SRUC Veterinary Services

Sampling Guide
Introduction
This guide is intended as a ‘back of the car’ quick
reference to help you collect the correct samples from
the correct animals to investigate a problem.
The guide has been produced by SRUC vets for practitioners to offer some
advice and guidance on sample collection. It is not intended to be a diagnostic
guide however some useful articles (BVA and open access publications) are
signposted which provide complementary information. There are many ways to
approach a problem, and we have provided an opinion on how to do so.

While the cattle, sheep and game bird sections concentrate more on
commercial production, the pig and poultry sections are biased toward
‘backyard’ animals which often become the responsibility of a farm animal
practitioner.

We are always more than happy to discuss cases over the phone, just call
0131 535 3130 to talk to a duty vet.

We very much hope you find this guide a useful addition to your car boot!

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Contents
Useful information
Where to send samples ........................................................................................................... .6
How to package samples ......................................................................................................... 7
Getting the best from diagnostic samples ...................................................................8
Swabs, transport media and storage .................................................................................9
Blood tube guide ........................................................................................................................ ..10
Biochemistry profiles ................................................................................................................ ..11

Cattle disease investigation

Barren cows............................................................................................................................. ....... 14
Abortion ............................................................................................................................. .............. 15
Stillbirth and poor calf viability............................................................................................ 16
Diarrhoea in young calves........................................................................................................17
Poor calf growth rates at grass............................................................................................ . 18
Poor growth rates in housed cattle.................................................................................... 19
Respiratory disease............................................................................................................... .....20
Trace element check................................................................................................................. 21
Suckler cow pre-calving nutritional audit ..................................................................... 21
Acute milk drop with pyrexia in dairy cattle ................................................................. 22
Subfertility in dairy cattle ................................................................................................. ...... 23
Mastitis in dairy cattle ......................................................................................................... ..... 24
Metabolic Profiling in Dairy Cows ...................................................................................... 25

Sheep disease investigation

Barren ewes............................................................................................................................. ........ 28
Abortion ............................................................................................................................. ............... 29
Stillbirth ............................................................................................................................. ................30
Weak neonatal lambs............................................................................................................ ..... 31
Diarrhoea in neonatal lambs.............................................................................................. .... 32
Poor growth rates in lambs.................................................................................................. .... 33
Respiratory disease.....................................................................................................................34
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Sudden death.......................................................................................................................... .......34
Ill thrift in adult sheep ............................................................................................................... 35
Skin disease............................................................................................................................. ........36
Trace element check........................................................................................................... ...... 37
Metabolic profile in ewes pre-lambing ........................................................................... 37

Ruminant parasitology
Investigation of anthelmintic resistance........................................................................ 40
Investigation of triclabendazole resistance ................................................................. 40
Fluke diagnosis/monitoring............................................................................................... ...... 41

Pig disease investigation

Infertility............................................................................................................................. ..............44
Abortion/stillbirth/weak piglets..........................................................................................45
Diarrhoea in piglets ...................................................................................................................46
Respiratory disease.............................................................................................................. ..... 47
Nervous disease..................................................................................................................... ......48
Skin disease............................................................................................................................. .......48
Lameness ............................................................................................................................. ...........49
Sudden death................................................................................................................................50
Useful reading for the unexpected pig visit ...............................................................50

On-farm postmortem examination

Preparation, tips and technique..................................................................................52-57
Standard sample set ..................................................................................................... ....58-59
Cattle postmortem sampling........................................................................................60-61
Cattle respiratory disease PM sampling ................................................................ 62-63
Sheep postmortem sampling .......................................................................................64-65
Diagnosing acute Nematodirus in lambs ............................................................... 66-67
Pig postmortem sampling......................................................................................... ......68-69
Abortion sampling (Cattle, Sheep & Pig)...............................................................70-75

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Backyard Poultry
Disease investigation .................................................................................................. .......78-79
Postmortem examination........................................................................................ .........80-81

Gamebirds
Postmortem tips ................................................................................................................... ....... 82
Pheasant and partridge postmortem .....................................................................83-86
Red grouse postmortem................................................................................................ .......... 87
Red grouse total worm count sampling..........................................................................88

SRUC Contact Details

SRUC contact details ..........................................................................................................................89

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 Useful Information
Where to send samples ............................................................................................. .................6
How to package samples ........................................................................................... ................ 7
Getting the best from diagnostic samples .....................................................................8
Swabs, transport media and storage ...................................................................................9
Blood tube guide .................................................................................................................. .........10
Biochemistry profiles ...................................................................................................................11

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Useful information

Where to send samples

Diagnostic Samples SRUC Veterinary Laboratory,

Pentlands Science Park,
Bush Loan,
Penicuik,
Midlothian, EH26 0PZ
DX address (legal post): DXED626
Tel: 0131 535 3130
Email: VSEnquiries@sruc.ac.uk

Cattle, Sheep and Goat SRUC Veterinary Services,

Health Schemes Greycrook,
St Boswells,
BVD Scheme Samples Roxburghshire, TD6 0EQ
DX address (legal post): DX556985
Tel: 01835 822456
Email: healthschemes@sruc.ac.uk

Addresses and contact details for your local Disease Surveillance Centre or
Disease Surveillance Hub can be found on page 89 of the guide.

Please see page 7 for detailed guidelines on the packaging and postage of
pathological specimens.

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 Useful information

How to package samples

Full guidance on how to package samples can be found by searching “P650 packaging
instruction” in your internet browser.

Packaging should be of good quality, strong enough to withstand the shocks and
loadings normally encountered during carriage and should be closed to prevent any
loss of contents that might be caused under normal conditions of carriage by vibration
or by changes in temperature, humidity, or pressure.

Packaging will consist of three components:

1. Primary receptacle(s): - leakproof container(s) containing sample(s) e.g.,
blood tubes, faeces pots (not rectal gloves) etc, wrapped or packed to prevent
contact between them.
2. Secondary packaging: - leakproof container/bag with sufficient absorbent
material within to contain the contents of the primary receptacle(s) should
they leak.
3. Outer packaging: - Addressed envelope bearing the UN3373 symbol (letters and
numbers at least 6mm high).

The completed package should be able to be dropped

from a height of 1.2m without breaking.
UN 3373
Don’t forget to include the submission form – place
between the secondary and outer packaging.

Royal Mail requirements

Royal Mail will only carry UN3373 Diagnostic Specimens if they are packed following
Packaging Instruction P650, and:
• Are sent by first class post or Special Delivery to inland addresses only
• The packet is marked with the sender’s name, telephone number and address

TNT (Courier) requirements

The “Nature and Quantity of Goods” box must contain the text “Biological Substance,
Category B” and “UN3373” on the Consignment Note/Air Waybill. The Dangerous Goods
“YES” box must be ticked.

The name and telephone number of a “responsible person” must be written on the
consignment note or on the package.

The package must carry the warning symbol bearing the text UN3373, and the words
“Biological Substance, Category B”

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Useful information

Getting the best from your diagnostic samples

Faecal samples

Test Amount of faeces needed

Worm Egg/ Coccidial Oocyst count 0.5g

Worm Egg/ Coccidial Oocyst count 3g (Heaped teaspoon)

Lungworm detection 10g (Heaped dessertspoon)

Worm/Cocci, Fluke egg and lungworm 14g (Heaped serving spoon)

• Please use a leak proof container to submit faeces samples (not a glove!).
• When submitting faeces for an enteritis package, please state an accurate age
of the animal (especially young calves) as appropriate tests will vary with age.
• Ask farmers not to pre-pool samples. Either pool them yourselves using
accurate scales or send individually to be pooled at the lab.
• Lungworm detection and coproantigen ELISA have not been validated on pooled
samples. Risk of false negatives when testing pooled samples.

Blood samples
• Our serology system is robotic. Please ensure there is at least 2mls of blood in
every tube, ideally fill tubes as full as possible.
• If you would like BVD PCR, then please submit extra serum samples if you
require any other tests.
• If you require multiple tests, consider submitting an extra tube.
• Haemolysed samples can affect biochemistry (e.g. GGT, ZST).
• Remember to invert your green and purple top tubes to prevent clotting.
• Biochemistry packages on page 11 are offered at a discounted rate.
• Paired serology: first sample in acute case, second sample 3 weeks later.

Skin scrapes for sheep scab

We will examine skin scrapes from Scottish sheep suspected to have sheep scab for
free. Remember to sample from the edge of the lesion. Pluck the wool rather than
cutting it and take superficial skin scrapes. Submit wool and plenty of scabby/crusty
material to avoid false negatives. Do not send sharps in the post please!

Aqueous/Vitreous Humour
Can be used to test Ca, Mg, BOHB and Urea if sampled within 24hrs of death.
See page 56 for details of how to collect the sample.

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 Useful information

Swabs and transport media

Test Samples

Charcoal swab preferred (see page 56)

Bacterial Culture Tissue filling a 60ml container
Any sterile swab or fluid in sterile container

Contact SRUC to pre-arrange submission of

Campylobacter Culture
samples prior to sampling.

Mycoplasma Culture Swab or tissue ideally in Eaton’s Broth*

Plastic stemmed swab, ideally in VTM*

Respiratory PCR
Lung tissue, ideally in VTM*

* Transport media available from SRUC Vet Services (0131 535 3130)

Sample storage if unable to send immediately

Sample Preferred Storage

Tissues or swabs for

Fridge (Freezer if >72hrs delay)
bacterial/fungal culture

Swabs/tissues for PCR Freezer (or Fridge)

Fridge
Serum
Centrifuge & freeze serum (>1 week delay)

Fridge
Plasma
Make an air-dried smear for haematology

Fridge (or Freeze). Limit amount of air within sample

Faeces for parasitology
container where possible

Fixed tissues in formalin Warm room temperature

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Useful information

Blood tube guide

Tube Sample Common Uses

Top

Biochemistry (can also use plasma sample)

Serum Serology
(no additive) Vitamin A or E (wrap in foil to exclude light)
Fluids for bacterial culture

Heparinised GSH-Px, selenium, manganese and lead

Inorganic iodine (can also use serum)
Plasma
Progesterone

Haematology (include smear if possible)

EDTA plasma PCR testing & Scrapie Genotyping
Fluids for cytology

Fluoride
Glucose
Oxalate

Coagulation tests (PT, APTT, fibrinogen)

Citrate

Further information

Otter, A. (2013), Diagnostic blood biochemistry and haematology in cattle. In Practice,

35: 7-16

Milne, E. and Scott, P. (2006), Cost-effective biochemistry and haematology in sheep.

In Practice, 28: 454-461.

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 P
Ca
Cu

Mg

AST
CPK
Vit E

GGT
Urea

NEFA
BOHB

GLDH
Vit B12
GSH-Px

Glucose
Globulin
Albumin

Bile Acid
Creatinine
Pepsinogen
Tube top colour

Bovine trace element

Bovine ill thrift profile

Bovine mini metabolic profile
Ruminant myopathy profile
Biochemistry profiles

Ruminant mineral status

Downer cow profile

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Fatty liver profile
Ruminant energy/protein
Ewe metabolic disease profile
Ovine trace element
Ovine ill thrift
Individual clinical profile
HerdProfiles
Fertility audit

Note: Haematology (EDTA) can be added to any profile at a reduced fee.

General audit
Herd metabolic profile
Production Audit
Ewe nutrition
Useful information

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Notes

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 Cattle Disease Investigation
Barren cows............................................................................................................................. ....... 14
Abortion ........................................................................................................................................... 15
Stillbirth and poor calf viability............................................................................................ 16
Diarrhoea in young calves....................................................................................................... 17
Poor calf growth rates at grass............................................................................................ 18
Poor growth rates in housed cattle.................................................................................... 19
Respiratory disease.................................................................................................................. 20
Trace element check................................................................................................................. 21
Suckler cow pre-calving nutritional audit ...................................................................... 21
Acute milk drop with pyrexia in dairy cattle ................................................................ 22
Subfertility in dairy cattle ...................................................................................................... 23
Mastitis in dairy cattle ............................................................................................................. 24
Metabolic Profiling in Dairy Cows ...................................................................................... 25

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Cattle disease investigation

Barren cows
The cause of a high barren rate can be complex and multifactorial, with non-infectious
causes often contributing significantly more than infectious disease. In seasonal
systems, existing calving pattern and subsequent length of the bulling period have a
major influence, as cows calving after the first 6 weeks have fewer opportunities to
get pregnant. Herds can achieve 95% pregnant in 9 weeks of breeding, by consistently
achieving a 65% pregnancy rate (proportion of eligible cows that get pregnant every
three weeks).

History
Check farm records for patterns in cow age, BCS at calving, current BCS, assistance at
calving, management group / bulling group and bulls used. Note nutritional anoestrus
is common but retrospective diagnosis is not possible. Review abortions, stillbirths,
post-calving nutrition and biosecurity breaches in the last 12 months. Bulls: BCS < 2.5 or
>3.5 is associated with a decline in semen quality. Assess feet, leg conformation, gait,
leg joints, head. Multi-bull groups can have dominance issues leading to injuries and
poor fertility.

Investigation/Sampling
Bull: Unless excluded by history, fertility test bulls from affected groups.

Campylobacter: Encourage laboratory screening of all abortions for next 12 months

(preferred). Consider sheath washing bulls and / or vaginal swabs from 12 cows
and submit within 24hrs (please contact SRUC in advance of collecting samples,
0131 535 3130).

