illiteracy, in particular, restricts their

ability to benefit from modern, non-traditional methods, such as information and communication

technologies (Fabiyi & Akande, 2015).

The situation of women oppression in Afghanistan shows that women in this region face similar

experience with those in Nigeria, with issues such as gender-based violence, sexual assault,

systemic inequalities in relation to education and political participation among others featuring in

this society which significantly affects the wellbeing of women in this region. Rasekh et al.

(1998) report that the combined impact of war-related trauma and human rights violations

perpetrated by Taliban authorities has had a severe effect on the health of Afghan women. Their
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findings indicate that Afghan women’s strong support for human rights underscores how Taliban

policies are fundamentally incompatible with women’s needs, interests, and overall well-being.

Afghan women’s status has often been tied to ethnic dominance, with tribal power structures enforcing

marriage as an alliance between families, denying women the right to divorce, education, or autonomy.

Seen as bearers of family honor, women are confined to the domestic sphere, required to observe strict

veiling, and deprived of a public voice (Ahmed-Ghosh, 2003). Current data on women’s mental health in

Afghanistan is scarce, but recent findings show that 47% experience high psychological distress. Armed

conflict has severely reduced access to healthcare, including psychiatric care. Women endure trauma,

interpersonal violence, and deeply ingrained patriarchal norms. Women face unpredictable legal

restrictions, lack of access to legal counsel, and discrimination within the traditional justice system. Under

Taliban decrees, girls are barred from schooling beyond the sixth grade, required to wear the burqa,

prohibited from long-distance travel without a male guardian, and denied access to many public facilities

(Shoib, Saeed, Dazhamyar, et al., 2022).

Against this backdrop, this study sets out to investigate the central research question which is: How does

empowering women contribute to their wellbeing ? And to answer this question and other sub

questions, the research will critically review existing literature that has addressed this issue to draw

insight. The purpose of this research is to expose the social and political challenges of women in Nigeria

and Afghanistan societies respectively, to review the interventions that have been provided through

empirical studies and to determine the extent it has worked in ensuring a just and equitable society where

women can be well recognized, treated with respect and their voices heard.
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1.2 Statement of Problem

The notion of women's empowerment has increasingly captured global attention over the past

decades. Numerous policymakers and international agencies have initiated policies geared

toward improving women's status, but most of these approaches accentuate economic

independence as the most important path to empowerment. These approaches, while partially

correct, overlook the other dimensions, such as education, literacy, health, and political

participation (Rani: 2016). In actual practice, discrimination against women is considered to be

mediated by a combination of social, cultural, religious, political, and economic factors.

In Nigeria and Afghanistan, where deeply entrenched patriarchal systems predominate, the

situation is even grimmer. Women suffer multiple barriers to education and political

participation, both being avenues to address inequalities and promote empowerment. The

restrictions do not just impede opportunities for individuals but also cripple women's collective

efforts of channelizing the society. To worsen the situation, existing interventions remain limited

and often do not even address the underlying structural challenges. This leaves a noticeable

knowledge and practice gap that strongly defines the need for deeper inquiry and more complex

approaches.

1.3 Research Questions

The key question this research sets out to address is: How does empowering women contribute to

their wellbeing?

The sub-research questions include:

1. What is the concept of women empowerment and holistic wellbeing?

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2. What are the causes of women disempowerment and how does it affect their wellbeing?

3. How does social and political challenges like lack of access to education and lack of

political participation contribute to women disempowerment in Nigeria and Afghanistan?

4. What are the interventions, strategies that have been adopted in addressing these

challenges of women?

1.4 Aim and Objectives of Study

The aim of this study is to investigate how social and political challenges such as limited access

to education and political participation among other challenges affects the empowerment of

women for a holistic wellbeing in the Nigerian and Afghanistan societies respectively.

Objectives Include:

1. To provide a conceptual understanding of the key concepts women empowerment and

wellbeing

2. To expose the causes of women disempowerment in the context of the Nigerian and

Afghanistan societies.

3. To expose how social and political challenges like lack of access to education and lack of

political participation contribute to women disempowerment in Nigeria and Afghanistan.

4. To explore the previous interventions, strategies that have been adopted through

empirical studies that have addressed these challenges.

1.5 Methodology

The research will adopt a qualitative research methodology that will be based exclusively on

secondary data. The evidences provided will be supported with two case studies of women
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suffering in Nigeria and Afghanistan and how women in these places can be empowered using

the strategies this paper provides.

The data will be collected from google scholar, university library, and other internet sources, the

keywords that were used to search for the data related to this study are: women empowerment,

wellbeing, social and political challenges in the context of Nigeria and Afghanistan. I was able to

identify the relevance of each literature to the study by critically reading, reviewing and

analyzing how each literature relates to the study and how effectively it was able to address the

research questions. It was difficult finding relevant literature, especially finding statistical data

that demonstrates and quantifies the intensity of the problems encountered in these societies,

particularly the Afghan society, the data gathered were limited, which made sourcing of data very

difficult and time consuming.

The empirical studies relevant to the discussion of this study will be carefully reviewed and

critically analyzed to provide a clear, accurate, and coherent response to the research questions.

This method of data collection is fitting for this study, this is because a qualitative methodology

allows a critical analysis of literature on the subject matter and helps in the understanding of

concepts, perspectives of the research questions as noted by Pathak, Jena, and Kalra, (2013).

Mack et al. (2005) suggested that qualitative methods have come to be important tools within

this much bigger picture of applied research by providing insight into the local perspectives of

study populations. By employing this method, the research will be directed towards a specific

direction and will only engage with empirical studies related to the topic under discussion.
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1.6 Significance of Study

1. This paper will bridge the gaps in existing literature by providing a holistic approach on

how women can be empowered to promote wellbeing

2. The paper will serve as a guide to governmental bodies, decision makers on the several

ways that women can be empowered in order to promote their physical and mental

wellbeing

3. The paper will guide future researchers who aim to discuss issues surrounding women

empowerment and wellbeing

4. The paper will contribute to the global discussion on women empowerment and

wellbeing thereby shedding new light to the topic under discussion.

1.7 Scope and Limitations of the Study

Scholarly discussions on women’s empowerment have appeared extensively in journals, books,

and other academic literature, often addressing particular aspects of empowerment and

disempowerment across different societies. This study, however, focuses specifically on the

theme of empowering women for holistic wellbeing. It will identify and analyze the key issues

that hinder women’s empowerment, using two case studies: women’s disempowerment in

Northern Nigeria and in Afghanistan. The research is deliberately limited to these contexts, even

though women in many parts of the world face similar challenges affecting their wellbeing.

Nigeria and Afghanistan were selected because they present a relatable experiences of women’s

suffering, making the two case studies suitable for this discussion. Defining the scope of the

study is crucial, as unclear or poorly defined research boundaries often lead to weak outcomes.

As Mirza, Pourzolfaghar, and Shahnazari (2013) observe, a well-articulated and properly

managed scope is essential to ensuring research quality and effectiveness.

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1.8 Organization of the Study

This research paperwork is divided into five chapters with each chapter providing a logical details of the

research.

Chapter 1 introduces the study, outlining the background, problem statement, conceptual framework,

purpose, research questions, research aims and objectives, methodology, significance, scope and

limitations of the study giving a background/contextual understanding of the study. Chapter 2 reviews

both conceptual and theoretical aspects of women empowerment for wellbeing, fourteen empirical studies

will be reviewed, the literature that will be reviewed are literature from the field of humanities that

addresses issues relating to the society and human development, the literature review will focus on

answering the research questions exposing the causes of women disempowerment in both Nigeria and

Afghanistan, and how socio-political challenges like limited access to education and political participation

contribute to the disempowerment of women in these societies, how it occurs and the interventions

provided in these studies and its impact on their wellbeing, it will also reveal the relevant gaps in each

literature reviewed. Chapter 3 details the qualitative research design, and will present an overview of the

two case studies that will be used to contextualize the discussion of the study. Chapter 4 presents the

analysis of research findings, which will include the analysis of the data presented organized around the

research questions and the case studies reviewed, showing that social and political factors are the key

problems that contributes to the disempowerment of women in both Nigeria and Afghanistan though with

variations in terms of the statistical data presented, how it occurs and the different interventions that have

been applied to address the problems. It will also reveal other factors like religious, cultural and economic

factors showing how they contribute to this problem. The data presented will also show the implications,

that results from the disempowerment of women in these two societies. Chapter 5 discusses the

implications of the findings, offers recommendations which include: Firstly, the Nigerian and Afghanistan

governments, together with international firms and NGOs should promote initiatives that ensure girls’

access to education, this includes safe schools, scholarships, and community based learning programs, the
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Nigerian and Afghanistan government should implement policies which will increase women’s

representation in political and decision-making processes. Also, they should promote leadership training

programs to build women’s confidence and skills, lastly, the media should create more visibility of the

suffering of women in these two societies and other societies where women suffer from every form of

gender-based violence in order to seek for international help.

