16

Sampling and post-mortem

examination of the pig

Sampling should be kept cool before dispatch, but clotted samples

should not be refrigerated until the clot has formed. If
Selection of animals only serum is required, it is better to remove serum unless
blood can be dispatched promptly, thus avoiding any
It is important to inspect, examine, and sample sufficient problems with haemolysis. Enzymes are broken down in
animals to identify a problem of significance in a herd. the body at varying rates, and most need to be assayed
Submission of individual pigs, or samples from individual soon after sampling.
pigs, are not ideal. Where possible, sample untreated
animals. Take samples for attempted bacterial culture
from acute cases and from untreated pigs. Paired serology
The post-mortem examination of representative A rise in the titre using paired serum samples, with a dura-
animals at the regional laboratory is often more cost- tion of at least 2 weeks between the fi rst and second
beneficial than submitting tissue samples from dead sample, provides strong evidence of recent infection in
animals. Where possible, and subject to welfare consider- animals over 24 h of age. It is important that the fi rst
ations, submission of live animals is preferable to that of sample is taken before seroconversion is complete. It is
dead ones. In the UK, a movement licence would be wise to sample several animals in a group to demonstrate
required. Where possible, animals should be submitted at a consistent response. Individual identification is impor-
the acute stage of the disease process. tant if paired serology is to be used.

Diseases that have serological tests

Packing and sending
● Actinobacillus pleuropneumoniae (type-specific)
Great care is needed when packaging samples, and the ● Aujeszky’s disease
packaging must conform to the postal regulations for ● Brucella (abortus, melitensis, suis)
packaging of pathological material. ● Classical swine fever (CSF)
● Encephalomyocarditis virus
● Erysipelothrix
Blood samples
● Haemophilus parasuis
● Lawsonia intracellularis
Selection of sample tubes ● Leptospira (range of serovars)
Ensure that the sample taken is in the correct type of tube ● Listeria
for the analysis required. This may vary between labora- ● Mycoplasma hyopneumoniae
tories. The type of tube and the colour coding used in the ● Mycoplasma hyosynoviae
UK for commonly requested tests are shown below. ● Porcine circovirus 2
● Green (heparin): copper, glutathione peroxidase, ● Porcine epidemic diarrhoea
methaemoglobin, haemoglobin, packed cell volume, ● Porcine parvovirus
lead, plasma inorganic iodine. ● Porcine reproductive and respiratory syndrome
● Purple (ethylene diamine tetra-acetic acid, EDTA): (PRRS)
haematology. ● Swine influenza (various strain types)
● Grey (oxalate/fluoride): phosphorus and glucose. ● Talfan’s disease
● Blue (citrate): clotting times, fibrinogen. ● Transmissible gastroenteritis
● Red – none (serum): most other blood biochemical ● Porcine respiratory coronavirus
parameters and serology.
● All plastic containers without rubber or glass: zinc
Blood smears
assays.
For eperythrozoon investigations, 2 mL of whole blood in
The tube should be fi lled and gently inverted to allow an EDTA tube or two thinly spread fi lms fi xed in met-
for mixing (serum tubes being the exception). Blood hanol are required.