Other infectious: Sample 4-6 barren cows and 4-6 pregnant cows for antibody
(serum). Consider BVD, L. Hardjo, Neospora, IBR, Salmonella Dublin serology depending
on vaccine / clinical history. Encourage laboratory screening of all abortions for next
12 months.

Trace Elements: 4-6 cows screened for copper, GSH-PX and pooled iodine (heparin
plasma and serum). Results will reflect recent diet.

Further Information
Statham, J., Burton, K. and Spilman, M. (2019), Looking after the bull: guide to
management and assessment of fertility. In Practice, 41: 69-83

Caldow, G., Lowman, B. and Riddell, I., (2005). Veterinary intervention in the reproductive
management of beef cow herds. In Practice, 27(8), pp.406-411.

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 Cattle disease investigation

Abortion
Abortions are an indicator event of multiple herd-health issues and can be the first
indicator of a new infectious disease in the herd. Investigation is advised whenever
quality material available (full foetus, placenta, maternal blood). Infectious disease,
placentitis and environmental pathogens are common causes.

NB: Notify Animal and Plant Health Agency and test for Brucella if indicated

History
Review farm records for abortions, stillbirths, endemic disease status, recent biosecurity
breaches; check BCS and any ill-health in dam. Check for patterns in cows / heifer
dams; sire; management groups. Observe cleanliness of pre-calving cows and their
feed (spoilage / mould) and water (cleanliness).

Investigation/Sampling
Foetus/Placenta: Submit foetus and placenta to PM centre if possible. If not follow
abortion sampling guidelines on pages 70-71. Approximately 18 common causes will be
screened for in each submission. Negative results allow common infectious causes to
be ruled out. Encourage submission of multiple (≥3) separate cases during outbreaks.

Serology: 4-6 aborted cows and 4-6 pregnant cows for antibody (serum). Consider
BVD, L. Hardjo, Neospora, IBR, Salmonella Dublin depending on vaccine / clinical history.
Paired serology for S. Dublin is significantly better than single serology.

Further Information
Cabell, E. (2007), Bovine abortion: aetiology and investigations. In Practice, 29: 455-463

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Cattle disease investigation

Stillbirth/Poor calf viability

Malformations (heritable + sporadic), infectious disease, placentitis, environmental
pathogens, dystocia and anoxia are all common causes of bovine stillbirth and
multifactorial cases occur frequently

History
Review farm records for abortions,
stillbirths, and endemic disease status;
pre-and post-calving nutrition and
management, and individual animal
history. Check for patterns in cows
/ heifer dams; sire; management
groups; BCS at calving. Observe
cleanliness of pre-calving cows and
their feed (spoilage / mould) and water
(cleanliness).

Investigation/Sampling
Postmortem: Examination of calf and placenta is essential. Submit to PM centre or
on-farm postmortem with reference to In Practice article below. Enourage multiple (≥3)
submissions during high incidence problems.

Nutritional audit: Take serum and heparin plasma samples from 4-6 pre-calving cows
as close to calving as possible for NEFA, albumin, urea, Ca, Mg, GSH-Px, Cu, pooled
iodine (+/- vit A, vit E).

Colostrum: If calves are living more than 24hrs then screen 4-6 calves under 1 week of
age for colostrum intake by total protein or ZST (serum).

Other infectious: Sample 4-6 affected dams and 4-6 unaffected dams for antibody
(serum). Consider BVD, L. Hardjo, Neospora, IBR, and paired Salmonella Dublin
serology depending on vaccine / clinical history. Not an appropriate substitute for
comprehensive postmortem exam of affected calves and placenta.

Further Information
Geraghty, T et al. (2021), How to investigate a stillbirth on-farm. In Practice, 43: 373-387.

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 Cattle disease investigation

Diarrhoea in young calves

If treatment is required, then the cause should be investigated.

History
Review pen / stock cleanliness, stocking density, humidity, ventilation, age-range of
calves in group, time since pens last cleaned out.

Investigation/Sampling
Colostrum: Always check colostrum uptake if appropriately aged calves are available
(4-6 calves >24hr but < 7days) for total protein or ZST (serum). ZST results will be
falsely elevated in sick / dehydrated calves, therefore if sampling these animals
interpret results in relation to hydration status.

Infectious agent(s): Multiple (≥3) untreated calves should be screened for rotavirus,
coronavirus, cryptosporidium and salmonella (neonatal enteritis package, faeces); if
calves are under 4 days old screen for E. coli K99 by ELISA (faeces); if over 3 weeks
old should be screened for coccidia (faeces).

Postmortem: If fresh carcase available (only method to diagnose idiopathic necrotic

enteritis). Collect small and large intestinal content. Take blood for ZST if under 7d old.
Place sections of duodenum, jejunum, ileum, caecum, and spiral colon, approx. 2 cm
in length opened longitudinally on free border into 10% formalin, taking care not to
damage mucosa. See page 60.

Further Information
Heller, M. C., & Chigerwe, M. (2018). Diagnosis and Treatment of Infectious Enteritis
in Neonatal and Juvenile Ruminants. The Veterinary clinics of North America. Food
animal practice, 34(1), 101–117.

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Cattle disease investigation

Poor growth rates in calves at grass

Suckled calves can grow more than
1kg/day. Lower growth rates can be
tolerated in older calves to be finished
in the winter. Replacement beef heifers
for bulling at 13-15 months must
achieve 0.75kg/day.

History
Duration and extent of problem, current ration including supplementary feed; assess
parasite burden on grass (grazing history); any specific clinical signs (particularly
diarrhoea, cough, pneumonia); last treatment for coccidiosis, worms, fluke.

Investigation/Sampling
Nutrition: A complete review of the diet of the group is required. There are no reliable
blood tests for inadequate nutrition in growing animals so ration / grazing analysis
only. Contact SAC Consulting nutritionist for advice (your local hub can provide
contact details).

Parasites: Sample 10 animals for bulk worm eggs, fluke coproantigen and lungworm as
indicated by history (faeces).

Trace elements: Sample 4-10 animals for Cu, GSH-Px, (bovine Trace Element Profile,
serum and heparin plasma).

Biochemistry: Albumin, globulin, GLDH, GGT, pepsinogen (serum) can aid differential
diagnosis (included in the Bovine Ill Thrift profile along with Cu and GSH-Px, serum
and heparin plasma).

Further Information
Suttle, N. (2004), Assessing the needs of cattle for trace elements. In Practice, 26: 553-561.

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 Cattle disease investigation

Poor growth rates in housed cattle

Target growth rates are determined by production system. When these are not met
then investigation is justified.

History
Duration and extent of problem; current ration; feed space allocation / accessibility;
frequency of feeding / push-up; any specific clinical signs (particularly diarrhoea,
cough, pneumonia); last treatment for coccidiosis, worms, fluke.

Investigation/Sampling
Nutrition: A complete review of the diet of the group is required. There are no reliable
blood tests for inadequate nutrition in growing animals so ration analysis is the best
testing to perform. Contact SAC Consulting nutritionist for advice (your local hub can
provide contact details).

Parasites: Sample 10 animals for bulk worm egg counts, fluke coproantigen and
lungworm as indicated by history (faeces).

Trace elements: Sample 4-10 animals for Cu, GSH-Px, (bovine Trace Element Profile,
serum and heparin plasma).

Biochemistry: Albumin, globulin, GLDH, GGT, pepsinogen (serum) can aid differential
diagnosis (included in the Bovine Ill Thrift profile along with Cu and GSH-Px, serum
and heparin plasma).

Further Information
Suttle, N. (2004), Assessing the needs of cattle for trace elements. In Practice, 26:
553-561.

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Cattle disease investigation

Respiratory disease
Investigation is warranted when there is mortality,
where disease is of such severity that metaphylaxis
is considered, where alterations in vaccine protocol
are considered or where farmer concern is driving
investigation.

History
Check for known risk factors: Previous pneumonia
(group + ind.), poor nutritional status; dehydration
/ inadequate access to clean water; concurrent /
chronic disease, notably BVD; wide range of age /
size in airspace; inadequate ventilation; recent stress
(weaning, surgery, transport, group / diet change,
handling; poor temperament); purchased stock from
multiple sources and / or via market; inadequate colostrum. Check vaccine status and
review vaccine handling / protocols.

Investigation/Sampling
Postmortem: Examination of acutely affected cases if available. Recent antimicrobial
treatment reduces likelihood of successful bacterial culture but does not affect PCR
or histopathology. Submit to postmortem centre or on-farm postmortem exam, see
pages 62-63.

Samples: Sample multiple (≥3 if available) acute, untreated cases with pyrexia and
a clear nasal discharge. Take at least one guarded nasopharyngeal swabs from each
animal and place in VTM for multiplex respiratory PCR. If bacterial or mycoplasma
culture is required (e.g. for antimicrobial sensitivity testing or potential autogenous
vaccine) take one additional swab for each (plain swab for bacterial culture, in Eaton’s
broth for Mycoplasma culture). Take serum for future paired serology in case needed
(repeat after 3-4 weeks) to be stored at SRUC Vet Services.

Colostrum: When affected calves are <12 weeks old always check herd colostrum
uptake if appropriately aged calves are available (4-6 calves >24hr but < 7days for
total protein OR ZST (serum). Do not test sick / dehydrated calves for colostrum
uptake (as results are falsely elevated).

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 Cattle disease investigation

Trace element check

Routine check to monitor trace element requirement
of stock either at end of grazing period (to assess
pasture) or during / after housing period (to assess
housed ration).

History
Ensure ration details are recorded accurately, and
review access to ration in housed groups. Allow at
least 3 weeks from any ration change before sampling.

Investigation/Sampling
Samples: 4-6 animals screened for copper, GSH-PX
+/- pooled iodine (heparin plasma ideally but serum
can be used for copper).

Suckler cow pre-calving nutritional audit

Routine test at start of calving block to assess adequacy of late-pregnancy
nutritional status.

History
Ensure ration details are recorded accurately, and review access to ration in housed
groups. Allow at least 3 weeks from any ration change before sampling.

Investigation/Sampling
Samples: Serum and heparin plasma from 4-6
pre-calving cows one month prior to calving for
BOHB, NEFA, urea, albumin, globulin, phosphorus
and magnesium (+/- Cu, GSH-Px). If possible, a
further 4-6 cows that are 12-24hrs calved for
calcium (serum).

Further Information
SRUC Technical note TN745. Metabolic profiling
in the suckler herd. (Available online)

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Cattle disease investigation

Acute milk drop with pyrexia in dairy cattle

Always investigate where >25% loss of yield over one or more days in individual cows
AND pyrexia, with or without diarrhoea, in 5% of the herd or more in a one week
period. Importantly, milk drop, at times accompanied by abortion, can be one of the
first indicators of a new infectious disease entering or affecting a dairy herd.

History
Any recent ration change, concurrent disease (abortion, diarrhoea, respiratory –
fevered cows have high respiratory rate).

Investigation/Sampling
Single animal: Consider Individual clinical profile and haematology (serum and EDTA)

Group problem: Collect serum and EDTA blood and faeces from multiple (≥3) acutely
affected case. Consider deep, guarded, naso-pharyngeal swab if clinical signs of IBR.
Samples for paired serology should be collected from the same animal three weeks
after the initial sample.

Consider screening for:

• Salmonella Dublin by faecal culture + / - paired serology
• Other Salmonella (e.g., S. Mbandaka) by faecal culture
• Parasitic bronchitis (husk) by lungworm larvae screen on faeces
• Mycoplasma wenyonii by PCR on EDTA
• IBR by respiratory virus PCR testing on guarded NP swab +/- paired serology
• Leptospira Hardjo by paired serology using the MAT test
• Schmallenberg virus by PCR on EDTA blood AND paired serology

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 Cattle disease investigation

Subfertility in dairy cattle

Subfertility in dairy-cattle is typically a complex multifactorial problem.

History
Comprehensive review of nutrition,
management (transition cow, oestrus
detection, service method), genetic
selection, lameness, and infectious
disease. Laboratory screening can be
an aid to some of these elements as
outlined here.

Investigation/Sampling
Nutrition: Energy / protein. Mini-
metabolic profile package on at least
six cows 1-3 weeks calved and 6 cows in last 2 weeks of dry period (Bovine mini
metabolic profile package). Consider also using milk records.

Trace Elements: 4 - 6 sub-fertile cows screened for copper, GSH-PX and pooled
iodine (heparin plasma ideally but serum can be used for copper)

Infectious Disease: 4-6 sub-fertile cows and 4-6 pregnant cows for antibody
(serum). Consider BVD, L. Hardjo, Neospora, IBR, Salmonella Dublin depending on
vaccine / clinical history. Encourage laboratory screening of all abortions for next
12 months.

Campylobacter: Where natural service is used and a biosecurity audit indicates risk
of campylobacter then encourage laboratory screening of all abortions for next 12
months. Consider sheath wash bulls and / or Vaginal swabs from 12 cows and submit
within 24hrs (contact SRUC in advance, 0131 535 3130)

Further Information
Cook, J. (2009), Understanding conception rates in dairy herds. In Practice, 31: 262-266.

Atkinson, O., 2016. Management of transition cows in dairy practice. In Practice, 38(5),
pp.229-240.