Chapter Two:

Literature Review

2.1 Chapter Introduction

This chapter will review 14 existing literature revealing the thoughts of scholars on the empowerment of

women for a holistic wellbeing. With a focus on answering the key research question this study sets out to

answer which is: how can women be empowered for a holistic wellbeing? To answer this question and
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other sub-questions which include: What are the causes of women disempowerment and how does it

affect their wellbeing? How does social and political challenges like lack of access to education and lack

of political participation contribute to women disempowerment in Nigeria and in Afghanistan? What are

the interventions, strategies that have been adopted in addressing these challenges of women in these

societies?

To answer the key research question, the study will begin with a conceptual review of the concepts of

women empowerment and wellbeing. The concept of women empowerment will further be expanded

using two theories namely: The Economic Modernity Theory and the Political Empowerment Theory, the

essence of these theories to this study is to provide a theoretical basis in the understanding of how women

are disempowered in some societies like Nigeria and Afghanistan, the causal factors and how it impacts

their wellbeing. Furthermore, the study will provide answers to other research questions by discussing the

causes of women disempowerment, why it happens and how it happens and also how social and political

challenges such as the lack of access to education and political participation contribute to women

disempowerment in Nigeria and Afghanistan and the interventions that have been provided through

empirical studies that will be reviewed, identifying the successes and failures of these intervention

mechanisms.
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2.2 Conceptual Review

2.2.1 Womens Empowerment

The term empowerment has gained wide currency in the social sciences across a number of fields. The

empowerment of women is a concept by which barriers in women’s lives are identified and challenged in

order to give them a chance to grow their abilities and shape their own lives and destinies (Dandona,

2015). This definition is important to this discussion because it draws attention to the challenges women

face which include social and political challenges among others which stand as barriers to the

empowerment of women in most developing societies like Nigeria and Afghanistan among others.

According to Anandalakshmy, and Keerthana, (2023), women empowerment is the process of

empowering women and providing them with the tools, resources, and opportunities to participate fully in

all aspects of life. For them, it is about creating an environment where women can make their own

choices, exercise their rights, and have access to education, healthcare, and economic opportunities on an

equal basis with men. Adding this definition to this study helps to give a different understanding of the

concept of women empowerment, and also to broaden the first definition, this conceptual understanding

of women empowerment shows how important it is to understand the challenges women face in this

modern times and in these societies, how it occurs and in order to overcome these challenges women must

be given equal access to education, healthcare and economic opportunities as men.

Historically, women have faced various forms of discrimination and inequality in terms of gender roles

affecting women’s place in the society, for example political participation, economic opportunities among

others a common practice in societies like Nigeria and Afghanistan, limiting their potential and hindering

their progress. Women empowerment seeks to break down these barriers and challenge the traditional

gender norms and stereotypes that have held women back. Empowering women is not only a matter of

individual rights and justice; it is also essential for achieving sustainable development and building

inclusive societies. When women are empowered, they contribute significantly to social and economic

growth, improve family and community well-being, and drive positive change (Anandalakshmy, and
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Keerthana, 2023). The process of empowerment will not only lead to increased capacity and access to

productive resources, but they should also be able to impact the quality, dignity and status of women in

society (Dandona, 2015).

2.2.2 Holistic Wellbeing

One of the key ways of empowering women is by promoting their wellbeing. A holistic wellbeing is the

actualization of an individual’s complete wellness, which includes physical, spiritual and mental

conditions. Steele (2020), defines it as the state of complete physical, mental and social well-being and

not merely, the absence of diseases or infirmity. Furthermore, a holistic wellbeing incorporates a more

integrated approach aimed at addressing the complexities of human conditions that puts into consideration

the physical, mental, emotional, and spiritual needs of the person involved.

Sirgy (2021) argues that women’s wellbeing is strongly influenced by their overall quality of life,

which can be assessed through measures such as emotional balance, life satisfaction, and

psychological health. His study identifies multiple dimensions that shape women’s wellbeing,

including biological, psychological, cultural, psychographic, healthcare, socio-economic, and

social role factors. The literature further emphasizes that women’s wellbeing is determined by

various influences such as family and cultural dynamics, economic and work conditions, living

environments, intimate and social relationships, health-related issues, and the contributions of

feminist movements. The significance of this research lies in showing that women’s wellbeing is

affected by a wide range of factors, which can produce either empowering or disempowering

outcomes depending on women’s lived experiences within their societies.

Similarly, Trask (2016) highlights that promoting wellbeing while ensuring healthy lives is a

complex and multidimensional goal that encompasses both physical and mental aspects. He notes

that health should not be limited to medical conditions alone, nor in the case of women and girls,
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to sexual and reproductive health. Drawing from the World Health Organization’s definition,

health is described as a state of physical, mental, and social wellbeing, which is shaped by factors

such as nutrition, work and economic conditions, cultural norms, and access to education.

Gender also plays a critical role in shaping health outcomes. Discriminatory cultural and social

practices—such as child marriage, preference for male children, gender-based violence, and

women’s limited autonomy in making health-related decisions—create serious barriers to gender

equality and empowerment. Furthermore, women and girls face unique health challenges,

particularly in relation to family planning and prenatal and antenatal care which further impacts

their wellbeing. This research therefore reinforces the idea that improving women’s health is

central to their wellbeing; when women live healthier lives, they are better positioned to actively

contribute to the social and economic progress of their communities.

2.3 Theoretical Review

Two key theories provide a framework for understanding women’s empowerment in relation to

holistic wellbeing: economic modernity theory and political empowerment theory.

The economic modernity theory emphasizes the role of economic development in fostering

gender equality. From the classical modernization perspective, economic growth directly

contributes to democracy and broader human freedoms. Applied to gender equality, this

perspective argues that as economies develop, educational and occupational opportunities

become more widely available, thereby increasing the number of women qualified for positions

of social and political influence. With access to better education and career paths, women are

more likely to advance professionally and gain eligibility for leadership roles, including political

office. Evidence shows that progress in gender equality is most pronounced in societies with
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strong emancipative values and high levels of development, suggesting that women’s

empowerment is closely tied to economic growth (Alexander & Welzel, 2007).

Further, Sen, Karmakar, and Adhikari (2023) contend that achieving gender equality is critical for

sustainable development. Since sustainable development integrates economic, social, and

environmental progress, women’s empowerment is considered indispensable. Empowerment, in

this context, means enabling women to have greater autonomy and choices. Economic

empowerment can be achieved by strengthening women’s property and inheritance rights, which

enhances their wealth accumulation, bargaining power, and independence. In many developing

and underdeveloped nations like Nigeria and Afghanistan respectively, women are excluded from

land ownership solely due to gender. Therefore to empower women in these regions, women

must have Legal rights to property and provide negotiation power, financial independence, and

access to legitimate financial institutions. Additionally, Microfinance initiatives also serve as

important tools of empowerment, offering women low-interest loans without collateral,

particularly to those aspiring to become entrepreneurs. These strategies allow women to

contribute actively to economic and social development.

The political empowerment theory highlights women’s participation in public and private

decision-making as central to achieving gender equality. Political empowerment involves

creating supportive policies that strengthen women’s bargaining power at home and in society—

such as divorce reforms, property rights, and welfare policies. However, empowerment extends

beyond formal politics; enhancing women’s digital literacy also provides avenues for

participation. Digital skills allow women to voice concerns, influence decision-making

processes, and mobilize in political movements (Sen, Karmakar, & Adhikari, 2023).
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Mandal (2013) further argues that women worldwide continue to resist oppression, subjugation,

and discrimination, both within families and in society. Real empowerment requires women’s

inclusion in the corridors of power where policies and programs are designed and implemented.

Participation in governance at all levels equips women with the knowledge and skills necessary

to overcome barriers, build capacity, and strengthen their role in society. Rajput, as cited by

Mandal, stresses that women’s empowerment—particularly political empowerment is essential

for building a gender-equal society and achieving equality, development, and peace. Without

meaningful participation in politics, women face difficulties in challenging patriarchal power

structures and achieving effective representation. Politics determines the distribution of resources

and opportunities, making political participation the most urgent avenue for empowerment.

Political empowerment thus entails decentralizing power and giving marginalized women a voice

in shaping both governmental and societal decisions.

2.4 How Social and Political Challenges Contribute to the Disempowerment of Women in Nigeria

and Afghanistan

A number of factors, including social, political, economic, religious, and cultural, lead to women’s

disempowerment, mostly manifesting in diverse ways. However, social and political factors are the two

major factors in disempowering women in the respective contexts of Nigeria and Afghan societies. Social

challenges manifest in gender inequality especially with respect to education. The political challenge

mostly manifests in women’s lack of active participation in politics in these two societies.