242
 EUTHANASIA OF PIGS ON FARM

Tissues to ensure that the container is fi lled to exclude air. When

clostridial enterotoxaemia is suspected, send a minimum
Tissue samples for histopathology of 2 mL of small intestinal contents collected from several
Tissue samples for histopathology should not be more sites in the ileum. If Clostridium novyi infection in pigs
than 1 cm thick. A representative sample that contains the is suspected, make several impression smears from the cut
normal tissue and the junction between the gross abnor- surface of affected muscle or liver, air dry, and send in a
mal lesions and the normal tissue should be included. The slide box for a fluorescent antibody test, or submit the
sample should be placed in 10–20 times their volume of tissue specimen in a sealed airtight container.
fi xative and should be sent in a suitably sized container
with a wide top to facilitate removal. The recommended Cytology
fi xative for most cases is 10% formol saline. The brain
should be fi xed whole to allow appropriate samples to be A sample of aspirated fluid should be placed in an EDTA
selected at the laboratory. Samples of intestine should be container. Several smears should be made in the same way
collected as soon as possible following death. The inclu- as blood smears then air dried and fi xed in methanol for
sion of samples from several sites of small and large intes- a minimum of 5 min.
tine is recommended. Lengths of 1–2 cm are suitable.
Crushing with forceps should be avoided, otherwise the Faeces and skin
quality of the histopathology may be affected. The sample Faeces
should be shaken gently in the fi xative to help displace Faecal samples should contain at least 10 g of faeces in a
food material. Fixation of most small samples will be wide-mouthed, screw-capped container.
completed in 24–48 h. Cases can be sent immediately if
the container is fi lled with fi xative, so that primary fi xa- Skin
tion occurs in transit. If non-urgent, tissue can be initially Submit deep scrapings or (preferably) earwax for sarcop-
fi xed for 48 h then sent in a reduced volume of fi xative. tic mange, hair for ringworm, and undamaged specimens
of lice in screw-capped containers.
Tissue samples for biochemical
or toxicological analysis
For most biochemical assays, 10 g of liver is the tissue of
Diseases and samples
choice. When sampling cases of suspected poisoning,
Tables 16.1–16.7 provide examples of samples requested
submit 10 g of liver, 10 g of kidney, stomach contents, fat,
by a laboratory by disease. Always check with the diag-
and muscle.
nostic laboratory to be used which samples are required.

Sampling for aerobic bacteriology

In the practice laboratory, bacterial growth and antimi- Euthanasia of pigs on farm
crobial sensitivities can be achieved in 6–8 h. In other
laboratories, growth may require 24 h of incubation and It is advisable for any method using shooting that a snare
antibiotic sensitivity testing a further 24 h. Some organ- is used to restrain the pig, with the person holding the
isms require more prolonged culture times, for example rope standing in front of the pig and behind the
Salmonella (3 days minimum), Campylobacter (up to 5 operator.
days), Mycoplasma (10 days to 4 weeks), and dermato- The method to be used depends on the age of the pig
phytes (3 weeks). Faecal samples in addition to swabs may and the material required for post-mortem. A lethal dose
be useful if further testing is required. The best technique of barbiturates is a desirable method. Intravenous injec-
when swabbing is to sear the surface of organs with a tion of a lethal overdose, using appropriate restraint or
flame or heated scalpel blade prior to swabbing. Alterna- chemical sedation, can be used in any age of pig. However,
tively, samples can be obtained from sections of tissue cut physical restraint can be difficult in larger pigs. The intra-
with a sterile scalpel blade. The swab samples should be cardiac and intraperitoneal routes are particularly useful
submitted in a suitable transport medium such as charcoal in small pigs.
transport medium (this should not be used when fluores- Captive bolt pistols can be used to stun pigs. Following
cent antibody test examination is required). stunning, the animal should be pithed or bled out to kill
the pig. The Cash Special Captive Bolt using a 0.22 3 g
Green cartridge is suitable for all sizes of pig. The site of
Sampling for anaerobic bacteriology
shooting is in the midline of the forehead, one fi nger-
When using swabs, it is important to use anaerobe trans- width above the eye level. The muzzle should be placed
port medium; when sending fluid samples, it is important against the head and directed towards the brain. Bleeding

243
CHAPTER 16 SAMPLING AND POST-MORTEM EXAMINATION OF THE PIG

Table 16.1 Neonates and sucklers: enteric disorders

Condition or infection Specimen Comments

Diarrhoea or death in all age groups Carcasses or live piglets (preferably) Submit acutely affected piglets, particularly if
transmissible gastroenteritis or porcine
epidemic diarrhoea is suspected.
Enterotoxigenic Escherichia coli Rectal swabs, faeces, carcasses Culture, serotype, and antimicrobial
susceptibility.
Non-enterotoxigenic E. coli coliforms Live pigs Culture, serotype, antimicrobial susceptibility,
(e.g. attaching and effacing E. coli, histopathology.
enterohaemorrhagic E. coli)
Clostridial necrotic enteritis Carcasses or necrotic bowel with contents Gross pathology, Gram smear, culture, ELISA
for toxins.
Salmonella Faeces (preferably >15 g); swabs are less Culture. Infection is often subclinical but of
sensitive public health significance.
Coccidiosis Live untreated acutely scouring piglets Histology of intestine essential. Faeces usually
negative for piglet oocysts during early
clinical period. Mucosal smears are of limited
diagnostic value.
Cryptosporidium spp. Faeces or large intestinal contents, live Often subclinical.
piglets
Rotavirus Faeces or intestinal contents Polyacrylamide gel electrophoresis test.
Transmissible gastroenteritis Live pigs; faeces or intestinal contents Antigen ELISA fl uorescent antibody test or
serology.
Porcine epidemic diarrhoea Live pigs; faeces or intestinal contents Antigen ELISA, serology.