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Cattle disease investigation

Mastitis in dairy cattle

Mastitis (clinical and sub-clinical) is
typically a complex, multifactorial
problem that requires comprehensive
investigation. Various CPD courses
are offered in the UK. Laboratory
testing to identify pathogens involved
is an essential component of a wider
investigation.

History
Investigate all aspects of the milking
machine / process, review teat health,
consider risk from environmental
sources and infected cows. Review
management of acute / chronic cases,
nutrition, genetic selection etc.

Investigation/Sampling
Clinical mastitis: Train farmer in aseptic collection of milk samples technique. Submit
aseptically collected milk samples for bacterial culture from at least 5 and preferably
10 clinical cases (Mastitis bacteriology package, bacteriology only) or (Full mastitis
package, includes sensitivity). Encourage freezing of aseptically collected milk
samples from all future clinical cases so that several samples are ready for immediate
testing should the problem recur.

Subclinical mastitis in dairy cattle

Investigation/Sampling
Train farmer in aseptic collection of milk samples technique and California mastitis
test. Identify at least 10 cows with persistently elevated somatic cell counts (at
least 2 and preferably 3 monthly or fortnightly counts over 300,000 cells/ml) from
milk records. Exclude high counts within 2 weeks of dry-off and within 2 weeks
after calving. Identify quarter infected by California mastitis test. Submit aseptically
collected milk samples for bacterial culture from infected quarters from at least
10 cows.

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 Cattle disease investigation

Metabolic Profiling in Dairy Cows

Testing of late dry cows and calved cows can be used to monitor for energy and
mineral status in healthy animals or to investigate transition cow issues.

History
Ration details and changes, including any forage analysis. Presentation of feed and
water including feed space allowance, trough design, frequency of feeding/clearing
feed and palatability. Housing design, space allowance, concurrent disease and levels
of transition cow disease. Body condition scores and changes in body condition
over the transition period. Any concerns with milk quality and composition. Culling
patterns by days in milk. Cow-side tests such as rumen fill, faecal scoring and rumen
pH may be useful depending on the specific clinical history.

Investigation/Sampling
N.B. Allow at least 3 weeks from any ration change before sampling. To get the
optimum sample size of 12 cows, samples may need to be collected over more than
one visit and then reviewed overall. This will depend on herd size and calving pattern.

Pre-calving: 12 dry cows between 2 and 10 days pre-calving for NEFA, urea and
magnesium testing (serum).

Post-calving: 12 cows between 5 and 20 days post-calving for BOHB. (serum).

Hypocalcaemia: For subclinical hypocalcaemia sample 12 cows within 24 hours of

calving (serum).

Further informatiom
Cook, N., Oetzel, G. and Nordlund, K. (2006) ‘Modern techniques for monitoring high-
producing dairy cows. 1. Principles of herd level diagnosis’. In Practice, 28, 510-515

Atkinson, O (2009) ‘Guide to the rumen health visit’. In Practice, 31, 314-325

25 Return to Contents
Notes

26
 Sheep Disease Investigation
Barren ewes............................................................................................................................. ...... 28
Abortion .......................................................................................................................................... 29
Stillbirth ............................................................................................................................. ............. 30
Weak neonatal lambs................................................................................................................ 31
Diarrhoea in neonatal lambs................................................................................................. 32
Poor growth rates in lambs................................................................................................... 33
Respiratory disease.................................................................................................................. 34
Sudden death.............................................................................................................................. 34
Ill thrift in adult sheep .............................................................................................................. 35
Skin disease.................................................................................................................................. 36
Trace element check................................................................................................................ 37
Metabolic profile in ewes pre-lambing ........................................................................... 37

27 Return to Contents
Sheep disease investigation

Barren ewes
High barren ewe rate is often multifactorial and can be challenging to investigate as it
involves a retrospective investigation. Nutritional causes can be suspected based on
history but cannot be definitively
confirmed. In general trigger
levels for investigation include
a barren rate of greater than 2%
or an increase in the barren rate
compared to normal for that flock.

History
Scanning results (historical and
current), including age distribution
of barren animals, ram to ewe
ratio of tupping groups, whether
ewes were marked by tups more
than once, and regular/irregular returns. BCS of ewes and tups at tupping, including
weather events and forage availability at tupping and early pregnancy. Flock history of
endemic disease (e.g., lameness, especially of tups), prevalence of ticks.

Investigation/Sampling
Nutrition: BCS affected ewes (although condition may have changed). If poor
condition is evident go to ill thrift investigation (page 35). Consider checking GSH-Px
(heparin plasma) as an indicator of longer-term selenium status; other trace elements
will reflect current diet.

Infectious: Take serum from 6-10 affected animals for toxoplasma and Border disease
serology.

Rams: Examine for abnormalities of testicles or penis, and for signs of lameness.

Following year
Pre-tupping check of rams. Check BCS of ewes 4-6 weeks pre-mating and post
mating. Consider taking serum and heparin plasma from 6 typical ewes for copper,
vitamin B12, GSH-Px (Ovine Trace Element Profile) and pooled iodine at pre-tupping
check.

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 Sheep disease investigation

Abortion (Ovine)
Abortion should be
investigated if rate is >2%, if
several ewes abort in a short
space of time or if abortions
occur in added animals.
Several abortifacient agents
are zoonotic and are of
significant concern especially
in children and women of
childbearing age. Dispose of
aborted material and contaminated bedding. Isolate ewes that have aborted from rest
of flock for at least 1 month.

History
Vaccination history, replacement policy, and age of affected sheep. Immediate history
of recent handling or ill health. Review nutrition and assess access to concentrate and
supplementary forage. Appearance of aborted foetuses and placentae; presence of
mummified foetuses.

Investigation/Sampling
Clinical Examination: Check ewes are in good health and are in appropriate body
condition score. Abortion may follow pyrexia of any cause.

Foetal Samples: Submit foetuses and placentae, ideally from multiple ewes, to
postmortem centre or take samples as per guidelines on pages 72 & 73.

Maternal Samples: Take serum +/- EDTA plasma from affected ewes and store
pending results from above. If necessary, test for toxoplasma, EAE +/- Border disease,
Q fever. Test plasma for tick borne fever PCR if history is suggestive. Note that ewes
with EAE may not have seroconverted at the time of abortion.

Further informatiom
Mearns, R. (2007), Abortion in sheep 1. Investigation and principal causes. In Practice, 29:
40-46.
Mearns, R. (2007), Abortion in sheep 2. Other common and exotic causes. In Practice, 29:
83-90.

29 Return to Contents
Sheep disease investigation

Stillbirth in sheep
Abortion can present as, or alongside stillbirth, so investigate as for abortion,
especially if rate is greater than 2%. Foetal oversize or other factors which lead to
dystocia. Levels of supervision and intervention at lambing may also contribute
to stillbirth.

History
Including concurrent abortion, presence of mummified foetuses, vaccination history,
feeding of affected ewes, mineral supplementation, health of ewes. Clinical pregnancy
toxaemia suggests energy deficient diet. Lamb birthweights, litter size, dystocia,
intervention and supervision at lambing. Establish if lambs are born dead or live for a
short period of time.

Investigation/Sampling
Foetal & Maternal Samples: As for abortion above. Postmortem exam of stillborn
lambs looking for signs of placentitis, infection (liver lesions) and trauma (oedema,
bruising, internal haemorrhage).

Trace Elements: Consider screening for trace element deficiency (iodine, copper,
and GSH-Px - serum and heparin plasma) depending on history, postmortem exam
findings and exclusion of other causes.

30 Return to Contents
 Sheep disease investigation

Weak neonatal lambs

Both infectious and environmental factors can contribute to weak neonatal lambs
with increased mortality.

History
Establish whether lambs are born weak vs normal at birth then deteriorating, and
clinical signs shown. History of abortion/stillbirth and maternal vaccinations. Review
dietary history and current intake, incidence of twin lamb disease, colostrum/milk
quality/supply. Conditions at lambing including evidence of dystocia, weather, routine
husbandry/treatment of new-borns.

Investigation/Sampling
Colostrum: Serum sample 4-6 affected lambs under 7 days old for ZST.
Infectious disease: Consider screening for border disease if other abortion agents
have been ruled out – examine placentas from affected lambs if possible.

Postmortem: Submit lambs to local postmortem centre or carry out on-farm

postmortem examination (see pages 58, 59 and 64). Include placental sampling
where possible to screen for (infectious) placentitis. Note that infectious disease can
be secondary to hypogammaglobulinaemia – collect postmortem blood and send
serum for ZST. Check thyroid for goitre. If neurological signs fix brain and spinal cord,
and collect fresh liver for copper and selenium assay.

Nutritional: Assess body condition and review recent diet and colostrum/milk
production of ewes. If prolonged lambing period, checking BOHB of ewes and/or
forage analysis may be useful for late lambing ewes (serum). Ewe nutrition (Urea,
BOHB) and trace elements (GSH-Px, copper, iodine - serum and heparin plasma) may
be useful pre-lambing the following year if ewe nutritional cause suspected (see page 37).

31 Return to Contents
Sheep disease investigation

Diarrhoea in neonatal lambs

Scour in neonatal lambs can be due to
individual pathogens or a combination
of dietary problems (colostrum and milk
intake), and/or husbandry issues leading
to pathogenic infections. Assessing
management and hygiene can be a
very useful part of investigation. Scour
can spread rapidly therefore prompt
investigation is encouraged. Some
pathogens are zoonotic. Consider
isolation of affected lambs if possible.

History
Ewe body condition score, vaccination history, current diet, and colostrum/milk
production. Lambing shed and neonatal lamb management, historical disease
problems.

Investigation/Sampling
Infectious disease: Take faecal sample from 2-3 untreated cases for E. coli K99,
rotavirus, salmonella and cryptosporidiosis +/- coccidiosis if >2wo (Neonatal
Enteritis Package).

Colostrum: Take serum for ZST from 4-6 affected lambs <7d old to assess
colostrum intake.

Postmortem: Examine any lambs for signs of Lamb dysentery – dark, distended, small
intestine sometimes with gas production within the intestinal wall and blood-stained
peritoneal fluid. Take intestinal content for anaerobic culture, beta and epsilon toxin
detection to support the diagnosis. Collect faeces and blood for testing as above.

Further information
Sargison, N. (2004), Differential diagnosis of diarrhoea in lambs. In Practice, 26: 20-27.

32 Return to Contents
 Sheep disease investigation

Poor growth rates in lambs

Target growth rates are 300g/
day pre-weaning and 200g/
day post-weaning but will vary
with production system. Ill thrift
in lambs can be multifactorial
and the causes can be historical
e.g., if growth rate is poor in the
first 8 weeks of life, lambs rarely
make up the deficit. Taking a
thorough history is key to effective
investigation.

History
Age, number affected, timing of anthelmintic treatment(s), when last wormed and
with which product, evidence of scour, duration of problem, number of deaths. Assess
level of nutrition post lambing and availability/quality of current pasture. Assess
pasture grazing history with respect to parasite risk.

Investigation/Sampling
Nutrition: Assess forage quality, availability, and stocking rate (see AHDB reference
below)

Samples: Fresh faecal samples from ten lambs for pooled worm egg counts +/-
screening for liver fluke (serum) depending on time of year/risk. Blood sample (serum
and heparin plasma) six from affected group for vitamin B12, copper, GSH-PX and
pepsinogen +/- liver fluke serology

Postmortem: If mortality or sacrifice 2-4 typical cases (see sampling guide on page
58, 59 and 64).

Further information
AHDB (2018), Planning grazing strategies for better returns (available online)
Gascoigne, E. and Lovatt, F. (2015), Lamb growth rates and optimising production. In
Practice, 37: 401-414.
Sargison, N. (2004), Differential diagnosis of diarrhoea in lambs. In Practice, 26: 20-27.

33 Return to Contents
Sheep disease investigation

Respiratory tract conditions in sheep

History
Including number affected, duration and
severity of problem, number of deaths,
condition of affected animals, vaccinations
used, response to treatment.

Investigation/Sampling
Lambs: Submit faecal samples from affected
animals for lungworm check. Abattoir
feedback for enzootic pneumonia in lambs.

Adults: Blood sample (serum) 6-10 animals for MV serology. Ultrasound scan or
postmortem examination for OPA.

Postmortem: If mortality do postmortem examination, and collect fixed and fresh

lung samples as per pages 58, 59 & 64.

Further information
Bell, S. (2008), Respiratory disease in sheep. In Practice, 30: 200-207 and 278-283.

Sudden deaths
Investigation/Sampling
Postmortem: Submit or carry out postmortem examination of fresh carcase(s). Take
samples as per page 58 & 59 or phone the duty vet on 0131 535 3130 for sampling
advice if needed

Further information
Lovatt, F., Stevenson, H. and Davies, I. (2014), Sudden death in sheep. In Practice, 36:
409-417.
Otter, A and Davies, I. (2015) Disease features and diagnostic sampling of cattle and
sheep postmortem examinations. In Practice, 37:293-305

34 Return to Contents
 Sheep disease investigation

Ill thrift in adult sheep

Depending on the presentation, ill
thrift can be nutritional (although
trace element deficiency in adult
animals is rare as a cause of ill thrift)
or due to disease. Always investigate
if culling due to weight loss is
increasing in a flock.