Gender inequality regarding education is among the social challenges women face in developing countries

like Nigeria and Afghanistan. Nowak (2021), found that gender inequality of education inhibits the

achievement of the most basic human right to education by girls and boys, women and men. As such, it is

a very serious problem, locally, nationally, and internationally; one that has been a tough challenge for

many years, and here we are today battling it still. Nowak lent weighty support to this assertion by citing
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the latest UNESCO data showing that 132 million girls lack access to education. This phenomenon is

nurtured by many causal factors, which include cultural norms and practices, school-related gender

violence, or even distance from home to school. The salient conclusion from Nowak's work is that gender

inequality in education is not just a symptom, but is, rather, a cause of gender inequality. In order to tackle

this issue, the author suggests that attention should not just be on the access to education but equally on

the quality of education. The objective should be to create an adequate environment where schools

promote respect for both genders and equal consideration of their similarities and differences. Preventive

measures could include making sure that the textbooks and other school materials are gender-neutral,

sensitizing teachers to how their behaviour might reflect bias, lifting restrictions on schools and faculties,

and encouraging girls and boys toward interdisciplinarity. Gender equality demands that the interests,

needs, and priorities of both women and men are recognized and treated equally.

However, this study have limitations, including leaving out teachers' employment situations. Further

research is suggested to determine whether gender discrimination among teachers is widespread, and how

correlated it is to discrimination against stereotyped treatment toward students and their interests.

The research work of Chaudhry and Rahman (2009) tackled the issue of gender disparities in education as

a determinant of rural poverty in Pakistan using Logit regression models on primary data sets. According

to them, gender bias is the inequality in conditions to realize full human rights for both males and

females. The findings of this study show that women in Pakistan do not enjoy equal status with those in

western countries. This is because men and women in this society have a separation along conceptual

lines. The resources of the home are allocated towards sons, as they serve a productive role. Educational

advantage has been bestowed on male members of the family, together with skills for competing at public

arena, while the girls have been taught domestic skills to become good mothers and wives. Their

opportunities are minimally there to create choices for themselves in order to change the realities of their

lives. Hence, a good deal of strong gender difference abstains rural from urban areas, and provinces

among each other. The education access for the girl is determined in different ways under the influence of
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poverty. From recent evidence in West Africa, poverty is proving to be the strongest contributor toward

the increase of gender imbalance in access to education. It is thus concluded that gender inequality in

education has a detrimental effect on rural poverty. The empirical findings indicated that the female-male

enrolment ratio, the femalemale literacy ratio, the female-male ratio of total years of schooling, and the

female-male ratio of earners need to include the education of the household head in order to have a

significant negative effect on rural poverty. The results indicated by variables of household size and

female-male ratio (members) show the unsurprising and strong positive association with the probability of

poverty. Therefore, the educationpoverty nexus in developing countries like Pakistan suggests that

education offers a whole range of employment and other economic opportunities while excluding poverty.

This is primarily because the Pakistani society is patriarchal, and women, in every fault from the

minefield of discrimination, minimized their social, economic, and political status in society. Therefore,

for the eradication of gender disparity in education levels, humongous financial support is required for

building the entire infrastructural support such as education and the like to achieve the goal. However, the

variables such as the female-male literacy ratio or years of schooling may suffer from measurement error

or they may be inconsistently reported, creating bias in results, and moreover, the logit regression method

of analysis may not fully account for other important determinants of rural poverty such as infrastructure,

health status, employment opportunities, or discrimination. This could lead to omitted variable bias,

therefore limiting the result of this study.

According to a study conducted by Dollar, and Gatti, (1999), it was found that women's status is relatively

poor in the developing world compared to developed countries. Increases in per capita income lead to

improvements in different measures of equality between the sexes, suggesting that there may be market

failures hindering investment in girls in developing countries and that these can typically be overcomed as

development proceeds. Religious preference, regional and civil freedom factors can also be explained to a

great extent for gender inequality in education and health. These systematic patterns in gender

differentials suggest that low investment in women is not an efficient economic choice and shows that
 23

gender inequality in education is bad for economic growth. Education relative to growth might be a slight

distortion at lower development levels (mostly agricultural societies) and a bigger distortion at higher

levels (as societies become more industrialized). The conclusion of this study is that an exogenous

increase in girls' access to education creates a better environment for economic growth that is much

stronger for middle income countries. Such societies facing preference for more investment in boys than

in girls pay a price in terms of slow growth and low income.

However, this study is limited in that it explores the relationship between gender inequalities and

economic growth, but it runs into obstacles in untangling causation due to the potential for simultaneity.

In simple terms, it is not known if or to what extent growth of income reduces gender inequality, gender

inequality inhibits growth, or if both are influenced by other underlying factors. Moreover, there is a lack

of strong instruments designed to cure this simultaneity problem. Another thing to mention is in timing:

progress in the status of women or changes in women's education can affect economic growth only after

severe lags. The study does not take into account how long effects of women's education exert upon GDP,

perhaps years or even decades as new generations enter the workforce.

The study carried out by Arowolo & Aluko (2010) revealed a low level of women's participation in

politics in Nigeria. The study combined both primary and secondary data. Three hundred questionnaires

were administered on a 50:50 basis for men and women. The study found that the main inhibiting factors

were sedentary issues rather than money politics, violence, thuggery, et cetera, which the women

considered as second-hand issues. Wishful thoughts exist among some of the factors that hinder women

from participating in politics in Nigeria and that is cultural practices. Cultural practices impose some

barriers on women taking part in politics. The Nigerian society is patriarchal in nature and a culture where

women are to conform to and accept male authority and female subservience. Women are believed to stay

pregnant at home, incapable of making viable decisions, and it is unacceptable for women to expose

themselves politically by participating in public rallies. For men, indeed this is incredible and

impracticable to see their wives participating in politics.

 24

The second reason is the nature of political party formation. At the level of political party formation, it is

usually in the form of club and informal meetings initiated by male friends and business partners. Other

members of society, including women, are contacted for membership at a much later stage when party

structures are already put in place. So women are actually excluded from the formation stage of political

parties thereby denying them the benefits that accrue to foundational membership.

To solve this problem the authors recommended that civil society organisations, governments and political

parties should increase the awareness of women by holding seminars/workshops, as much in cities as in

rural areas. Attendance should include women and men. Men need to be educated on the usefulness of

giving their wives a chance to participate in politics. This is so because most of those male respondents

believe that women are prostitutes in politics, and that any woman involved in politics is simply an

irresponsible house wife. Above all, governments at every level should strongly encourage girl child

education. It could be made a matter of policy that all female children of school age should attend school

free of charge. This would unlock equal opportunities for them with their male peers.

According to Ibrahim and Mussarat, (2014), women are assigned a consigned part in politics. Political

activities are very limited and regarded as a realm of men. Home is defined to be the most important

space of women. The basic role of women is in reproduction of human race. The reasons now can be

classified into several factors namely: Insufficient Education, Cultural and Structural limitations,

Ideological factor,

Political and Economic factor, Practice of proxy voting, Violence against women, Quota, Improper

Constitutional rights, Role of Ministry of Foreign Affairs. The Afghan women even today are facing the

consequences out of this laborious condition. Though ideological, this factor has remained effective in

putting forth multiple challenges to Afghan women preventing them from participating in the political

field. It is discussed about patriarchy as a system of male supremacy that shapes relationships of women

in political activities. It has the apparatus transforming men and women into men and women: that is,

creating a gender hierarchy relation in which men are privileged. Ideology is the instrument used under
 25

patriarchy to keep women in their domestic work and to deny their entry into the political domain. The

effects of such actions are women not being heard and being kept subjugated. To counter this problem, the

author prescribes that political parties ought to avail help and establishments so that the highest

participation of women in elections may come about in reality. Effective political participation will

address issues such as suppressed turnout of women and proxy voting by women. The parties should

organize programs for nomination of women in their candidates list and also in leadership positions. The

last point to raise is that the media should bring mass awareness about participation of women in politics

of Afghanistan. The media always emphasize the importance of women participation in political system to

have a say in decision making of governmental affairs.