ELISA, enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay.

Table 16.2 Weaners and growers: enteric disorders

Condition or infection Specimen Comments

Escherichia coli, Salmonella, rotavirus, Live pigs, carcasses, fresh faeces –
transmissible gastroenteritis, and porcine
epidemic diarrhoea as with neonates and
sucklers
Swine dysentery (Brachyspira hyodysenteriae, Fresh faeces, carcasses, colon or PCR, gross pathology, histology, fl uorescent
spirochaetal and non-specific colitis) caecum, large intestinal contents antibody test or anaerobic culture.
Proliferative enteropathy or adenomatosis Carcasses or live pigs, faeces, clotted Gross pathology, histology, silver stains,
(Lawsonia intracellularis) blood PCR, modified Ziehl–Neelsen smears,
serology.
Bowel oedema Carcasses Gross pathology, culture, serotyping
verocytotoxic E. coli.
Parasitic gastroenteritis Faeces Worm egg count.
Gastric ulceration Carcasses Gross pathology.

PCR, polymerase chain reaction.

Table 16.3 Adults: enteric disorders

Condition or infection Specimen Comments

Swine dysentery, parasitic gastroenteritis, Faeces, carcasses Polymerase chain reaction, gross pathology, histology,
Salmonella, proliferative enteropathy or fl uorescent antibody test or anaerobic culture.
adenomatosis
Iron deficiency anaemia Blood (EDTA or heparin) Haematology or iron biochemistry.
Mastitis Milk (sampled aseptically) Culture.

EDTA, ethylene diamine tetra-acetic acid.

244
 EUTHANASIA OF PIGS ON FARM

Table 16.4 Heart diseases

Condition or infection Specimen Comments

Endocarditis Carcasses, swab from vegetative lesion Culture.
Mulberry heart disease Carcasses, fi xed heart, blood (clotted or heparin) If vitamin E or selenium deficiency is suspected,
consider blood sampling a representative
group.

Table 16.5 Respiratory diseases

Condition or infection Specimen Comments

Swine infl uenza, porcine reproductive Blood: paired at 2- to 3-week interval or Gross examination and histopathology and
and respiratory syndrome, porcine group sampling carcasses immunohistocytochemistry.
respiratory coronavirus
Progressive atrophic rhinitis (toxigenic Nasal or tonsil swabs, snouts collected at Culture: note that it is essential to sample
Pasteurella multocida) slaughter, monitoring of chronic damage before obvious clinical signs. (Submit swabs
to turbinates and nasal septum from at least 20 pigs where the level of
overt disease is low.)
Actinobacillus pleuropneumoniae, Lungs Culture and sensitivity.
Pasteurella multocida, Haemophilus
parasuis
Enzootic pneumonia (Mycoplasma Lungs For monitoring of gross lesions, examine at
hyopneumoniae) least 20 lungs.
Culture.

Table 16.6 Other conditions

Condition or infection Specimen Comments

Postweaning multisystemic wasting Four to six acutely affected pigs (usually Gross pathology, histopathology and
syndrome or PDNS 8–12 weeks old) or formalin-fi xed lymph immunohistocytochemistry if
nodes (inguinal, mesenteric, and renal) appropriate. Serology for porcine
and kidney from at least three acutely circovirus 2.
affected pigs
Sudden death Carcasses (anthrax test) Peripheral blood smears and peritoneal
fl uid smears.
Locomotor disorders Blood (clotted, paired samples), joint fl uid Serum agglutination test for
aspirate Erysipelothrix rhusiopathiae, culture
Erysipelas and Mycoplasma Carcasses for Mycoplasma hyosynoviae and
Osteochondritis dissecans, spontaneous Carcasses Erysipelothrix spp.
fractures
Nervous disorders (e.g. streptococcal Carcasses, meningeal swabs for bacteriology, Culture, histopathology.
meningitis, salt poisoning, oedema fi xed brain
disease)
Skin diseases: exudative epidermitis, Carcasses, skin scrapings, swabs Culture, histopathology.
PDNS, mange, ringworm, swine pox
Urogenital disease; cystitis or Carcasses, urine sample Gross pathology, histopathology, culture.
pyelonephritis
Polyserositis and Glasser’s disease Carcasses, serosal surface swabs Culture.
Eperythrozoonosis Blood (heparin) or fresh smears Preferred sample is a blood smear
prepared from a live pig, air dried and
methanol-fi xed on the farm.