History
Percentage affected, duration of
problem, age range, time of year
problem is occurring, date of weaning,
dates of anthelmintic/flukicide
treatment and products used, diet fed/available and trace element supplementation,
clinical signs e.g., diarrhoea, lameness, respiratory signs.

Investigation/Sampling
Clinical Examination: Body condition score affected ewes and proportion of rest of
flock. Check for broken mouths, causes of lameness, mastitis, or other concurrent
disease.

Parasitism: Submit faecal samples from ten individuals to assess worm and fluke
burdens. Note that high worm burdens may be secondary to underlying disease.

Infectious disease: Submit serum blood samples from 6-10 affected animals for
Johne’s disease, MV +/- CLA serology. Ultrasound examination for OPA (although
histopathology is required for definitive diagnosis).

Postmortem: Submit or perform an on-farm postmortem examination (see sampling

guide on page 58, 59 & 64) of 2-4 typically affected ewes with no explanation for
poor condition found on clinical exam. This can be a very cost-effective screen.

Further information
Busin, V. (2020), Recognising and dealing with ill thrift in ewes. In Practice, 42: 498-509.

35 Return to Contents
Sheep disease investigation

Skin conditions in sheep

History
Number affected, duration of problem, whether bought-in, details of quarantine
procedure, whether pruritic, response to treatment, signs seen.

Investigation/Sampling
Clinical Exam: Examine wool for lice and scab mites (latter just visible to naked eye
but need skin scrape to rule out).

Parasites: Submit skin scrapes and scabs from edge of affected area from affected
animals. Include as much crust material as possible. To be checked for ectoparasites
(free of charge for practices in Scotland).

Infectious disease: If appropriate submit swabs for bacterial culture for

Dermatophilus, Staphylococus aureus or CLA (+/- serology for the latter). Consider
fungal culture for ringworm. Submit small, clean, dry scabs for Orf PCR (do not use
VTM). Consider fixed skin biopsies for histopathology.

Further information
External parasites of sheep, search SCOPS (www.scops.org.uk/external-parasites/)
Gascoigne, E., Ogden, N., Lovatt, F. and Davies, P. (2020), Update on caseous
lymphadenitis in sheep. In Practice, 42: 105-114.

36 Return to Contents
 Sheep disease investigation

Trace element check

Routine check to monitor trace element requirement of stock either at end of grazing
period (to assess pasture) or during / after housing period (to assess housed ration).

History
Ensure ration details are recorded accurately and review access to ration in housed
groups. Allow at least 3 weeks from any ration change before sampling.

Investigation/Sampling
Samples: 4-6 animals screened for copper, vitamin B12, GSH-PX and pooled iodine
(heparin plasma ideally but serum can be used for copper)

Metabolic profile in ewes pre-lambing

History
Assess quality of forage and concentrate available. Check the timing and amount of
concentrate fed alongside available trough space for both concentrate and forage.
Check water source is clean and accessible. Any evidence of widespread decrease
in body condition score or presence of twin lamb disease suggests a significant
nutritional issue.

Investigation/Sampling
Samples: Take serum from 5-10 animals from each group (twins/triplet bearing ewes
if scanned) 3-4 weeks prior to lambing. Test BOHB and Urea +/- albumin +/- Mg. Avoid
sampling straight after concentrate feeding.

Further information
Phillips, K., et al. (2014), Sheep health, welfare and production planning 2. Assessing
nutrition of the ewe in late pregnancy. In Practice, 36: 133-143

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Notes

38
 Ruminant Parasitology
Investigation of anthelmintic resistance....................................................................... 40
Investigation of triclabendazole resistance ................................................................ 40
Fluke diagnosis/monitoring............................................................................................... ..... 41

39 Return to Contents
Ruminant parasitology

Investigation of anthelmintic resistance

Faecal egg count reduction test (FECRT) protocol (search FECRT combar,
www.combar-ca.eu/media)

Animals should not have had anthelmintic in the previous 6 weeks (longer if a persistent
product has been used)

Carry out individual faecal egg count on 10 individually identified animals

Ensure product is used as per manufacturer’s instructions, drenching guns are calibrated,
animals are weighed and dosed appropriately for weight.

Take post-treatment samples at a suitable time point depending on the anthelmintic used:
• levamisole: 7 to 10 days
• benzimidazoles: 10 to 14 days
• ivermectin and other macrocyclic lactones: 14 to 17 days
• moxidectin: 17 to 21 days
• monepantel: 14 days
when testing in parallel two or more drugs in same flock: 14 days

Ensure containers are as full as possible and samples are kept cool prior to worm egg count.

Where possible, if lack of efficacy is identified, identification of L3 larvae (or molecular

techniques) can be useful to identify resistant species.

Investigation of triclabendazole resistance

Coproantigen assay can be used to assess triclabendazole efficacy at times of year when
the liver fluke burden is likely to consist of late immature/adult flukes. If treatment has been
successful, the mean percentage positivity should ideally fall by at least 90%. For other
flukicides the test can be used when liver fluke burdens are expected to consist of adult
flukes. Any reduction in positivity should be interpreted alongside the expected efficacy of
the product against adult liver fluke, as noted in the data sheet.

Collect 10 individually identified faecal samples for individual coproantigen assay.

Treat according to data sheet, check dosing gun is calibrated, and animals treated
for weight.

After 14 days, collect individually identified faecal samples from the same 10 animals
for coproantigen.

40 Return to Contents
 Ruminant parasitology

Fluke diagnosis/ monitoring

Test Applications Limitations

Egg numbers fluctuate daily

and not evenly distributed in
Fluke Egg faeces
Requires presence of adult liver
Detection Small numbers of eggs may still
fluke (10-12wks post infection)
(Individual or be detected for around 3 weeks
producing eggs
pooled sample) after successful treatment
Can miss low levels of infection
in pooled samples

Can detect infection with late

immature and adult liver fluke Levels can fluctuate daily and
Coproantigen
2-3wks before fluke eggs not evenly distributed in faeces
ELISA (Individual detected. Can miss low levels of infection
or pooled samples)
Useful for checking flukicide in pooled samples
efficacy
GLDH – increase from 2-3
Antibody varies over time
weeks after infection
and sheep remain positive for
Serology GGT – Increase from 6-8 weeks
months after treatment.
after infection
Maternally derived colostral
Albumin – Decreases in chronic
antibody lasts around 12 weeks
disease
GLDH – increase from 2-3
weeks after infection
Non-specific changes
Biochemistry GGT – Increase from 6-8 weeks
therefore interpretation can be
after infection
challenging
Albumin – Decreases in chronic
disease

Definitive diagnosis if One sheep with no evidence of

immature fluke present in liver
fluke infection does not rule out
parenchyma or adults found in
Postmortem fluke at group level.
bile ducts of liver.
Can get scarring of liver with
Gently squeezing liver can
Taenia migration
extrude migrating fluke

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Notes

42
 Pig Disease Investigation
Infertility............................................................................................................................. ............ 44
Abortion/stillbirth/weak piglets......................................................................................... 45
Diarrhoea in piglets .................................................................................................................. 46
Respiratory disease.................................................................................................................. 47
Nervous disease......................................................................................................................... 48
Skin disease.................................................................................................................................. 48
Lameness ............................................................................................................................. ......... 49
Sudden death.............................................................................................................................. 50
Useful reading for the unexpected pig visit ................................................................ 50

43 Return to Contents
Pig disease investigation

Infertility/Barren pigs
This is more typically chronic reproductive failure, usually exhibited by low farrowing
rates, low live births, and/or a high number of animals failing to conceive.

History
Initial questions:
• Are sows or boars off feed or running high fevers?
• Are there abortions, high incidence of mummies and/or stillbirths?
• Increased number of returns to heat?
• Weak and premature piglets born?
If answer to the above is NO, then infertility is unlikely to be infectious and boar, sow/
gilt, environment, management, and feed should be considered.

Investigation/Sampling
Serology: Maternal serum samples for serology for PRRSV, Porcine parvovirus
(PPV), Erysipelothrix rhusiopathiae , Swine influenza, Leptospira Bratislava (or all 19
Leptospira serovars). Serum samples also for PRRSV PCR

Boar: Clinically examine. Consider age and level of usage

Sow/Gilt Nutrition: Consider parity and body condition

Management: Assess quality of management including level of stockperson training

Environment: Assess housing conditions. Consider time of the year e.g., effect of
heat stress.

Feed: Review feed composition and amounts. Consider trace element screening and
testing feed for mycotoxins (see price list for test options).

Further information
Reuff, L. (2000) Diagnostic approaches to reproductive failure in pigs. Swine health
and production, 8(6):285-287

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 Pig disease investigation

Abortion/stillbirth/weak piglets
Abortion target = 1%, (intervention
if >/= 2.5%). Mummified foetuses /
litter target = 0.5%, (intervention if
>/= 1%). Stillborn per litter target = 5%,
(intervention if >/= 7.5%). Infections
and non-infectious causes need to be
considered.

History
Note sow/gilt age and parity, condition
score, service date and expected
farrowing date, recent treatments,
concurrent illness, management
changes, vaccination details, and
whether deaths are pre-, intra- or post-
partum.

Investigation/Sampling
Nutrition: Review diet. Spoiled feed? Consider trace element screening and testing
feed for mycotoxins.

Serology: Maternal serum samples for PRRSV, PPV, Erysipelas, Swine influenza,
Leptospira Bratislava (or all 19 Leptospira serovars) serology. Serum samples also for
PRRSV PCR. Nasal swabs for swine influenza.

Postmortem: See pig abortion sampling section on pages 74 & 75.

Further information
Barlow, A.M. (1998). A guide to the investigation of porcine abortion/stillbirth. In
Practice 20(10): 559-564.

Gresham, A. (2003), Infectious reproductive disease in pigs. In Practice, 25: 466-473.

45 Return to Contents
Pig disease investigation

Diarrhoea in piglets
Infections are a common cause and
there are a range of viral, bacterial,
protozoal and parasitic causes to
consider. Susceptibility varies with
age, therefore testing can be more
focused (please see price list for
testing recommendations according
to age categories). Also consider
nutritional factors.

History
Historical disease or scour problems.
Query colostrum management and environmental hygiene. Review vaccination history
and level and timing of antibiotic use. Timing of any neonatal treatments.

Investigation/Sampling
Live animals: Fresh faeces from at least three recently infected, untreated pigs. Test
based on age category– see SRUC vet services pricelist.

Postmortem: Batch of up to three, untreated pigs ideally. Submit alive (if welfare
allows and is pre-agreed with vet at postmortem centre) or within a few hours of
death. See page 58, 59 and 68 for on-farm sampling, but carcases should be very
fresh/euthanased.

Further information
The pig site (2018) Diarrhoea or scours. Available at: https://www.thepigsite.com/
disease-guide/diarrhoea-scours

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 Pig disease investigation

Respiratory disease
The cause is usually infectious. There are a range of viral, bacterial and parasitic
causes to consider.

History
Consider acute versus chronic disease Note environmental conditions, vaccination
history and response to treatment.

Investigation/Sampling
Live animal sampling: Paired serum samples (2-3 weeks apart) may be useful for
swine influenza, PRRS and Mycoplasma hyopneumoniae. Take samples from acutely
affected animals and repeat three weeks later. PCR on nasal swabs for swine influenza.

Postmortem: Ideally a batch of up to three pigs/plucks from untreated pigs early

in the course of disease are ideal. If treatment is failing, it may be appropriate to
submit treated pigs. Submit to local postmortem centre of if performing on-farm
investigation, see sampling guide on pages 58, 59 and 68.

Further information
Done, S. and White, M. (2003), Porcine respiratory disease and complexes: the story
to date. In Practice, 25: 410-417

Carr, J., & Howells, M. (2017). Porcine respiratory disease: investigation and prevention.
Livestock, 22(Sup6), 4-12.

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Pig disease investigation

Nervous disease
Infectious causes (e.g., bacterial meningitis) are common. Be aware that some notifiable
diseases can present with neurological disease, e.g. Aujeszky’s disease (pseudorabies) and
classical swine fever (can present as congenital tremors in piglets).

History
Full history required. Confirm neurological origin and if central or peripheral CNS. Establish
if individual or multiple animals/whole group affected. History of water deprivation, heat
stress or recent injection.

Investigation/Sampling
Postmortem: Submit fresh carcase to post mortem centre if possible. If doing on-farm
postmortem examination then see pages 58, 59 and 69 for sampling advice.

Further information
Done, S. (1995). Diagnosis of central nervous system disorders in the pig. In Practice, 17(7),
318-327.

Skin disease
Causes can be infectious (viral, bacterial, fungal, parasitic), nutritional or congenital/
hereditary.

History
Age of affected pigs. Establish if individual or multiple
animals/whole group affected

Investigation/Sampling
• Charcoal swabs for bacterial culture
• Hair plucks for ringworm culture
• Skin biopsies for histopathology and electron
microscopy.
• Skin and ear wax scrapings for ectoparasite
examination.
• Serum for biochemistry – to rule out parakeratosis
(Zn deficiency)

Further information
White, M. (1999), Skin lesions in pigs. In Practice, 21: 20-29

48 Return to Contents
 Pig disease investigation

Lameness and locomotor disturbance

Disease of skeletal system, joints, muscles,
feet or neurological system can cause
lameness or locomotor disturbance.
Lameness due to vesicles and blisters on
the feet can be associated with notifiable
diseases.