In another study carried out by Akbari, (2020), it was found that Afghan women do not get access to

political participation due to certain barriers, which include psychological, socio-economic and cultural

and social tradition. The psychological barrier for political participation of women mostly depends upon

mentality reason. Afghan women hardly have any emotional attachments to active political participation

due to a long time of women being passive in politics. Another socio-economic barrier was the active

political participation of women. Being a wife, or mother is an important and continuing role to which

more attention is given by women; therefore no time is left for political studies or information. On the

societal level men dominate jobs over women and therefore have more experience in politics; thus women

lose this opportunity too and this deprivation of resources to earn. Activities in political areas without any

economical resource is impossible. The economical dependency of women on men itself acts as a barrier

to them in political participation. Cultural and social traditions, on account of which women are unable to

participate, are also very important since this especially hampers the higher strata of political

participation. Afghanistan generally believes women do not suit political activities and do not even have

any abilities to do that. Because of the chronic dominance of men in this kind of thought process, some

women also accepted it along with the lack of knowledge among the women.
 26

An opportunity for the development of women is suggested by the author through the creation of a new

legislative law awarding equal rights for men and women with a new setup created for women's

development: a women network, ministry of women affairs, independent commission of human rights,

and so on. Meanwhile; the limitations of the study state that it only focused on the pre-2020 era. It hardly

took into consideration the political changes that ensued with the Taliban's return to power in 2021,

changes that greatly affected the political topography of women. Therefore, the findings represent but a

snapshot of the situation within the aforementioned specific timeframe; thus, it may not show artwork of

present-day realities faced by Afghan women. Also, data unavailability and unreliability were the other

constraints faced by the study. Accurate records of women political activities in Afghanistan continue to

be elusive, particularly with regard to rural and conflict-prone areas where access has been limited. The

case study thus used secondary sources heavily, both governmental and non-governmental reports, which

may have biases or political agenda of their own.

Finally, the qualitative interpretation of the studied data may bring a degree of subjectivity in the analysis.

Although attempts have been made to remain objective, bias from the researcher in the interpretation of

secondary sources cannot be totally disregarded.

2.5 Research Gap

The existing literature have identified several causes of women disempowerment in the context

of the Nigerian and Afghanistan societies. Different interventions mechanisms have also been

identified with limitations in each particular study reviewed. However, researchers have not

provided the most effective strategies, interventions that can address these challenges faced in

these societies. The problem os social and political challenges manifesting in gender-inequality

in relation to education and lack of political participation still persists. Therefore, there still

remains a significant gap in existing literature due to its inability to provide a most effective
 27

strategies that can addressed these issues both in Nigeria and in Afghanistan, since both have

similar challenges and are influenced by the same patriarchal nature of the societies.

Chapter Three

Case Studies: Overview

 28

3.1 Research Design

This chapter is a continuation of the previous chapter. It aims to provide further answer to the question

how social and political challenges contributes to the disempowerment of women in Nigeria and in

Afghanistan. It also compares the living conditions of women in these two societies in order to try and

assuage those questions further. In such a setting, the focus is on the social and political challenges of

women regarding disparities in education and inequality in women's political participation, which have

been known to be part of the key challenges that women face globally. This challenge for women will

contextualize the case studies depicting how it happens, why it happens, and the solutions that have been

put forward through empirical studies.

A total of 10 empirical studies will then be reviewed, 5 describing the experiences of women in Nigeria

and another 5 describing the experiences of women in Afghanistan as it relates to the social and political

challenges manifesting in inequality in education and lack of political participation. These will be

collected from various journal articles sourced from the internet and Google scholar, then critically

reviewed and applied to this study. Its contribution to this chapter would be that this concern of women's

disempowerment long existed and so has in most developing countries like Nigeria and Afghanistan. The

findings of the such scholars' that will be reviewed on the issue will provide a detailed account of what

they investigated regarding problems identified, how it happens, and recommendations provided to

address the issue. Another important aspect of contextualization through these two case studies is that this

issue is not abstract; rather, it is very real issue of peoples lived experiences that still continues to affect

the respective societies and requires practical solutions. The importance of using case study in a research

cannot be overemphasized. Case studies play a very decisive role in qualitative research because they help

align the aims of the research with the type of strategies or methodologies adopted in the research,

according to Larrinaga (2017). It also defines the level of control the researcher has over the subjects

being investigated and whether or not these exist in the contemporary or historical context. Case studies
 29

are best used when the researcher can only control the events at very limited levels and when the research

has to do with examining a real-life phenomenon within its context.

3.2 The Disempowerment of Women in Nigeria: A Case Study

According to the study by Makama, (2013), it is believed that a woman in Nigeria is nothing but an infidel

and a second-class citizen, hence the general belief that a woman best belongs to the 'Kitchen'. This belief

has led to gross misrepresentation of women at the family level to the larger society. This happens

because the Nigerian society is patriarchal, which is one of the features of a traditional society. It is a

structure erected on a set of social relations having material base enabling men to dominate women. Thus,

women are discriminated against, denied, in most cases, formal education, mistreated, and kept

permanently as house helps; the average Nigerian woman is seen as a readily available object for

prostitution, forced marriage, street hawking, wide-ranged trafficking, and misfit in society.

Gender inequality in education poses an equally gargantuan social nightmare for these set of women.

Generally assumed to be lacking in facilities, educational access is limited for many, particularly for girls

and women. According to the United Nations Human Development Report (2005) quoted in this study,

Nigeria was classified as a low development country in respect to accessibility in education.

Female Adult Literacy Rate (ages 15 and above) for the country was 59.4% as opposed to male 74.4%;

Female Combined Gross Enrolment for Primary, Secondary and Tertiary schools at 57% compared with

male at 71%. Lack of education has been a strong visible barrier to the participation of females in the

formal sector. Major causes of the high literacy rate among women are social pressures placed upon them

such as early marriage and other extraneous factors and also mostly female education being regarded as

secondary to that of boys and certain inhibitive religious practices in parts of Nigeria. The clear

disadvantages of teenage pregnancy and early marriage have assigned girls the double burden of the odds

in educational access, particularly in the north where these practices are rampant.
 30

Generally, the girl child educational opportunities tend to be circumscribed by patriarchal attitudes about

gender roles which result in some parents attaching greater importance to the education of boys than girls.

During the times when parents lack resources to enroll all of their children in school, it is always the

likelihood. In some families, investing in girls' education is regarded as investing for the benefit of the

family she will eventually marry into, unlike in that of boys. This holds true especially in the case of

higher education, which purportedly involves greater expenditure and is considered less necessary for

females whose main role will be in home keeping and child bearing. Therefore, this paper argues that

diversity of opinion and the participation of different groups even in democracy cannot subsist whilst

women, who constitute practically half the world's population, are effectively excluded. The paper

submits that all forms of inhuman discrimination and gender inequality must be challenged and opines for

a deliberate, sensitive, consistent and systematic approach of gender relations this should include gender

mainstreaming in all aspects of life.

Aja-Okorie (2013) in his study observed that, Gender inequality in education happens to be most

pronounced in Nigeria owing to the patriarchal structure of society and other social, cultural and religious

factors. In fact, girls are far less likely than boys ever to enter school, stay in school or perform equally

well in school. Young girls are part of the 56 percent from among the 77 million children around the

world today that lack access to education, while women continued to make up two-thirds of illiterates

among adults. Nigeria has lagged behind with respect to good performance in gender equality. The 2012

Gender in Nigeria

Report also indicated that the data would place Nigeria 118th under 134 countries in the index of Gender

Equality. Interestingly, Nigeria recorded more dropout cases among girls when compared to their male

counterparts.

The evidence shows further that two-thirds of reading sentence ability among the girls aged between 15

and 19 in Northern Nigeria is nonexistent. An example of this is a clear example of where female

education is seen as socially unprofitable to invest in, therefore the reasoning in favor of females against
 31

males’ stands evident by funding the educations of sons. Once educated, daughters are considered less

valuable and less likely to abide by the will of the father, brother or husband. This negative attitude of

parents toward female education compounds the plight of women with regard to education. The effect of

this would be that most of the Nigerian women are unable to know their rights and fight for them because

they lack education. Denying women access to education further deepens the poverty situation of the

nation. Education of girls and women is a major step towards reducing poverty and achieving economic

development. There should be awareness programs via the media for the people to know about the

educational and information programs that would promote equal status of both women and men set up by

the governments, the various levels of government (national, state, local), as well as non-governmental

agencies. Policy makers and school administrators should work on equality of perception and or practice

between women and men in school curricula, educational programs and teaching activities. Finally, the

policy makers in education need to be developing practical oriented mechanisms targeting ensuring equal

access of education to women and men (in all types of schools and at all levels) much more analytically

regarding the situation of rural areas.

Agbalajobi, (2010) in his research found that Nigerian women make up approximately half of the

country's population, known to play vital role as mother, producer, time manager, community organizer

and social and political activist. However, despite the importance of their roles and the possibility of

making up most of the population, society does not recognize such contributions and considers them as

discriminated in every sphere. This is due to some cultural stereotype, abuse of religion, traditional

practices and patriarchal societal structures. Nigerian women therefore have hence been victims of diverse

forms of violence based on their positions in promoting transformative politics over the years. The

methodology for this research study is a qualitative one with the use of secondary data obtained from

university libraries, newspapers and journals; this study found many factors inhibiting women

participation in politics, the first being economic disparity in the Nigerian labour market, which is about
 32

75% maledominated. Economic disparity benefits men at women's disadvantage. Endowed with the

economic power to bankroll political campaigns, only a few of these women are affluent.