PDNS, porcine dermatitis and nephropathy syndrome.

245
CHAPTER 16 SAMPLING AND POST-MORTEM EXAMINATION OF THE PIG

Table 16.7 Abortion, stillbirths, and infertility

Condition or infection Specimen Comments

Most bacterial infections Fresh fetal stomach contents, liver and Culture.
cervical–vaginal swabs
Parvovirus Lung and liver Fetuses less than ∼17 cm crown–rump length or
mummies: thoracic fl uid ELISA for antigen.
Fetuses greater than ∼17 cm: haemagglutination
inhibition test for single maternal bloods
antibody (sows will have seroconverted).
Erysipelas, swine infl uenza, Maternal bloods Single or paired serology.
leptospirosis, and PRRS
Cause uncertain Whole litter of fetuses with fetal membranes –
and maternal bloods (clotted, heparin)
Infertility, other reproductive Vaginal–cervical swabs taken via speculum Culture: misleading results may occur because
disorders (e.g. vulval discharge) to avoid contamination of urinary disorders.
Returns to service Group blood samples, paired serology Serology for evidence of active PRRS, swine
infl uenza, leptospirosis, erysipelas, and
parvovirus. Most regular returns to service are
physiological or managemental.

ELISA, enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay; PRRS, porcine reproductive and respiratory syndrome.

out is achieved by severing the major blood vessels (carotid scissors and forceps should be used when preparing the
arteries and jugular veins) by a deep cut with a sharp knife samples. The following samples should be submitted.
across the neck. Pithing requires the insertion of a plastic ● Bacteriology: liver and lung.
or metal rod into the entry hole made by the captive bolt ● Virology: lung, kidney, spleen, and brain.
in the skull, followed by destruction of the brain–spinal ● Histopathology: lung, heart, liver, kidney, brain,
cord by movement backwards and forwards of the pithing and placenta.
rod. ● Serology: serum from fetuses greater than 20 cm
A free bullet humane killer will kill all ages of pig by and a representative number of affected sows.
the release of a single bullet. The site of shooting is the
same as that described for the captive bolt. It is not recom-
mended for use in buildings, and the possible exit of the Stillbirths
bullet and ricochet should be carefully considered when a
site is chosen. Everyone present should stay behind the Stillborn pigs are usually still covered in fetal membrane.
operator. Their hooves have a white covering, indicating that they
A 12-bore shotgun can be used to kill larger pigs by the have never walked. The lungs have not inflated and are
release of shotgun pellets. The muzzle of the gun should plum-coloured. They sink in water. Meconium is some-
be held between 5 and 25 cm away from the head. The site times found in the respiratory tract, indicating peripartu-
of the shooting can be either the same as the captive bolt rient fetal stress. In newly born pigs, the tissues will be
or through the eye or from behind an ear, pointing in the quite fresh if the animal died during farrowing. Soft
direction of the brain. It is not recommended for use in mushy tissue indicates death a few days before birth, and
buildings, and the possible exit of the shotgun pellets and mummified fetuses indicate an earlier death.
ricochet – although unusual – should be carefully consid-
ered when a site is chosen.
Neonatal piglets

Fetuses Piglets weighing less than 800 g usually do not survive. A

white covering of the hooves may indicate that the piglet
In abortion or stillbirth investigations, three or four entire was too weak to walk. Absence of milk in the stomach is
fetuses and placentas should be sent to the laboratory to a sign that the animal has not suckled; there was no milk
optimize the isolation and identification of causal infec- available or access was denied. Sunken eyes are a sign of
tious agents. If on farm, post-mortems are the only real- dehydration. Swollen joints indicate an infectious arth-
istic option to obtain fresh samples, and then sterile ritis. Animals that have died but are otherwise in good

246
 POST-MORTEM TECHNIQUE AND DIAGNOSTIC GROSS PATHOLOGY

condition may have been overlayed. Bite wounds on the Examination of the external carcass
body may have been the result of savaging by the sow or
gilt. Anaemia presents as pallor of the skin and mucous The external carcass should be carefully examined for
membranes. Animals may be in poor condition as a result abnormalities. This should include the skin, orifices, eyes,
of starvation or more chronic disease. ears, feet, and general body condition.