Causes include inflammatory conditions

(synovitis/osteomyelitis secondary
to bacterial septicaemia, including
mycoplasma); nutritional osteodystrophy
or myopathy; and degenerative conditions
such as osteochondrosis, osteomalacia
and epiphysiolysis.

History
Detailed history is essential as there are large numbers of potential causes. Determine
if an individual or group problem, if multiple groups affected and the age of affected
animals. Recent history of injection into neck muscles (can lead to iatrogentic spinal
cord trauma). Review diet/nutrition with respect to calcium/phosphorus/vitamin E/
vitamin D.

Investigation/Sampling
Clinical examination: Examine feet for laminitis, ulceration, foot abscesses and
cracks.

Live animal: Examine feet for pain or visible lesions. Collect synovial fluid samples for
bacterial culture. Serum for Mycoplasma serology.

Postmortem: Complete PM with full sample set required to rule out other differentials
(see pages 58, 59 and 69).

Further information
Canning, P et al., (2019). Retrospective study of lameness cases in growing pigs
associated with joint and leg submissions to a veterinary diagnostic laboratory.
Journal of Swine Health and Production 27(3): 118-124

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Pig disease investigation

Sudden death
Wide range of possible causes. Acute
bacterial septicaemia is most common.
Also consider nutritional causes (mulberry
heart disease, iron deficiency anaemia,
hypocalcaemia) toxicity (bracken, coal
tar), intestinal torsion, electrocution,
trauma (crushing in neonates). Consider
notifiable conditions, particularly if large
numbers of pigs are found dead or are
showing signs of acute disease.

History
Detailed history will help eliminate certain possibilities and narrow the differential list.

Investigation/Sampling
Postmortem: Submit fresh carcase(s) to postmortem centre if possible. If doing on-
farm postmortem, a full range of samples is strongly recommended (see page 58 &
59).

Useful reading for the unexpected pig visit

Further information
Potter, R. (1998), Clinical conditions of pigs in outdoor breeding herds. In Practice, 20: 3-14.

Robbins, R. C., et al. (2014), Swine Diseases and Disorders. Encyclopaedia of Agriculture and
Food Systems, 261–276.

Carr, J. and Wilbers, A. (2008), Pet pig medicine. 1. The normal pig. In Practice, 30: 160-166.

Carr, J. and Wilbers, A. (2008), Pet pig medicine. 2. The sick pig. In Practice, 30: 214-221.

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 Postmortem Exam and Sampling
Preparation, tips and technique................................................................................. 52-55
Postmortem sampling tips ............................................................................................ 56-57
Standard sample set ....................................................................................................... 58-59
Cattle postmortem sampling....................................................................................... 60-61
Cattle respiratory disease PM sampling ................................................................ 62-63
Sheep postmortem sampling ..................................................................................... 64-65
Diagnosing acute Nematodirus in lambs ............................................................... 66-67
Pig postmortem sampling............................................................................................. 68-69
Abortion sampling (Cattle, Sheep & Pig)................................................................ 70-75

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Field Postmortem – Equipment
Equipment list
Useful tools and equipment
• PPE – waterproofs, gauntlet/vinyl/cut-proof/chain mail gloves
• Disinfectant (remember zoonotic implications for you and your farmer)
• Postmortem knives – large and small and/or PM40 blades.
• Plastic chopping board
• Scissors and rat tooth forceps
• Saw +/- loppers
• Hammer and chisel
• Measuring tape
• pH paper
• Camera

Sample collection
• Charcoal swabs
• Plain blood tubes
• Full set of blood tubes
if live animal is euthanased
• Syringe and needle or
vacutainer
• 30ml and 60ml pots
for fresh tissue (pre-labelled
with standard samples)
• Large pot for brain (do
not squash the brain,
and add 5-10 times the
volume of formalin)
• 10% formal saline
(formalin fixative)

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 On-farm postmortem examination

Preparing for on-farm postmortem examination

• Find a well-lit, easily disinfected area, away from other stock
• Set up a makeshift work area – loader bucket, straw bales, tarpaulin
• Set up two clinical waste bags doubled up suspended inside an empty bucket or
drum - to dispose of viscera. Secure with cable ties once full.

Practical tips for field postmortem examination

Useful guides and information on postmortem technique
Excellent references for further guidance on postmortem examinations:
• Getting the most out of on-farm postmortems by AHDB. Available online at: https://
ahdb.org.uk/knowledge-library/getting-the-most-out-of-on-farm-postmortems
• Disease features and diagnostic sampling of cattle and sheep postmortem
examinations by Arthur Otter and Ian Davies. In Practice 2015; 37:293-305
• Postmortem examination of cattle and sheep by Ian Griffiths. In Practice 2005;
27: 458-465
• Postmortem examination of horses by Katherine Whitwell, In Practice 2009, 31:
104-113.

Before you start

• Always take a full clinical history
• Take blood samples (red, green, and purple top) before euthanasing an animal for
postmortem examination.
• Rule out anthrax (if required) prior to starting the examination

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On-farm postmortem examination

Postmortem examination: Technique in brief

• Assess carcase externally – Faecal
staining, scavenging, body condition,
injuries.
• Stabilise the carcase by cutting
through axillae and hip joints and
reflect the limbs.
• Remove the skin – look for oedema,
haemorrhage, enlarged lymph nodes.
(Picture 1)
• General internal exam – look for
effusions (collect a sample),
haemorrhage, pallor, congestion,
icterus, oedema, lymph node
enlargement
• Respiratory – remove the pluck (Picture 2). Examine the larynx, trachea, bronchi,
lung parenchyma. Look at the distribution and nature of lesions (Picture 3,
cranioventral depressed consolidation)
• Cardiovascular – Look for pericardial effusion, size and shape of heart, valve lesions
• Abdominal solid organs (Picture 4, normal viscera. Empty gall bladder)
- spleen: size.
- liver: colour, consistency, rounding of edges, parasitism
- kidney: size, consistency, and colour
• Gastrointestinal tract (Picture 5) – Consider the type of content, rumen pH, and
rumen fill, abomasal mucosa, intestinal fill, and nature of content. Colour of serosa
and mucosa, intestinal thickening.
• Reproductive system – Gestation, infection.
• Urinary system – Check ureters, bladder; urinary obstruction, urine appearance
• Musculoskeletal – Look for muscle discolouration, necrosis. Check joint fluid –
appearance, amount, turbidity.
• Brain (Picture 6, normal brain) – Malformation, fluorescence

If in doubt – take photos and standard samples then phone 0131 535 3130 to
discuss with a SRUC vet.
Take pictures if there are lesions of which you are unsure.
• Is it pathology or just postmortem change?
• Use Email or WhatsApp to send them to your local SRUC duty vet

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 On-farm postmortem examination

1 2

3 4

5 6

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Postmortem exam sampling

Tips for sampling at Postmortem

Tissues for bacterial culture:
Take a swab by searing the surface
of the tissue with a hot blade.
Incise with a sterile scalpel within
the seared tissue before taking
sterile swab.
OR
Fill a 60ml pot with clean tissue
and submit for bacterial culture as
soon as possible.

Specific mycoplasma transport

medium is available from your
local postmortem centre or the
SRUC Vet Services, Edinburgh lab
(0131 535 3130). Sterile swabbing of post mortem tissue

Aqueous and Vitreous Humour:

Useful for biochemistry, especially Ca, Mg, Urea and BOHB. Vitreous humour is
generally more stable and the sample of choice for PM testing.
Use a large bore needle
inserted through the cornea
into the posterior chamber and
angle caudally then aspirate
1-2ml. A vacutainer also works
well. You may need to rotate or
reposition the needle to collect
a sample.

Contaminants will affect Ca

and Mg levels in fluid therefore
centrifuge before sending clean
sample to lab.

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 Postmortem exam sampling

Histopathology samples:
• If it looks weird – put some into fixative!
• 1 x 1 x 2 cm pieces of tissue are ideal.
• They can all be in the same pot together, just tell us which tissues are present.
• Fix these in ten times as much 10% formal saline / formalin as soon as possible. If
the tissues went into a dry pot gently swirl to loosen from the bottom.
• Complete your paperwork with your initial testing requests and mark it ‘tissues for
histopathology available/to follow’
• Once tissues are fixed, usually after 48-72 hours at room temperature you can
remove them from the formalin and send them in one pot with a maximum of 50ml
of formalin.

Splitting a sternum for bone marrow histopathology:

• Remove the tissues surrounding the
sternum.
• Make a longitudinal cut down the midline
of the sternum
• Put one half of sternebrae 1 and 2 into
fixative
• Allow to fix for at least 4 days prior to
submission

Neuropathology:
• For neurological conditions histological
examination of the brain may be your best
chance of getting a diagnosis.
• Remove the brain and let it cool before placing
into formalin
• Fix it in ten times as much formal saline / formalin
• For calf and sheep brains, fix for at least seven
days at room temperature.
• Fixed brains can then be submitted in a small
rigid pot, with padding around the brain for
protection (see pages 6 & 7). Do not send
large volumes of formalin in the post.

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Postmortem exam sampling

Standard sample set for Postmortem examination

We recommend taking this sample set for every postmortem examination, as it will
provide a good chance of reaching a diagnosis in most cases (unless the carcase is
significantly autolysed).

We recognise it is not always possible or easy to collect all these samples on farm. For
this reason, over the following pages a reduced sampling list for investigation of specific
problems or diseases has been provided, however this may lead to a lower chance of
reaching a diagnosis.

Sample Fresh Fixed* Common Test(s) Sample requirements

Vitreous ✓ Ca, Mg, BOHB, Urea Plain vacutainer

humour
ZST (if not too
haemolysed), Plain vacutainer
Serum ✓ BVD Ab/Ag (collect blood from
Other serology axilla / groin / heart)
NOT Biochem
Trachea ✓ ✓ BHV1 PCR Tissue/swab in VTM
Swab/60ml pot of
tissue for culture
✓ ✓ Bacterial culture 1 cm cube in VTM from
Lung
Viral / Bacterial PCR edge of lesion
4-6 sections into
fixative

Heart,
tongue, Histopathology (White 1 x 1 x 2 cm of each in
intercostal ✓
muscle disease) formalin
muscle,
diaphragm

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 Postmortem exam sampling

Sample Fresh Fixed* Common Test(s) Sample requirements

Bacterial culture Swab/60ml pot of

Copper, Lead, tissue for culture
Liver ✓ ✓
Selenium, Cobalt, Separate lidded pot for
Vits A & E trace element analysis

Spleen ✓ ✓ BVD, BDV, TBF PCR 1 cm cube in VTM

Kidney ✓ ✓ Copper, Lead Toxicity Submit in lidded pot

Rumen ✓ pH Test pH on farm

content

Rumen, abomasum,
Rumen, Ruminal acidosis 2cm intestinal
abomasum, ✓ Parasitism, enteric sections: jejunum,
and intestine disease ileum, caecum, and
colon

Terminal ileal ✓ Clostridial toxins Submit in lidded pot

content

Caecal/ Parasitology.
colonic ✓ Rotavirus, Coronavirus, Submit in lidded pot
content E. coli K99

Fresh: BVD/ BDV/ SBV 1 cm cube in lidded

Brain ✓ ✓ PCR pot in VTM
Fixed: Neuropathology Whole brain in formalin

*Fixed tissues can be put in a single tightly lidded pot. There should be 10 times the
volume of 10% formalin as there is tissue.

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Postmortem exam sampling

Cattle Postmortem sampling: Problem oriented approach

Presentation Sample Test

a
ZST if <7doa
a
Blood for ZST if <7days old b
Bacterial culture incl. Salmonella
b
Intestinal content +/or b
E. coli K99 (<5doa)
Diarrhoea in Faeces
youngstock
b
Rota and coronavirus (<21doa)
c
Fix several sections of
(fresh carcase small and large intestine
b
Cryptosporidia (6-21 doa)
required) b
Parasitology (>14 doa)
c
Histopathology

Bacteriology
Sudden death See standard sample set on Histopathology
in youngstock pages 58 & 59 Other testing as indicated
by gross exam.