Another factor is the societal value defining political activities as being masculine to the extent that it

worsens the situation, as financiers and sponsors of politicians shall always prefer male candidates

because of the belief that they offer higher chances. Most success that women achieve in politics is as a

result of women movements helping and financing women political aspirations either financially and

otherwise. Women's dependence on men financially coming to the fore through wives' dependence on

husbands in families spells out the extent of financial incapacitation of women in Nigerian politics.

Hence, lack of financial support hampers the realization of women's political goals.

To solve this problem, the author proposed establishing a support network and prospective role models:

mentoring and providing capacity building training for young or aspiring female politicians by identifying

aspirants and pairing them with established women politicians. The second is to establish a Coalition of

NGOs and Grassroots women associations to provide coordination in support of women aspirants and,

thirdly, to advocate for women aspirants as well as create awareness of their political and legal rights and

claim them.

However, this study falls short in that, although it identifies the challenges of women in Nigeria,

especially political ones, and proffers some recommendations, the reliance on secondary data does not

allow this study to capture the broader picture through real-life experiences, thereby biasing or

misrepresenting the information generated.

The study by George et al. (2019) found that Nigerian women are marginalized and subordinated

to men practically in all aspects of life. The patriarchal nature of Nigerian society explains this

pattern of discrimination. Besides, the wellbeing, interests and overall issues affecting men are

prioritized over that of women, even though these women form about half of the Nigerian

population. So, quite rightly, one could say women constitute a large but neglected group in
 33

society. Thus, redressing the imbalance became the reason for this study. Based on secondary

data, the study identified the following factors that hinder gender-mainstreaming practices in

Nigeria: culture and associated issues of patriarchy and religion, lesser access to education by

women, political and financial disempowerment of women to mention just a few. More factors

include the Nigerian political space, men's attitudes towards women in the workplace and women

accepting male dominance to an extent uncritical. The paper recommends the following as a way

forward: There is need for sustained and well-articulated programme of cultural orientation and

reorientation; scholarship should equally go to girls as it does to their male counterparts; there is

an urgent need to empower women politically and financially; and finally, the attitude of men to

women, especially in work settings, must change. All these are prerequisites if any development

aspirations are to be meaningful and inclusive. Nevertheless, the unwavering reliance of this

study on secondary data hampered an all-encompassing and in-depth analysis of its findings-a

major limitation of the research.

National Bureau of Statistics (2023), shows that the literacy in English among Nigerians aged

15– 24 was 72.3% for females compared to 77.3% for males. Data from the National

Commission for Mass Literacy, Adult and Non-Formal Education indicates that female

enrolment in adult/basic literacy programs stood at 49.19% in 2019, dropped to 45.92% in 2020,

and rose slightly to 46.10% in 2021. Similarly, records from Universal Basic Education reveal

that girls consistently had lower enrolment rates than boys in both public and private primary

schools nationwide, with female enrolment recorded at 48.39%, 48.49%, and 48.55% in 2018,

2019, and 2020 respectively. Boys were also more likely than girls to complete primary school

during 2018 and 2019. This statistics shows the level of inequality in relation to education
 34

affecting the empowerment of these women. When women are educated, they can make

contributions to social, political and economic development.

This statistics also found that women are also denied access to political participation. Despite

numerous initiatives aimed at increasing women’s participation in politics and decision-making,

female representation remains low across all levels of governance, even though women

constitute nearly half of the electorate. Figures from the Office of the Secretary to the

Government of the Federation (SGF) show that between 2016 and 2019, female ministerial

appointments were consistently limited: seven in 2016, five in 2017, six in 2018, and seven in

2019. Since independence and the return to democracy in 1999, no woman has ever been

appointed as SGF or elected as President or Vice President. Women have also remained

underrepresented in the National Parliament. Their highest level of representation was 7.2%

between 2007 and 2011, falling to 6.6% in both 2011–2015 and 2015–2019. In terms of

leadership positions, only six women compared to seventy-three men held principal offices in the

Senate in 2016 and 2017, while in 2018 and 2019 the numbers were seven women and seventy-

two men.

3.3 The Case Study of Women in Afghanistan

The study conducted by Shayan (2015) found that, as a traditional society, Afghanistan is since

ages afflicted with all sorts of gender inequality. What stands out even more is the impediments

confronting women and girls in education. A lot has been done to try and save the education
 35

sector over the last ten years, yet things have hardly improved for female education. In fact,

decades of war and conflict in Afghanistan, and mostly under the Taliban, have given way to

almost total destruction of infrastructures one can think of including that of education. The

Taliban opposed female education, closing down female education in the country. The damage

done remains irreparable: with women being most vulnerable amongst all affected. This then

implies that low levels of participation of women in education can be envisaged as greatly

challenging the development of the country.

Tradition and religion, which often go hand in hand, are both key instigators of gender inequality

in education. Rigid traditional and religious convictions have placed women in poor status. The

dominant religious persons/groups regard it as their duty to protect tradition. In some areas of

Afghanistan, girls are permitted only to attend traditional Madaris, where they learn religious

subjects. For example, in the Pashtunwali cultural tradition in southeastern Afghanistan, while

not codified, is understood, revered, and enforced among all Passhtun members from childhood.

Thus, this culture imposes a massive barrier to women's education on them. Afghanistan has one

of the highest rates of illiteracy in the world, and the people, especially in rural areas, tend to

follow the religious persons. Particularly in some rural areas, females are not allowed by their

families to go to school. "Many parents fear that their daughters will become alienated from

traditional lifestyles and values or that they will not make good wives and mothers, if they go to

school". Also, in such cases, early marriage as a social norm hinders girls' participation in

education.

According to the Department for International Development, "more than 50 per cent of girls are

married by age 18" in Afghanistan. So they are deprived of attending school because of

household responsibilities and motherhood. The author pointed out that locally adoptable plans
 36

should solicit research into educational opportunities for girls. As such, wide research is needed

for the government to understand the problems in any part of the country. It should grow

women's literacy through the establishment of literacy courses in both rural and urban contexts.

This could serve to influence attitudinal change towards females' education, while also creating a

strong governmentmonitoring system on the projects implemented by the government itself, its

contractors, and NGOs. Funds should not be disbursed on the basis of favoritism and bias. The

government and its international donors should focus on the most-needed areas.

Arooje, and Burridge (2020), in their research provides a descriptive account of the current state

of Afghanistan’s schooling system, providing a brief historical perspective on its evolution and

the difficulties it has faced due to political, social, and cultural conflicts. These persistent

challenges have made it especially difficult to establish an effective education system for girls.

The structure of formal education is outlined from pre-primary to upper secondary schooling,

including pathways into higher, technical, and vocational education. In many provinces, informal

and community-based schooling—such as religious institutions—play a particularly significant

role. Educators continue to face obstacles linked to ongoing conflict and competing influences

from the government, religious authorities, and local organizations, all seeking to shape the

curriculum in one of the world’s poorest nations. Access to schooling remains limited in rural

and remote areas, where poverty, insecurity, corruption, attacks on schools, long travel distances,

safety concerns, poor quality of education, inadequate teacher training, and restrictive cultural

norms—particularly those affecting girls—pose major barriers. Since the fall of the Taliban in

2001, school enrollment has increased significantly despite difficulties in verifying statistics. Yet,

Afghanistan remains a fragile state, and growing tensions among powerful actors continue to

undermine the delivery of education as a universal human right.

 37

Basiri and Naimi (2024) in their study state that the harsh policies of the Taliban against women had made

their life unbearable, so very limited operations and much more time spent within the four walls of homes

characterized women's lives. Addressing women's political empowerment issues and challenges in

Afghanistan within the last 20 years alone is a new, unheard-of subject for researchers. For the last two

decades, all discourses and actions for women's political participation were largely ceremonialsimulated,

with no change until recently. Indeed, the cultural issue is the women's issue, and its solution not only

relies on laws and institutionalization of women's affairs in laws but also requires cultural measures,

planning, institutionalization, and proving the presence of women in the mentality of society in

Afghanistan.

However, steps taken in the area of women's rights and competencies during the time of Ashraf Ghani's

government were stronger than those of Hamid Karzai's rule. There were laws prohibiting violence and

gender bias towards women, but those barriers that had been erected by Karzai in terms of women's

empowerment were replicated in Ashraf Ghani's regime, blocking women from partaking in the political,

social, cultural, and economic spheres of the country. Women's political empowerment can be defined as a

process geared towards increasing women's capacity to excel in various fields. However, it is sad to note

that it was, during the years of Hamid Karzai and Ashraf Ghani's rule, that according to official data,

women had been politically and socially weak and marginalized compared with men. In terms of

economic dependency, Afghan women found themselves under difficult conditions and in poor social

circumstances. Over the past two decades, all the speeches and actions taken to increase the level of

political participation of women were more or less formal and symbolic, and it has been the same until the

last few years. The anti-woman culture in Afghanistan led two decades of oppression and deprivation

from all rights. The autocratic culture of the patriarchal system in Afghanistan has, since ages, barred

women from political, social, economic, and cultural empowerment. One of the inhuman and illegal

customs that have been observed in Afghanistan is the unequal treatment of Afghan government officials

against political men and active, educated women of the government.