See respiratory sampling

Pneumonia
guide, pages 62 & 63
a
Faeces a
Johne’s PCR, Salmonella culture,
b
Intestine: fresh ileum a
Fluke egg count
Adult scour c
Fix selection of small and a,b
ZN smear
large intestine c
Histopathology
a
Vitreous for Mg if >6mo, 7 a
Mg
rib if <6mo c
Tissue FAT and Histopathology
b
Rumen pH, check for toxic e
Clostridial Epsilon toxin
leaves, fix rumen f, g
Lead
Muscles: Dry, dark lesions: g
Selenium & Vit E
c
fresh and dfixed h
Neuropathology
Sudden Death e
Small intestinal content, i
Histopathology
(NB - rule out f
Kidney
anthrax) g
Liver
h
Fixed brain
i
Collect the standard
sample set if no gross
diagnosis

*Superscript letters indicate the tissues which are required for the individual tests

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 Postmortem exam sampling

Cattle postmortem sampling: Disease oriented approach

Condition Sample Test

Fresh tissue in 60ml pot, charcoal

Bacterial disease Bacterial culture
swab (p50&51)

Black disease Liver: Fresh lesion Bacterial culture, FAT

Liver lesion: Fixed Histopathology

Liver/Spleen Bacterial culture

Blackleg Clostridial FAT
Affected muscles: Fresh and fixed
Histopathology
Bovine neonatal Split and fix cranial sternum (p57) Histopathology
pancytopenia

Cl. perfringens Small intestinal content. Clostridial epsilon toxin

enterotoxaemia Fixed brain Neuropathology

Copper poisoning Fresh liver and kidney Tissue copper

Hypocalcaemia, Vitreous humour (p44), centrifuged Biochemistry (Ca, Mg)

hypomagnesaemia

Hypomagnesaemia 2 cm section of clean 7th rib bone Bone ash analysis

(calf)
Lead poisoning Fresh kidney Tissue lead

Listeriosis Small wedge of brain stem (fresh) Bacterial culture

Fixed brain Neuropathology
Worms grossly; faeces; Baermann
Lungworm
Fixed lung Histopathology
MCF EDTA blood, spleen MCF PCR

Faeces
Fix multiple abomasal & small Worm egg +/- cocci
PGE intestine sections Histopathology
Gut / abomasal wash Total worm count
(pages 66 & 67)
Trace elements Liver Tissue chemistry

White muscle Fixed tongue, heart, intercostal Histopathology

muscle, and diaphragm.
disease Vit E & Selenium
Fresh liver

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Postmortem exam sampling

Bovine respiratory disease sampling

A combination of bacterial culture, PCR testing and histopathology can help build a
picture of the pathogenesis of pneumonia in that animal. Testing in acute cases is
most helpful for detecting the primary pathogens.

Bacterial cultures are useful for antibiotic sensitivity (not possible for mycoplasma)
and growing isolates for autogenous vaccine. Sampling of fresh tissues, good aseptic
technique and keeping samples cool are essential for best results.

Transport media (Eaton’s broth for Mycoplasma and virus transport medium VTM) are
available from your local postmortem centre or from the SRUC Vet Services, Edin-
burgh on request (0131 535 3130). Lack of transport media does not prevent testing;
however results may be negatively affected.

Suggested sampling sites in bovine respiratory disease:

Cultures
Histopathology
Viral & M. bovis PCRs

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 Postmortem exam sampling

Test Sample Sample Requirements

The Essentials:

Histopathology Lung x 6 (both lungs)

Papillary muscle of heart 1 x 1 x 2 cm pieces of
tissue
Trachea
Place in 5-10 times the
Larynx
volume of 10% formalin
Any other lesions

Bacterial cultures 60ml leak proof pot full of

affected lung
Or Charcoal swab
Swabs from lung Avoid very necrotic or
autolytic tissue
(see page 44)
+/-swabs from abscess

Extended
Respiratory PCR 1 cm cube of tissue from
(IBR, PI3, RSV, Lung top of the right middle
P. mult, M. haem., lung lobe in VTM
H. somni, M. bovis)

The Optional Extras (if suspected on history/examination):

Histophilus somni Lesions:

Tissue 1cm cube in VTM
septicaemia PCR Heart, Larynx, Brain, Joint

Histophilus Lesions:
somni septicaemia Charcoal swab
Heart, Larynx, Brain, Joint
cultures

Plain swab in Eaton’s

M. bovis culture Lung broth. (do not put into
charcoal)

Tissue 1 cm cube in
M. bovis PCR Lung
Eaton’s broth

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Postmortem exam sampling

Sheep post-mortem sampling: Problem oriented approach

Presentation Sample Test
Serum
a a
ZST
Neonatal b
Aqueous/Vitreous Humour
a, b
Urea
c
Crypto, rotavirus,
Lamb Intestinal content
c
c
Clostridial toxin.
d
Lung and Liver Swabs/Tissue c,d
Bacterial culture
Fixed sections of intestine & brain
e e
Histopathology

Grazing Lamb Standard sample set (pages 58 & 59) Routine testing
Consider gut wash (pages 66 & 67) Total worm count
Lamb with Fresh lung or charcoal swab
a a
Bacterial culture
respiratory b
1 cm cube fresh lung (in Eaton’s broth) b
Mycoplasma DGGE/PCR
disease Fixed lung (4-6 sections)
c c
Histopathology
Pre-mortem bloods
a

Autumn Lamb b
Liver a, b
Trace elements
with Ill Thrift Faeces
c c
Worm egg count
d
Fresh lung and fixed lung if lesions d
Bacterial culture
Fix: rumen, abomasum, and several
e d,e
Histopathology
small and large intestinal sections
Check for chronic illness, abomasum
a
Pre-mortem
for Haemonchus bloods or PM serum
fix appropriate tissues
Check teeth (dental dis.), Abomasum:
Adult Ill Thrift a
Johne’s, MV, CLA
Haemonchus
b
Swab wall of purulent lesions serology
c
Faeces b
Bacterial culture
d
Fix: lung, liver, kidney, abomasum, c
FWEC, (Johne’s PCR)
rumen, intestinal sections especially d
Histopathology
ileum

a
Aqueous/Vitreous humour a,c
Urea, BOHB, Ca & Mg
Adult
b
Fix: Liver, lung, intestine and abnormal b
Histopathology
Periparturient tissues
losses
c
Serum sample cohort

*Superscript letters indicate the tissues which are required for the individual tests

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 Postmortem exam sampling

Sheep post-mortem sampling: Disease oriented approach

Condition Sample Test

Bacterial disease Fresh tissue, charcoal swab Bacterial culture

CCN Fresh brain Look for fluorescence

Fixed brain Neuropathology
Clostridial Intestinal (ileal) content +/- Clostridial enterotoxins
enterotoxaemia pericardial effusion
Neuropathology
(pulpy kidney) Fixed brain
Faeces Johne’s PCR, ZN smear,
Johne’s disease Intestine (fresh and fixed)
Histopathology
Ileocaecal lymph node (fixed)
Small wedge of tissue from ventral Bacterial culture
Listeriosis brain stem (fresh)
Neuropathology
Fixed Brain

Metabolic disorders Vitreous humour, centrifuged Biochemistry (Ca, Mg,

BOHB)

MV Blood (serum) MV ELISA

Fixed lung Histopathology
Mycoplasma Lung in Eaton’s broth Mycoplasma DGGE/PCR
(enzootic)
Fixed lung Histopathology
pneumonia

Nephrosis Vitreous humour Urea

Fixed kidney Histopathology

OPA Fixed lung Histopathology

Gut wash (pages 66 & 67) Total worm count

PGE Faeces Worm egg count
Fixed abomasum and intestine Histopathology
Trace element Liver Tissue chemistry (Cu, Se,
deficiency Co)

Histopathology, tissue
White muscle Fixed heart, intercostal muscle, and
chemistry (vitamin E /
disease diaphragm; liver (fresh)
Selenium)

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Postmortem exam sampling

Diagnosing acute Nematodirosis in lambs

Nematodirosis should always be considered as a differential diagnosis in sudden
deaths amongst growing lambs in the spring/early summer, particularly if some
of the cohort have diarrhoea. Diagnosis can be reached readily by examining the
small intestinal content for the characteristic clumps of worms. Worm recovery and
identification can be challenging in autolysed carcases.

Equipment

Buckets
Scissors
Water (tap or slow running hose)
355 μm sieve (From suppliers such as SLS: product SIE1044)

Procedure
Gently tear the intestine away from the
mesenteric attachment until the whole
small intestine is free. Don’t worry if
it breaks in a few places. Place into a
bucket.

Fill the intestine with cold water at low

pressure until at least 20cm of the
intestine is distended with water.

Run the gut through

your fingers, and using
gravity to help, wash the
water and gut contents
through the length of
the gut. Ensure all of
the content is caught
in the bucket. It may
be necessary, split the
intestine into sections,
to prevent blockages.
Repeat for each section
of gut you have. Discard
the gut.

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 Postmortem exam sampling

Pour the contents of the bucket, a bit at a time, over a

355 μm sieve – this process catches the fine worms
in the sieve. Gently rinse the debris in the sieve under
the cold tap until no more material will pass through
the sieve and the water runs clear. A tea strainer or fine
flour sieve can be used but will catch fewer worms.
The contents will often have more fibrous content than
those shown in the photograph and it may take some
time for the material to go through the seive.

It is often possible to visualise Nematodirus as small

clumps of very fine white worms amongst the fibrous
debris on the surface of the sieve, often described as
appearing like fine wet “cotton wool” (pictures below.
The presence of tapeworm segments on the right
below is incidental).

Microscopic examination can be carried out to identify the worms if desired but is
usually unnecessary.

To submit a total worm count this process can be followed for the contents of the
abomasum or small intestine. For the abomasum, collect the abomasal contents into
a bucket, then wash the mucosal surface until clean, collecting all of the water in the
bucket. Wash the content through the sieve as above (N.B. teladorsagia and trichuris
are not easy to see with the naked eye). When the water runs clear, re-suspend the
sediment collected in the sieve in 2 litres of tap water. Agitate the sample and collect
2 x 200ml alliquots into sealed leak proof containers and submit to the lab.

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Postmortem exam sampling

Pig post-mortem sampling: Problem oriented approach

Presentation Sample Test

Varies by age.
Bacterial culture:
• Aerobic
• Anaerobic
• Yersinia
Fresh small and large • Brachyspira
intestinal content Clostridial toxins
Diarrhoea E. coli virulence PCR
Fix several sections of Brachyspira PCR
intestines and lymph nodes Lawsonia PCR
Rotavirus-PAGE/ELISA
Porcine coronavirus
Faecal smear -
cryptosporidium
Histopathology

Bacterial culture
Swab or 60ml pot fresh lung +/- liver PCR (Mycoplasma
Pneumonia 1 cm cube fresh lung hyopneumoniae, Swine
influenza, PRRS, APP)
Fixed lung (4-6 sections both sides)
Histopathology

PCR (Swine influenza

Reproductive Fresh - heart, thymus, spleen, lung. PRRS, Porcine Parvovirus)
disease with Bacterial culture
Foetal stomach content
abortion/
Fixed heart, lung, liver, kidney, placenta, Histopathology
stillbirths/
(plus serum and nasal swabs from dam) Maternal serology (pg 63)
weak piglets

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 Postmortem exam sampling

Pig post-mortem sampling: Problem oriented approach

Presentation Sample Test

Joint fluid or swab (collect aseptically)

Synovial membrane – fresh (in Eatons Bacterial culture
broth) Mycoplasma DGGE/PCR
Lameness/
Liver – fresh
locomotor Liver vitamin E & selenium
problem 6 cm of 7th rib +/- femur
Bone ash analysis
Full range of fixed tissues incl. synovial
membrane and growth plate (split Histopathology
bone longitudianlly)

Meningeal swab Bacterial culture

Neurological 1 cm cube fresh brain PCR testing if necessary
disease
Whole brain fixed Histopathology

Pig post-mortem sampling: Disease oriented approach

Presentation Sample Test

Carcase lymph nodes (fix and fresh

PCV-2 from at least 3 acutely affected pigs) PCR for PCV-2
associated
disease e.g.
PMWS, PDNS Full sample set of fresh and fixed Histopathology +/- IHC
tissues

Fresh tonsil
Progressive (Nasal/tonsil swabs from at least 20
live pigs) Toxigenic P. multocida PCR
atrophic
Transverse section through nose at Histopathology
rhinitis
level of premolar 1-2

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Abortion sampling

Bovine abortion sampling

Placenta – Bacterial culture and histopathology.
• 60ml pot of placenta (as clean as possible) with both cotyledon and membrane
• Fix a section of cotyledon and membrane (abnormal tissue if there is some)

Foetal fluid or blood (for BVD

antibody, BVD antigen, N.
Caninum and L. Hardjo antibody.
Schmallenberg antibody on
request).
• Fill two red top tubes and label
as foetal fluid.
• Fluid from the thorax /
pericardium/abdomen or
unclotted blood is suitable

Collection of foetal fluid

Foetal stomach contents (FSC)

for bacterial/fungal culture
including Salmonella, Brucella and
Campylobacter.
• Using a vacutainer needle
and red top tube aspirate
fluid from the stomach
• Sample should be
collected in a sterile manner
If no FSC available:
• Lung for bacterial culture
- place in a labelled
universal container. Collection of foetal stomach contents

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 Abortion sampling

Histopathology
1 x 1 x 2 cm representative tissue sections of:
• Liver - can be useful in identifying IBR
• Lung - histological changes are often evident in cases of bacterial abortion
• Heart - useful in the diagnosis of Neospora infection
• Brain - whole- useful in the diagnosis of Neospora infection
• Thyroid - hyperplasia can indicate iodine deficiency
• Placenta - placentitis can be indicative of an infectious cause of abortion
Tissues should be stored in 10 times the volume of formalin after collection.

Removal of thyroid gland in stillbirths.

Further Testing
PCR: A 1 cm cube of tissue (in virus transport medium if possible):
• IBR: liver
• BVD: spleen
• Schmallenberg virus (brain)
Trace elements:
• Iodine: Thyroid (stillborn calves)
• Selenium: Liver

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Abortion sampling

Ovine abortion sampling

Placenta – Bacterial culture, MZN
stain for EAE and histopathology.
• 60ml pot of placenta (as clean as
possible) with both cotyledon and
membrane
• Fix a section of cotyledon and
membrane (abnormal tissue
if there is some)

Examine the whole placenta and select areas for

sampling with pathology present.

Foetal fluid or blood (toxoplasma

FAT)
• Fluid from the thorax/
pericardium/abdomen or
unclotted blood is suitable
• Fill a red top tube labelled as
foetal fluid

Foetal fluid is usually best found in the caudo-dorsal

thorax. Abdominal fluid or blood are also suitable for
testing.

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 Abortion sampling

Foetal stomach contents (FSC) for

bacterial culture including Salmonella,
Brucella and Campylobacter
• Using a vacutainer needle
and red top tube aspirate
fluid from the stomach.
• Sample should be collected
in a sterile manner
If no FSC available:
• Lung for bacterial culture -
place in a labelled universal
container.

Collection of foetal stomach contents.

Histopathology
1 x 1 x 2 cm representative tissue sections of:
• Liver – histological changes often evident in bacterial abortion
• Lung - histological changes often evident in bacterial abortion
• Heart
• Brain – whole fixed brain is useful in the diagnosis of Border disease,
Schmallenberg and bluetongue virus infection.
• Thyroid - hyperplasia can indicate iodine deficiency
• Placenta - placentitis can be indicative of an infectious cause of abortion. Typical
lesions present in EAE and toxoplasmosis.
Tissues should be stored in 10 times the volume of formalin after collection.

Further Testing
PCR: A 1 cm cube of tissue (in virus transport medium if possible):
• Border disease virus: spleen
• Schmallenberg virus: brain
• Toxoplasmosis: placenta
Suspect Tick-borne Fever
• Maternal EDTA blood
Trace elements
• Iodine: Thyroid
• Selenium: Liver

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Abortion sampling

Porcine abortion sampling

Postmortem examination
Note the following for each foetus:
• Weight
• Crown-rump lengths
• Any malformations
• Lungs inflated?
• Meconium in stomach?
Do foetuses appear to have died at the
same time, or at different times (sequential
deaths)?
Sampling for laboratory investigations
Placenta/vaginal swabs – Bacterial culture
for Brucella suis and histopathology
• 60ml pot of placenta (as clean as Porcine abortion.
possible) with both cotyledon and membrane
• Fix sections of at least three cotyledons and membrane (include abnormal tissue
if there is some)

Foetal fluid or blood (for porcine parvovirus HAIT and ELISA, and swine influenza HAIT)
• Fill two red top tubes labelled as foetal fluid with fluid from the thorax/
pericardium/abdomen

Collection of foetal fluid from thorax (black arrow).

Abdominal fluid can also be used.

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 Abortion sampling

Foetal stomach contents (FSC) (or liver if not available) for bacterial/fungal culture
including Brucella suis and other bacteria.
• Using a vacutainer needle and remaining red top tube aspirate fluid from the
stomach in a sterile manner.

Histopathology
1 x 1 x 2 cm representative tissue sections of:
• Liver
• Lung
• Heart
• Kidney
• Brain
• Placenta
Tissues should be stored in 10 times the volume of formalin after collection.

Fresh tissues
Sample 1 cm cube of each of the following into separate pots.
• Lung – Swine influenza PCR
• Liver – Porcine parvovirus PCR
• Thymus. spleen or lung – PRRS PCR
• Heart – for possible PCV-2 and EMCV testing

Further Testing
Sow serology: ‘Acute phase’ blood samples from affected and unaffected sows/gilts
permit subsequent paired serology with ‘convalescent’ blood samples taken 2 to 3
weeks later. However, abortion is often a sequel to infection thus seroconversion may
already have occurred. Potential testing for PRRSV, PPV, Erysipelas, swine influenza and
Leptospira Bratislava

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Notes

76
 Poultry and Gamebirds
Poultry disease investigation ....................................................................................... 78-79
Postmortem examination............................................................................................... 80-81
Postmortem sampling tips .............................................................................................. 82
Pheasant and partridge postmortem ..................................................................... 83-86
Red grouse postmortem......................................................................................................... 87
Red grouse total worm count sampling......................................................................... 88

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Backyard poultry disease investigation

Domestic/backyard poultry disease investigation

History: For all poultry diseases, a thorough history is of particular importance
since diagnostic sampling is often limited and owners may only present one bird for
examination. The history should include:
• Number and type of birds (hybrid layer,
pure breed, fancy breeds,
ex-commercial, mixture)
• Housing/environment
• Management including diet, feeding method
and equipment, supplements or treats,
amounts and timing
• Source(s) of birds, and when most recent
birds were added
• Vaccination and treatment history (e.g.
worming, coccidiostat) before
and after purchase.
• Birds affected – source(s), vaccination history, breed, and age
– compared to those unaffected.
• Duration and clinical signs seen, numbers of birds affected,
• Contact with wild birds and waterfowl, wildlife or vermin.
• Any previous problems identified.
Blood sampling live birds
Diagnostic serum biochemistry and haematology testing in individual sick birds can be
challenging to interpret (reference ranges are usually not available) and a conclusive
diagnosis is rarely reached.

If serum samples (plain blood tube) are collected, note that chicken blood is prone to
serum clots which can render the sample unsuitable for analysis. To minimise this avoid
agitating samples, do not expose them to extremes of heat or cold e.g., in the car, and
send to the lab on the day they are collected.

If you wish to carry out diagnostics in a small flock please don’t hesitate to contact your
local SRUC Vet (0131 535 3130) as a pre-sampling discussion is likely to be helpful.

Further information
Kelly, L.M. and Alworth, L.C., 2013. Techniques for collecting blood from the domestic
chicken. Lab animal, 42(10), pp.359-361.

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 Backyard poultry disease investigation

Problem oriented approach to poultry disease

Presentation Sample Test

Worm egg counts,

Coccidial oocyst counts (young
Faeces
Diarrhoea* birds),
(fresh, avoid bedding)
+/- bacterial culture and/or
Brachyspira
Faeces Gapeworm
Swab from Mycoplasma PCR
Respiratory
nares/conjunctiva Bacterial Culture (may overgrow
Disease*
with contaminants)
Blood / serum Note prior vaccination/exposure

History - rule out bullying

Weight loss Postmortem Usually individual disease process
(individual) examination (diagnostically challenging in the
live animal).

History, esp. nutrition (see page 78).

Check housing for red mite
Weight loss
Faeces Worm egg counts,
(group)
Coccidial oocyst counts
(young birds)
Turbid, malodorous effusion: Likely
egg peritonitis
Ascites Peritoneal Tap Clear effusion: May be due to
heart disease, hepatic disease or
neoplasia among other diagnoses.
Fix brain (cut head in half into fix)
Neurological Postmortem
and sample peripheral nerves.
signs** examination

Sudden Take standard sample set (page 82)

Postmortem examination
Deaths**
*Postmortem examination if mortality occurs
**Neurological signs/increased mortality can occur in notifiable diseases and APHA
should be contacted if there is suspicion of Avian Influenza or Newcastle Disease.

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Backyard poultry postmortem exam

Domestic poultry – Postmortem examination

Postmortem examination can be most valuable for investigation of flock level
problems. Carcases can be delivered to SRUC postmortem centre’s (see page 89) via
courier with a chill pack in a polystyrene box (see packaging guidelines on page 7).
Ensure notifiable disease has been excluded prior to submission.

Equipment:
• Sharp scissors
• Scalpel and a larger sharp knife
• Rat tooth forceps
• Bucket of disinfectant
• Kitchen scale

Top tips:
• Always perform an external examination.
Check nares, eyes, oral cavity including the
larynx, vent for abnormalities. Check skin
for mites/lice (red mite not always present
on carcase). Palpate bones for fractures or
deformities
• Weighing can evaluate any variability within a
group of the same age and type.
• Before opening, hold the carcase by the
head and dip the body into a bucket of
disinfectant, ensuring the head and beak are
NOT submerged. Dipping reduces feathers
sticking to hands/tissues.

NB: If a bird is covered in lice or mites ensure wrists

of gloves and clothing are sealed. These do not live on
humans but will move onto humans in an emergency!

Further information
SRUC online CPD Academy, Free chicken pathology
webinar

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 Backyard poultry postmortem exam

Technique in brief
• Place carcase on its back and press legs backwards to disarticulate the hips
(stabilises the carcase).
• Cut along the midline from the ventral beak down almost to the vent with scissors
and bluntly dissect/peel skin off.
• Cut through ribs (avoiding keel) with large sharp scissors and through the tough
furcula (wish bone) cranially.
• Peel off the keel and attached abdominal wall.
• Grasp the oesophagus just underneath the heart, where it enters the
proventriculus, and pull outwards. Cut the oesophagus and pull the proventriculus,
gizzard, liver, spleen and intestinal tract out, cutting the large intestine close to the
entry into the vent. Check abdominal air sacs for abnormalities as you remove
the viscera.
• Examine the full digestive tract (including contents and mucosa) alongside liver
and spleen.
• Examine reproductive tract, especially if the bird is a layer. Remove salpinx and
ovary/developing follicles and yolks.
• Examine kidneys, particularly ureters (check for urates).
• Remove heart, examining for any visceral gout or abnormality. Note: euthanasia
by cranial abdominal injection can cause crystals / gritty consistency which can
be mistaken for visceral gout.
• Examine lungs and thoracic air sacs (including the membranes on the underside of
the discarded keel bone).
• Examine inside of trachea, open from larynx to bifurcation.
• Check the crop for over-distention, sour odour or abnormal mucosa.
• Dissect between wing and thorax to examine brachial plexus. Dissect between
muscle masses on caudomedial thigh to examine sciatic nerves (see below).
• Cut head longitudinally with large sharp knife. Examine sinuses.

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Backyard poultry postmortem exam

Standard sample set for poultry postmortem

Sample Test Comment

Fresh liver Bacterial culture

Fresh liver, air sac ZN impression smear If avian TB suspected

Fresh air sac Bacterial and fungal culture

(if plaques present)
Worm egg count, Especially if presenting
Intestinal content Coccidial oocyst count
with diarrhoea
Bacterial culture

Fresh sinus tissue/ sinus

swabs or swabs of ocular Mycoplasma PCR
discharge. Bacterial culture
Fresh lung

e.g., Infectious
Fresh spleen, trachea, liver bronchitis
and lung. Virology (IBV), Infectious
Tracheal swabs laryngotracheitis (ILT)

Additionally: any lesions

Fixed tissues: Trachea, lung, seen e.g., neoplastic
heart, liver, spleen, kidney, lesion, air sac plaque.
intestine from various sites Histopathology Add sciatic nerve
(duodenum, jejunum, ileum, (Can be very useful) and brachial plexus
caeca) opened out flat, if Marek’s disease
sinus/half head with brain. is suspected. (see
pictures on page 81)

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 Game bird disease investigation

Game bird postmortem

Game bird postmortem and interpretation of findings can be challenging. If possible,
consider submitting carcases to a SRUC postmortem centre. If you are doing
postmortem examinations in practice, we recommend taking photos and discussing
your findings with a SRUC Vet (0131 535 3130).

Further Information: Common diseases of game birds for further guidance on specific
diseases of game birds, available at: http://apha.defra.gov.uk/documents/surveillance/
diseases/gamebirds-common-diseases.pdf

Always consider notifiable disease (Newcastle disease and Avian Influenza) – contact
APHA (03000 200301) for further advice in any cases where notifiable disease is
suspected.

Equipment and Top Tips: As for Domestic Poultry (see page 80-82)

Selecting which birds to sample:

• If presented with a large selection of dead birds select the ‘average’ birds – the
outliers may not be representative of the group problem.
• Chicks: Dead or obviously affected live birds can be examined (often only dead
ones are seen). Very squashed or autolytic chicks can be examined (and may
indicate of crowding under heat lamps). Fresh chicks are preferrable where
possible.
• Poults: It is important to examine a targeted selection of sick birds with
representative clinical signs. Submissions should include some live birds alongside
dead ones, (especially if signs of abnormal faeces or stunting/wasting are seen).
• Submission of a random sample of live healthy birds, “just to see what’s in the
batch” without any accompanying clinical signs is rarely of use.
Standard samples for game bird postmortem examination depends on the
species and age of affected birds

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Game bird disease investigation

Pheasant/partridge chick
First two weeks of life, in housing.

Sample Test Sample Requirement

Bacterial culture Pick yolk sac out into sterile container.

Yolk sac (E. coli, Salmonella, Concentrate on birds with enlarged/
Staphylococcus etc) discoloured yolk sac
Place whole liver into sterile container.
Liver Bacterial culture Concentrate on chicks that appear
“mushy” or congested.
Strip what little intestinal content there
Intestinal is into a small container (plain blood
Rotavirus ELISA tube). Multiple samples can go in one
content
container. Concentrate on chicks with
yellow fluid or frothy caecal content.

Histopathology Not usually useful in chicks

Other things to look for: -

• Livers are pale for the first few days of life. If pallor is still present at day 4-5 then
this suggests the chick is not feeding. Gall bladder may also be enlarged.
• Check gizzard for sawdust or lack of feed. This can indicate starveout – which can
be a complex combination of causes.
• Check ureters for urates (dehydration).
• If no diagnosis is reached, submission of further chicks will be more useful than
proceeding to histopathology at this age.