 38

As stated by Azad (2013), Afghan women faced unparalleled calamity during the Taliban's harsh regime

from 1996 until 2001. Without any political rights, the first and foremost rights women were deprived of

were the rights of education and mobility, as they were allowed neither to attend schools nor any

educational institutions. They were forced to cover from head to toe and could not appear in public

without a male relative escort. Furthermore, women were barred from even consulting any male doctors

for treatment. Violations of these rules were punishable with grueling sanctions imposed by the Taliban's

moral police. With the overthrow of the Taliban by a U.S.-led military intervention in October 2001, a

foundation for democratic Afghanistan was laid at the Bonn Conference held under the auspices of the

United Nations, whereby it was agreed to set up an interim administration that would be followed by

presidential elections. Under the Bonn Agreement provisions, the Afghan interim government was

supposed to promulgate a democratic constitution within two years.

The Bonn Agreement envisioned an Afghanistan where women alongside men can live a social life and

respect their human rights. Nevertheless, despite some significant strides women have made in the

political realm, challenges such as insecurity, tradition, cultural barriers, financial constraints, and so on,

have been obstacles to women's political participation and will be elaborated as follows: The lack of

security is one of the biggest problems of Afghanistan and is hurting women the most. The Taliban, which

entirely opposes any public appearance of women, target women politicians of high profile. As per the

United Nations report, 300 women and girls were killed and 560 were injured in 2012 showing a 20%

increase in women casualties in comparison to the previous year. Furthermore, a more recent United

Nations report indicates that women and children casualties increased during the first half of 2013 by 38

percent when compared to the same period in 2012. Insecurity has also limited women's participation in

the last elections—“fear of violence, threats, and intimidation” from the militant groups restricted

women's electoral participation. The National Democratic Institute (NDI) findings show that almost all

women candidates face threats of one kind or another.

 39

The culture has different ways in which it inhibits women from participating in the political process; for

instance, whenever a woman decides to stand for public office, obtaining her family and village elders'

permission is essential. Furthermore, it is inappropriate for women to speak publicly in front of men; thus,

campaigning becomes a hurdle for any female candidate and at times impossible. Most often, a close male

relative conveys the news of her candidacy and platform of the female candidates, particularly in

peripheral areas, therefore denying her any opportunity of interaction with her constituents as male

candidates do. While education plays a key role in empowering women and bringing in gender equality,

Afghanistan is, regrettably, the country with the lowest literacy rate in the world: according to the

Ministry of Education, the national literacy rate for those aged 15 and above is 34%. However in the rural

areas, where 74% of the

Afghan population resides, it is estimated that 90% of women cannot read or write whereas for men it is

63% (Ministry of Education 2012). Due to lack of education, women remained less knowledgeable of the

political system as well as their own rights.

Cardozo et al. (2005) highlight results from a 2002 national population-based mental health survey

conducted by the Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC) in Afghanistan. The prevalence of

depressive symptoms was 73% (SE 8.15) among women and 59% (SE 5.59) among men. Anxiety

symptoms were present in 84% (SE 2.98) of women and 59% (SE 8.65) of men, while posttraumatic

stress disorder (PTSD) symptoms affected 48% (SE 6.19) of women and 32% (SE 4.22) of men. Social

functioning scores averaged 52.00 (SE 2.77) for women and 66.63 (SE 3.92) for men. Overall, women

demonstrated significantly poorer mental health and social functioning than men. This analysis shows that

women suffer more from mental health crises than men in this region due to the level of oppression and

subjugation they undergo. The findings of this research suggest that over two decades of armed conflict,

coupled with a culture that restricts women’s freedom of movement and denies access to healthcare and

education, have disproportionately harmed Afghan women. These conditions illustrate the deep gender

inequality and systemic violence intended to undermine women’s empowerment.

 40

Chapter Four

Data Presentation and Analysis

4.1 Chapter Introduction

This chapter will analyze and discuss the data from the various research findings in the previous

chapters on the disempowerment of women in the context of Nigeria and Afghanistan societies

as the two case studies presented in this study, with a focus on the social and political challenges

contributing to women disempowerment in these two societies and how they affect the wellbeing

of women. The chapter will also focus on data analysis from various data presented in the

previous chapters that is, in chapter two and three respectively using a qualitative research

methodology. The data that will be analyzed include: how well the concept of women

empowerment and wellbeing have been explained in this study, this will be done in order to

determine the extent it helped in the general understanding of the study, secondly, the study will

analyze the extent to which social and political challenges have on the disempowerment of

women in the two case studies presented, with the analysis of some of the interventions provided

in empirical studies reviewed to address these challenges, lastly this chapter will present the

ethical implication of this study.

4.2 Data Presentation

In the second chapter of this study, the concepts of women empowerment and wellbeing were

elaborated upon in conjunction with two theories- the economic modernity theory and the

political empowerment theory. The use of these two theories in this study provided the means to
 41

highlight the economic and political implications of women's disempowerment in society. The

research findings of Alexander and Welzel (2007) suggest that the theories can be more

elucidatively used to apply concepts of women's empowerment and wellbeing with references to

promoting gender equality. These theories have been tested as models for resolving gender

inequality with respect to women's education and political participation in this study. In terms of

gender equality, this theory argues that economic development is vital in increasing the pool of

women qualified for positions of social power. These scholars argue that higher economic

development correlates with broader distribution of educational and occupational resources. The

wider the access to educational and occupational resources, the higher the chances for women to

be promoted and hence creating a larger pool of women eligible for political or other power

positions.

Secondly, the chapter two also revealed how social and political challenges manifesting in the

gender inequality in relation to education and political participation contribute to the

disempowerment of women, this was further expanded in chapter three of this study. The data

presented shows that women and girls in both Nigeria and Afghanistan suffer though with some

levels of variations in terms of percentage social oppression and subjugation limiting their access

to education and political participation, the key factor that contributes to this problem is the

patriarchal nature of the two societies that gives dominance to male, preferences to man and boys

over women and girls. However, there are also other factors found contributing to this problem

which include, cultural, religious and economic factors.

Thirdly, in both chapter two and chapter three, the empirical studies analyzed reveal the causes of

these problems contributing to the social and political challenges women in these two societies

face, the key cause identified in most of the literature reviewed is the patriarchal nature of the
 42

two societies. These challenges of women in these two societies bears physical and ethical

consequences. Physically, socio-economic development in these two societies will be stunted.

This is because when women are educated, they take up roles and contribute meaningfully to the

society. The ethical implication is that the widespread oppression and subjugation of women in

these societies create significant ethical dilemmas that challenge women’s place and value in the

respective society. Examining the ethical dimensions of gender disparities in education reveals

deep-seated issues of discrimination, cultural bias, and human rights and social justice, economic

disparities, and sexual exploitation and victimization that restrict girls’ and women from growth

and opportunities (Ali & Kamrajum, 2023).

 43

Fig 1: Diverse Forms of Violence Against Women in Nigeria.

This chart outlines the violations against women in Nigeria and Afghanistan, centering on direct
physical, psychological, and sexualized violence.

As Ali & Kamrajum, (2023) further observed in his study, gender inequality in education stems

from systemic discrimination that disadvantages girls. Denying them equal access to education

based solely on gender violates principles of fairness, equality, and human rights. Such exclusion

perpetuates economic and social disparities while preventing girls from realizing their full
 44

potential. Equal educational access for girls is not only a fundamental human right but also an

ethical necessity grounded in social justice. Every child, regardless of gender, is entitled to

education. Ignoring gender disparities in schooling entrenches inequality and undermines efforts

to achieve inclusive and equitable societal development. Additionally, cultural traditions and

beliefs often reinforce gender stereotypes that limit girls’ education. In societies where girls are

assigned traditional roles, domestic duties are prioritized over schooling. Addressing these

cultural biases requires a balanced approach that respects cultural diversity while ensuring equal

learning opportunities for girls.

Aina & Olayode, (2012), in their study also found that social structures often assign different

roles to men and women, valuing them unequally. Long-standing restrictions on women’s life

choices and opportunities hinder not only their personal advancement but also national

development. This violates ethical principles of fairness and justice, as women contribute

significantly to economic growth and should not be excluded from economic participation.

Women make up nearly half of the world’s population, yet gender inequality continues to limit

their potential. In some societies, women are paradoxically revered symbolically while being

subjected to oppression, exploitation, and abuse in reality. Many face sexual violence, including

rape and forced marriage, which directly contradicts fundamental principles of human rights and

morality (Najmabadi & Sharifi, 2019).