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 Game bird disease investigation

Pheasant/partridge poults
(and older chicks)
The chick down is now replaced by light
brown/tan juvenile plumage in both males
and females, usually in release pens

Sample Test Sample Requirement

Intestinal scrape from

duodenum, jejunum and caecum
Intestinal wet preps in freshly dead (still warm) bird.
(Examine immediately. Motile Protozoa, Score each location by number
Cannot be Coccidial oocysts of protozoa/oocysts seen (e.g. +,
submitted to lab) ++, +++, ++++)
Location can be important.
SRUC can provide training.

Faeces/intestinal and Coccidiosis

Can be submitted to the lab
caecal content Worm Burden

Liver, lung or synovial Swabs or whole tissues can

Bacterial culture be submitted to lab – Amies
fluid depending on organ
transport medium for swabs can
lesions or swollen joints
help.

Tissues in Formalin:
Heart, lung, liver, spleen, If nothing obvious was found on
kidney, opened intestinal gross PM, submission of further
sections and whole head, Histopathology birds may be more suitable than
cut midline/longitudinally proceeding to histopathology in
(including brain and this age of pheasant/partridge
sinuses)

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Game bird disease investigation

Adult pheasant/partridge
Those at an age where the plumage is obviously changing to adult plumage (usually
living free).

Sample Test Sample Requirement

Swabs or whole organs

Lung or liver, whole organ Bacterial culture (or most of the organ) for
bacterial culture

Spleen or small piece fresh May be used for This will be frozen at the lab until
liver viral testing needed
If you can see adult Syngamus
Intestinal and caecal Endoparasites trachea in the airways,
content confirmatory faecal sampling is
not needed

Clostridium colinum and

Heterakis/histomoniasis can
Intestinal and caecal Bacterial culture, be hard to differentiate on
content incl. anaerobic gross PM lesions in partridges
– histopathology and bacterial
culture can help.

Can store first to see if

Sinus tissue/ swabs of
histopathology indicates
sinuses, ocular swabs or Mycoplasma PCR Mycoplasmosis.
purulent discharge from
Send in mycoplasma transport
eyes or sinuses
medium if possible

Tissues in Formalin: Heart,

lung, liver, spleen, kidney,
Histopathology may be more
clean intestinal sections
Histopathology worthwhile in older juveniles and
and whole head, cut
adults than in younger poults and
longitudinally through the
chicks
midline (including brain and
sinuses)

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 Game bird disease investigation

Red grouse chicks

Sample Test Sample Requirement

Place whole liver into sterile

Liver Bacterial culture
container

Whole brain, not fixed, can be

Brain Louping ill PCR submitted in two pieces in the
same tube (eases removal)

Red grouse adults

Sample Test Sample Requirement

Whole organ or half the organ

Liver, spleen Bacterial culture
(see histo)

Fresh brain (from half

head not put into fix)
Brain Louping ill PCR It is easier to get the brain
(rather than blood)
from a dead grouse
Whole caecum (NOT One caecum is sufficient,
caecal or intestinal Worm burden
see page 88
content)

Tissues in formalin:
Heart, lung, liver, spleen,
kidney, clean intestinal Histopathology is often of more
sections and half head, cut Histopathology use in older juveniles and adults
longitudinally through the than in younger poults and chicks
midline (including brain
and sinuses)

Louping ill Live birds, usually, although

Blood fresh dead birds may be bled
serology
successfully

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Game bird disease investigation: postmortem exam sampling

Collecting grouse caeca for total worm counts

Sample 10 animals from each hill/moor to monitor worm burdens.

Technique: Remove the intestinal tract from the bird. Identify the tips of the caeca
(blue arrows) and gently peel off one of the caeca until it thins and joins the ileum.
Remove one caecum and place in a clearly labelled pot. Samples can be frozen prior
to submission, please make this clear on the submission form if this has been done.

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 Index

Diagnostic Submissions (Farm and Companion Animal) and

Analytical Services (soil, seed, forage etc.)
SRUC Veterinary and Analytical Laboratory
Pentlands Science Park, Bush Loan, Penicuik, Midlothian, EH26 0PZ
Tel: 0131 535 3130 / Email: VSEnquiries@sruc.ac.uk

Farm Animal Postmortem Service

Disease Surveillance Centres
Aberdeen Disease Surveillance Centre
Mill of Craibstone, Bucksburn, Aberdeen, AB21 9TB
Tel: 0131 535 3130 / Email: VetServices.North@sruc.ac.uk
Dumfries Disease Surveillance Centre
St Mary’s Industrial Estate, Dumfries, DG1 1DX
Tel: 0131 535 3130 / Email: VetServices.SouthWest@sruc.ac.uk
St Boswells Disease Surveillance Centre
Greycrook, St Boswells, Roxburghshire, TD6 0EQ
Tel: 0131 535 3130 / Email: VetServices.Central@sruc.ac.uk
Thurso Disease Surveillance Centre
Janetstown, Thurso, KW14 7XF
Tel: 0131 5353130 / Email: vcthurso@sruc.ac.uk

SVM-SRUC Farm Animal Post Mortem Service

School of Veterinary Medicine, 464 Bearsden road, Glasgow, G61 1BD.
Tel: 0131 535130 / Email: VetServices.SouthWest@sruc.ac.uk

Farm Animal Veterinary Surveillance Hubs

Perth Veterinary Surveillance Hub
5 Bertha Park View, Perth PH1 3FZ
Tel: 0131 535 3130 / Email: VetServices.Central@sruc.ac.uk
Ayr Veterinary Surveillance Hub
J F Niven Building, Auchincruive Estate, Auchincruive, Ayr, KA6 5HW
Tel: 0131 535 3130 / Email: VetServices.SouthWest@sruc.ac.uk
Inverness Veterinary Surveillance Hub
An Lòchran, 10 Inverness Campus, Inverness, IV2 5NA
Tel: 0131 535 3130 / Email: VetServices.North@sruc.ac.uk

Health Schemes
Premium Cattle Health Scheme (PCHS)
Greycrook, St Boswells, Roxburghshire, TD6 0EQ
Tel: 01835 822456 / Email: healthschemes@sruc.ac.uk / Web: www.cattlehealth.co.uk

Premium Sheep and Goat Health Schemes (PSGHS)

Greycrook, St Boswells, Roxburghshire, TD6 0EQ
Tel: 01835 822456
Email: psghs@sruc.ac.uk / Web: www.sheepandgoathealth.co.uk

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Index

A E
Abortion Investigation Enterotoxaemia
Bovine.............................................................................. 15 PM samples cattle..................................................61
Ovine.............................................................................. 29 PM samples sheep................................................65
Porcine........................................................................... 45 Equipment for postmortem
Abortion samples Birds................................................................................80
Bovine............................................................................. 70 Farm animal................................................................52
Ovine............................................................................... 72
Porcine........................................................................... 74 F
Anthelmintic resistance ..............................40
Aqueous humour collection....................... 56 Fluke monitoring/diagnosis...............................41
Ascites
Poultry............................................................................ 79 G
Atrophic rhinitis ..............................................69 Game bird postmortem
Case selection and tips.....................................83
B Pheasant/partridge adults...............................86
Barrenness Pheasant/partridge chick.................................84
Bovine.............................................................................. 14 Pheasant/partridge poults...............................85
Ovine.............................................................................. 28 Red grouse adults...................................................87
Porcine........................................................................... 44 Red grouse chick......................................................87
Biochemistry profiles............................................... 11 Grouse total worm counts.................................88
Black disease
PM samples cattle.................................................. 61 H
PM samples sheep. See cattle Histopathology
Blackleg Sample collection ..................................................57
PM samples cattle.................................................. 61 Standard sample set.............................................58
Blood tube guide ....................................................... 10 Histophilus somni
PM samples cattle.................................................. 62
C Hypocalcaemia
Cerebrocortical Necrosis Collection of aqueous/
PM samples sheep................................................ 65 vitreous humour........................................................56
Clostridium perfringens PM samples cattle....................................................61
See Enterotoxaemia PM samples sheep...................................................65
Copper poisoning Hypomagnesaemia
PM samples cattle.................................................. 61 Collection of aqueous/
PM samples sheep. See cattle vitreous humour........................................................56
Culture PM samples cattle....................................................61
Collection of samples ........................................ 56 PM samples sheep...................................................65

D I
Diarrhoea Ill thrift. See also Poor growth rate
Calves............................................................................... 17 Adult sheep................................................................ 35
Lambs............................................................................ 32 PM samples adult sheep.....................................64
Piglets............................................................................. 46 PM Samples lamb.....................................................64
PM samples adult bovine ................................ 60
PM samples calves............................................... 60 J
PM samples lamb. See Ill thrift Johne’s disease
PM samples pigs.................................................... 68 PM samples cattle. See Sheep
Poultry............................................................................ 82 PM samples sheep...................................................65

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 Index

L
O
Lameness
Pigs................................................................................... 49 Ovine Pulmonary Adenomatosis
PM samples pigs.................................................... 69 PM samples................................................................65
Lead poisoning P
PM samples cattle.................................................. 61 Parasitic Gastroenteritis
PM samples sheep. See cattle PM samples cattle...................................................61
Listeriosis PM samples sheep.................................................65
PM samples cattle.................................................. 61 Nematodirosis in lambs......................................66
PM samples sheep................................................ 65 Parasitology (ruminant)......................................40
Lungworm Pneumonia
PM samples cattle.................................................. 61 Cattle..............................................................................20
Pigs...................................................................................47
M Sheep.............................................................................34
Maedi Visna PM samples cattle.................................................62
PM samples................................................................ 65 PM samples pigs.....................................................68
Malignant Catarrhal Fever.................................. 61 PM samples sheep................................................64
Mastitis in dairy cattle......................................... 24 Polioencephalomalacia.
Subclinical................................................................... 24 See Cerebrocortical Necrosis
Metabolic disease Poor growth rates
Collection of aqueous/ Calves at grass...........................................................18
vitreous humour..................................................... 56 Housed cattle ............................................................19
PM samples cattle.................................................. 61 Lambs..............................................................................33
PM samples sheep................................................ 65 Young piglets..............................................................46
Metabolic profiling Porcine circovirus 2 (PCV-2)
Dairy Cows.................................................................. 25 PM samples pigs......................................................69
Sheep.............................................................................. 37 Postmortem
Suckler cows............................................................... 21 Disease oriented approach, cattle...............61
Milk drop in dairy cattle...................................... 22 Disease oriented approach, pigs .................69
Mycoplasma bovis Disease oriented approach, sheep..............65
PM samples cattle................................................. 62 Equipment....................................................................52
Problem oriented approach, cattle..............60
N Problem oriented approach, pigs ................68
Problem oriented approach, sheep............64
Nematodirus Sample collection top tips ..............................56
PM diagnosis lambs............................................. 66 Standard sample set............................................58
Neonatal mortality Technique in brief ..................................................54
Calves.............................................................................. 16 Tips for field postmortem ................................53
Lambs.............................................................................. 31 Poultry disease investigation
PM samples lambs ................................................ 64 Blood sampling ........................................................78
Neonatal pancytopenia ....................................... 61 Problem orientated approach........................79
Neurological disease Top tips .........................................................................78
Pigs................................................................................... 48 Poultry postmortem examination
PM samples cattle.................................................. 61 Equipment and Tips.............................................80
PM samples pigs.................................................... 69 Standard sample set............................................82
PM samples sheep................................................ 65 Technique in Brief ..................................................81
Poultry............................................................................ 82
Neuropathology
Sample collection .................................................. 57
Nutritional audit
Cattle ............................................................................... 21

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Index

R Total worm count

Lambs.............................................................................66
Respiratory disease. See pneumonia
Grouse ...........................................................................88
Respiratory Disease
Trace element check
Poultry............................................................................ 79
Cattle...............................................................................21
Sheep..............................................................................37
S Trace element deficiency
Sample storage............................................................. 9 Ill thrift in calves .......................................................18
Scour. See Diarrhoea Ill thrift in lambs....................................................... 33
Skin disease PM samples cattle..................................................60
Pigs................................................................................... 48 PM samples sheep..................................................64
Sheep............................................................................. 36 Triclabendazole resistance...............................40
Stillbirth
Bovine.............................................................................. 16 V
Ovine.............................................................................. 30
Vitreous humour collection............................ 56
Porcine........................................................................... 45
Subfertility in dairy cattle................................. 23
Sudden death
W
Pigs.................................................................................. 50 Weight loss
PM samples cattle................................................ 60 Poultry.............................................................................79
PM samples periparturient sheep.............. 64 White muscle disease
Poultry............................................................................ 82 PM samples cattle...................................................61
Sheep............................................................................. 34 PM samples sheep..................................................65
Swabs and transport media ............................... 9

T
Tips for field postmortems............................... 53

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 This guide was produced by SRUC with support from
the Universities Innovation Fund.

All rights reserved. Photographic material is copyright to SRUC

unless otherwise stated. Material produced in this handbook is
based on collective experience of veterinary investigation officers
supported by evidence-based medicine where available.
Practitioners should be mindful that tests and recommendations
may evolve and change with time.

The authors, nor anyone associated with this publication, shall be

liable for any loss, damage or expense whether directly or indirectly
caused or alleged to be caused by information provided in the handbook.

Any comments, feedback, or ideas for topics to include in

any future versions welcomed by fiona.crowden@sruc.ac.uk