These issues significantly hinder efforts to empower women and achieve their holistic well-

being. According to Ali and Kamrajum (2023), tackling these ethical challenges demands

coordinated action from multiple stakeholders, such as governments, policymakers,

communities, and families. This involves creating and enforcing policies and initiatives that

advance gender equality, eliminate discriminatory practices, and guarantee inclusive, high-
 45

quality education for all. In Nigeria, the disempowerment of women comes from the violations

of women’s fundamental rights, which includes limited access to education and healthcare and

political participation, while in Afghanistan, it is a prolonged conflict in gender policies. As

Azaigba (2021) noted, women and girls in this region, including those in northern Nigeria, suffer

violations of fundamental human rights. These cases share similar facts and it has a severe

impact on mental health and resilience of women, although it differs from the aspect of cultural

origins and specific institutional failures.

Addressing these challenges requires tailored interventions to restore equity and empowerment.

Dutse (2025) further presents patriarchal norms, rigid cultural beliefs, religious constraints, and

economic inequalities as collective factors that hinder women's participation in politics and

decision-making. Similarly, the condition of women in Afghanistan reflects comparable

challenges. The similarities between women suffering in Nigeria and in Afghanistan are rooted in

the patriarchal oppression, which limits their empowerment and voice, limited access to

education, which affects their opportunities and well-being, economic constraints, which hinders

their decision-making, and religious and cultural influences. Ahmed-Ghosh (2003) observed that

Afghan women's lives have often been manipulated to assert ethnic dominance. Tribal customs

and patriarchal institutions have marginalized women, treating marriages as strategic alliances

and denying women the right to divorce or pursue education. Total submission to husbands and

their families is expected, and women are confined to the domestic sphere, veiled and silenced,

as they are seen as bearers of family honor. Finally, this chapter identified several intervention

strategies that have been implemented over time to mitigate the damaging effects of violence

against women. These include various government-led initiatives and policies aimed at

enhancing women's empowerment through increased literacy, improved access to financial

 46

services, and the expansion of economic opportunities (Saluja, Singh, & Kumar, 2023). Efforts

have also focused on eliminating discrimination against women and girls to promote gender

equality and ensure that women and men are equally recognized as partners and beneficiaries in

development, human rights, humanitarian efforts, and peacebuilding (Aneta, 2020). Additionally,

both governmental and corporate programs have worked to close gender gaps in financial and

economic sectors (Saluja, Singh, & Kumar, 2023). While these measures have shown positive

outcomes, the persistence of the issue indicates a need for continued research and more

comprehensive solutions.

4.3 Data Analysis

The analysis of data from the research findings in chapter two and three show that social and

political challenges are the two major challenges that hinders the empowerment of women in the

Nigeria and Afghanistan societies respectively. In Afghanistan, Shayan (2015) discusses gender

inequalities which is rooted in traditional, religious and the Taliban policies which supports

restrictions on women education. An average of over 60% of Afghan girls are forced into early

marriages, which limits education due to household duties. These challenges, particularly

dominates rural areas in Nigeria and Afghanistan, it increases poverty and limits access to

resources.
 47

Fig 2: Diverse Forms of Violence against Women in Afghanistan.

This chart outlines the violations against women in Afghanistan, centering on direct physical,

psychological, and sexualized violence.

Lastly, restrictions to education and political exclusion are social and political barriers which

restricts the empowerment of women in Nigeria and Afghanistan, and it undermines their

wellbeing. The analysis presents targeted interventions such as political reforms and gender

neutral education policies as factors which fosters sustainable development for women in

Nigeria and Afghanistan

 48

4.4 Analysis of Interventions

This chapter presents an analysis of past interventions which aim at addressing the challenges

faced by women in Nigeria and Afghanistan, which was built on previous chapter. While the

examples of Nigeria and Afghanistan women, suggest a need to review multiple academic

studies to assess intervention outcomes, this section will present a detailed analysis of the above

case study.

In Nigeria, the safe school initiative aimed educating and protecting girls in conflict area,
particularly in the northern part of Nigeria. While In Afghanistan, the education cannot wait
project, provides education to girls and young women in Afghanistan. According to the 2012
gender report in Nigeria, Nigerian women with less education were less likely to receive
antenatal care, only 25 percent of Nigerian mothers with no education received antenatal care,
compared with 95 percent of those with higher education or 80 percent of those with secondary
school education. The table below presents an analysis of mother's education level and antenatal
care in Nigeria.

Mother’s education No Yes Total

level and Antenatal
care

None 75.49 24.51 100

Primary 40.51 59.49 100

Secondary 20.54 79.46 100

Higher 5.51 94.49 100

Total 40.30 50.57 100

Source: Gender in Nigeria report, 2012.
 49

Table 1: women’s education level and antenatal care in Nigeria

In the Nigerian society, education is a crucial factor in determining age at marriage and birth,

because women generally give birth soon after marriage. Hence, women with no education that

marry at 18 years will most likely give birth at 19-20 years, whilst the educated ones that marry

between 25 -30 years and would deliver later. With child birth at a later age, fertility and overall

population growth is reduced. In terms of women education’s link to employment, ensuring

women’s education in the society increases their earning capacity that is, they become more

marketable and employable as shown in Table 1. Also, increases in girls’ secondary school

enrollment are associated with increases in women’s participation in the labor force and their

contributions to household and national income. While in Afghanistan, gender inequality in

higher education is higher than in general education because women are mostly not provided

with the opportunities to continue their studies in higher levels. According to Packer (2010), “by

2001 there were just 7800 students representing one of the lowest enrolment rates in the world.”

enrolment of students in higher education from 2002-2012. The number of students provided by

Samady for

2012 differs from what is presented by the MoHE. But the percentage is the same. According to

MeHE, about (99,530) students were studying in the public universities across the country of

which

19% were female. The table below presents an analysis of women’s education inequality in

Afghanistan.

Year Male number of Female number of Total

students students
 50

2002 27,000 4,200 31,200

2004 24,500 6,200 30,700

2006 30,600 8,800 39,400

2008 48,200 12,900 61,800

2010 62,900 14,830 77,730

2012 81,785 19,215 101,000

Source: Samady, 2013.

Table 2: Women’s education level in Afghanistan

Another intervention is the work of UN Women, which focuses on eliminating discrimination

and promoting gender equality across development, human rights, humanitarian efforts, and

peacebuilding (Aneta, 2020). Despite its effectiveness, this approach has not fully addressed the

holistic needs of women in Nigeria and Afghanistan, as many still face hardships within their

families and communities. Gupta et al. (2024) highlight that gender disparities persist in both

developed and developing regions, with rural areas housing over 80% of the global poor—70%

of whom are women. Policy implementation challenges also hinder women's participation in

Nigeria and Afghanistan, particularly in recognizing and utilizing remunerative skills that could

enhance their decision-making and financial independence. The lack of job opportunities and

industrial development in rural areas further limits the impact of skill-building initiatives.

Additionally, Hossain et al. (2024) found that women particularly in Nigeria and Afghanistan

will continue to face barriers such as limited education, inadequate family support, restricted

economic freedom, and complex procedures for accessing government aid and adapting to
 51

technological advancements. These obstacles contribute to ongoing discrimination and hinder

women's empowerment and wellbeing.

The final intervention involves government programs aimed at expanding literacy and access to

financial services for women’s empowerment in Nigeria and Afghanistan (Saluja, Singh, &

Kumar, 2023). While beneficial, these programs also have shortcomings. Melese (2019) reports

that women remain underrepresented in decision-making roles across public sectors, with

minimal participation in political, social, economic, and leadership spheres.

4.5 Discussion

The discussion of this research focuses on empowering women in Nigeria and Afghanistan to

achieve holistic well-being by exploring the various challenges they face within their families

and broader society. These challenges often result in the violation of their fundamental rights,

hinder personal and social development, and negatively impact their overall well-being. Data

presented in the study indicates that women, especially those in rural and conflict-affected

regions in Nigeria and Afghanistan, endure greater hardships than men. This is clearly illustrated

through the case studies of women in Northern Nigeria and Afghanistan. These struggles are

frequently driven by cultural and religious norms, societal structures, and environmental

conditions that restrict access to essential resources such as education, healthcare, economic

opportunities, political representation, and gender equality.

 52

4.6 Limitations

This study has extensively explored the topic of women's empowerment for holistic well-being,

shedding light on the numerous challenges women face. It has presented relevant data that

deepens understanding of the issue. Nonetheless, certain limitations remain.

The first limitation concerns the research methodology. By relying solely on secondary data

sourced from existing literature. This research study may lack the depth of a detailed insights

from primary data such as surveys and interviews due to potential gaps in relevance or timeliness

of secondary sources needed for a thorough analysis. Secondly, while the research outlines

previously proposed intervention strategies and highlights their shortcomings, it does not

introduce any new or practical solutions to address the ongoing issues. Ultimately, the findings

underscore the severe hardships women in Nigeria and Afghanistan continue to endure, and the

absence of effective interventions to alleviate their suffering. This calls for increased efforts to

empower women both within their families and across society to achieve holistic well-being.

Based on the analysis, future interventions could be improved by tailoring strategies to specific

cultural and environmental contexts and incorporating primary research to ensure relevance and

effectiveness.
 53

Chapter Five

Evaluation, Conclusion and Recommendations

5.1 Chapter Introduction

This research study explored the challenges of women’s empowerment and its critical role in

fostering holistic well-being, focusing on Nigerian and Afghanistan women. The research

questions, objectives, and case studies, this chapter analyses and evaluates the findings,

implications, and possible remedies.

5.2 Evaluation

The concept of women’s empowerment, as analysed in Chapter Two, is a process accessing

resources and opportunities in the society. Anandalakshmy and Keerthana (2023), states that

women’s empowerment is a factor which helps in advancing gender equality and global societal

progress. This includes equipping women with opportunities to participate fully in the economic,

social, political, and cultural activities in a society. For Ajawani and Ajawani (2025),

empowerment involves a five dimensional factors: self-worth and confidence, autonomy in

decision-making, access to resources, control over personal and public life, and the ability to

drive social change. These dimensional factors align with the findings of this research study,

stating that empowerment enables women to acquire strategic decision-making as noted by BSR

and ICRW (2016).

The case studies of Nigeria and Afghanistan women reveal that disempowerment are caused by

limited access to education, economic opportunities, and political participation. For instance,
 54

Adesina, Adesanya, and Olufadewa (2020) outlines that sexual violence by Boko Haram in

Northern Nigeria causes social isolation, depression, and suicidal tendencies among women.

Similarly, Rasekh et al. (1998) state that Taliban policies in Afghanistan, such as restrictions on

education and mobility, have caused severe psychological distress, with 47% of Afghan women

experiencing high levels of psychological distress (Shoib et al., 2022). Women disempowerment

in Nigeria and Afghanistan are deeply rooted in social, economic, political, and cultural

structures. In Northern Nigeria, the Islamic laws and terrorist activities holds a limit on women’s

access to education, economic opportunities, and political participation. While in Afghanistan,

the situation is quite similar, with women facing systemic gender-based violence, early and

forced marriages, and strict patriarchal norms enforced by Taliban decrees (Ahmed-Ghosh,

2003).

The effects of disempowerment on women particularly in Nigeria and Afghanistan is quite

critical. In both regions, women are faced with physical and mental health challenges due to

violence, discrimination, and exclusion.

In Nigeria and Afghanistan social and political challenges are the key factors contributing to the

disempowerment of women in these regions manifesting in inequality with access to education

and participating in politics. Education is a fundamental human right yet most women in Nigeria

and Afghanistan are deprived of it. In Nigeria, cultural norms and conflict contributes to

deprivation of education, with women in rural areas facing higher illiteracy rates than their

southern counterparts (Ayevbuomwan et al., 2016).

While, in Afghanistan, the Taliban policies doesn’t allow girls to access secondary education, this

limits their ability to develop skills and confidence (Shoib et al., 2022). Women in Nigeria and

Afghanistan also faces challenges in participating in politics. Ghafoor and Haider (2018) note
 55

that women’s global political representation remains low, presenting only 15% of parliamentary

positions held by women, a trend reflected in Nigeria and Afghanistan.

This research study identified several interventions and strategies which addresses women’s

disempowerment in Nigeria and Afghanistan, as discussed in Chapter Four. In Nigeria, there has

been an implementation of initiatives such as microfinance programs and agricultural training,

this helps in enhancing women’s economic empowerment (Fabiyi & Akande, 2015). These

programs provides easy access to productive resources and skills, and it enables women in

Nigeria to contribute family and societal development. While In Afghanistan, international firms

and local NGOs have advocated for women’s rights, which focuses on education and healthcare

access. Despite these efforts, the effects of these interventions remains limited. In northern

Nigeria, the improvement of women’s access to economic resources seem to be critical due to

ongoing conflict and insecurity, which negatively impact the program. In Afghanistan, to address

the restrictive policies through clandestine initiatives may hold a great impact based on political

instability. These regions share the challenge of oppressing women, but Nigeria’s insurgency-

driven challenges contrast with Afghanistan’s policy-imposed issues. The point from this

research study is the specific context and sensitive strategies that provides immediate support

(e.g., mental health programs) with long-term systemic reforms to sustainably empower women.

The implications presented by this research study includes:

The governments of Nigeria and Afghanistan must adopt policies such as counseling sessions,

quotas, access to education and societal programs., which will promote gender equality in

education and political participation. This includes upholding laws such as mandatory
 56

enrollment of women in schools and women belonging to the national parliaments which protect

women’s rights within a safe environments. Economic interventions, such as microfinance and

skills training, are critical but must be promoted in these regions. In Northern Nigeria, programs

should focus on women’s access to resources, while in Afghanistan, it should focus on the

clandestine economic initiatives which may be necessary to bypass restrictive policies, also, in

northern Nigeria, school closure due to insurgency have reduced the access of women to

education, while in Afghanistan, the Taliban’s ban on girl’s education has negatively affect the

enrollment of women in schools. The Nigerian and Afghanistan government, including NGOs

and international firms should focus on community-based mental health programs which will

address trauma and distress among women in these regions. This, is based on the evidence

presented by WHO and UN, 40% of northern Nigerian women suffers From gender based

violence, while in Afghanistan, it rates 50%. This study concludes that interventions such as

mental health support, economic programs are essential because it addresses the needs in these

regions, while calling for systematic change which will favor women in these regions. The global

and international firms should continue to advocate for women’s rights in regions like Nigeria

and Afghanistan, such as economic interventions like skill acquisitions, partnership better

government of Nigerian and Afghanistan with NGOs and international firms, and community

based support. Private business sectors should continue playing vital roles in women’s

empowerment in Nigeria and Afghanistan such as empowerment through skill acquisitions which

will helping in the development of women in these regions. This includes creating opportunities

for women in these regions.

 57

5.3 Conclusion

This research study has demonstrated the effects of women’s empowerment towards achieving

holistic well-being, particularly in contexts like Northern Nigeria and Afghanistan, where

systemic barriers such as limited access to education, political exclusion, and gender-based

violence exits. This study addressed the research questions, by highlighting the multidimensional

nature of empowerment, particularly in addressing violation against women in northern Nigeria

and

Afghanistan from the aspect of social, psychological, political, cultural and economic

dimensions. Each dimensions plays a vital role in dismantling barriers against women in these

regions. This will enable women in these regions to reclaim their rights, dignity and face of

adversity. It causes and effects of disempowerment, and the interventions needed to promote

change. The case studies outlines the challenges faced by women in Nigeria and Afghanistan,

from cultural and religious aspect. The findings of this paperwork aligns with existing literature,

such as Anandalakshmy and Keerthana (2023) and Ajawani and Ajawani (2025), which discusses

the importance of agency, access to resources, and social change in empowerment processes.

However, this research study also reveals gaps such as security constraints, social resistance,

economic barriers in the effectiveness of current interventions such as such as economic

interventions, partnership better government of Nigeria and Afghanistan with NGOs and

international firms, and community based support. Furthermore, this paperwork purposes

recommendations which will help in dealing with the issues of women’s violations in Nigeria

and Afghanistan. Lastly, empowering women in Nigeria and Afghanistan, gives them a better

chances for a sustainable development, as argued by Meenakshi and Loai (2017).

 58

5.4 Recommendations

The implications presented by this research study includes, enhancing women’s empowerment

and well-being in Nigeria, and in Afghanistan. Firstly, the Nigerian and Afghanistan government

should implement policies which will increase women’s representation in political and

decisionmaking processes. Also, they should promote leadership training programs to build

women’s confidence and skills. The Nigerian and Afghanistan government together with NGOs

should focus on microfinance, vocational training, and access to productive resources, this will

ensure women in these regions gets empowered which will help them to get financial

independence, contribute to the development of the society and stand out against violation

against women in these regions. In Nigeria, agricultural training programs should be expanded

within modern technologies, while in Afghanistan, economic initiatives should be designed to

operate within restrictive environments.

The Nigerian and Afghanistan governments together with NGOs should establish community

based mental health programs which will support women affected by violence and trauma.

Especially, training local healthcare workers and integrating mental health services into primary

care systems. The Nigerian and Afghanistan government should promote empowerment

programs, involving community leaders and men. This will challenge patriarchal norms and

promote gender equality. In Northern Nigeria, religious leaders can help rebrand cultural

attitudes, while in Afghanistan, community based advocacy can create safe spaces for women’s

contributions.
 59

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