Post-mortem technique and diagnostic

gross pathology for the suckling, weaner,
grower, and adult pig

A fresh carcass or ideally euthanasia of one or more rep-

resentative animals should be used. In cases of sudden
death, blood and peritoneal fluid smears followed by
staining with polychromatic methylene blue may be
appropriate to eliminate anthrax as a cause. The age and
identification of the animal should be carefully noted. A
sharp knife or scalpel, scissors, and forceps are required
to perform the post-mortem. A wheelbarrow is very useful
for transporting the carcass following the post-mortem.
For sample collection, labelled bottles of 10% formol Fig 16.2 – A cut is made between the sternum and foreleg. The leg
saline, sterile plastic bags, glass slides, sterile swabs with is refl ected laterally. (Courtesy of the Pig Research and
transport medium, markers, and labels will be needed. Development Corporation.)
The post-mortem should be carried out in a sheltered area
of the farm on a concrete floor that can easily be cleaned
and disinfected.
If euthanasia is being performed, blood samples for
haematology, serology, and blood biochemistry should be
collected before euthanasia in case these are required
later.
External and internal lymph nodes should be examined
for abnormalities during the post-mortem.
The post-mortem technique is illustrated in Figures
16.1–16.10.

Fig 16.3 – A cut is made down to the hip joint. (Courtesy of the Pig
Research and Development Corporation.)

Fig 16.1 – Pig showing cut lines: blue lines for skin cuts, green lines
for opening up the peritoneum. (Courtesy of the Pig Research and Fig 16.4 – The skin is dissected off the abdominal musculature.
Development Corporation.) (Courtesy of the Pig Research and Development Corporation.)

247
CHAPTER 16 SAMPLING AND POST-MORTEM EXAMINATION OF THE PIG

Fig 16.5 – Entry into the peritoneal cavity: the abdominal

musculature is cut below the rib and elevated with a finger. Fig 16.6 – Exposure of the peritoneal contents: the abdominal
(Courtesy of the Pig Research and Development Corporation.) musculature is removed from the ventral abdomen. (Courtesy of
the Pig Research and Development Corporation.)

Fig 16.7 – The diaphragm is cut. (Courtesy of the Pig Research and
Fig 16.8 – Exposure of the thoracic contents: the ribs are cut at the
Development Corporation.)
costochondral junction. (Courtesy of the Pig Research and
Development Corporation.)

Fig 16.9 – Exposure of the thoracic contents: the intercostal Fig 16.10 – Exposed contents of the peritoneal and thoracic cavities:
muscles are cut between the ribs and the ribs disarticulated. a, caecum; b, small intestines; c, large intestines; d, stomach; e, liver;
(Courtesy of the Pig Research and Development Corporation.) f, lungs; g, heart. (Courtesy of the Pig Research and Development
Corporation.)

248
 POST-MORTEM TECHNIQUE AND DIAGNOSTIC GROSS PATHOLOGY

mouth disease, swine vesicular disease, vesicular exan-

thema, and vesicular stomatitis – primary vesicles may be
seen on the snout, oral mucosa, coronary band, interdi-
gital space, and teats. Ruptured vesicles appear as raw,
ulcerated areas.
Subcutaneous abscesses may be seen as swellings any-
where on the body. Decubital lesions may be observed
over the spine of the scapula, the hip joints, and the cau-
dolateral area of the hocks. Lesions caused by ringworm,
pityriasis rosea, and parakeratosis (zinc deficiency) may
be present. Ringworm produces erythematous patches
that may be quite large. In the chronic form of ringworm,
the patches become brown or grey with a dry crust. Para-
keratotic skin as seen in zinc deficiency is grey-brown, dry,
Fig 16.11 – Chronic exudative epidermitis. (Courtesy of the Pig and roughened, with a scaly crust. In outdoor pigs,
Research and Development Corporation.) sunburn and photosensitivity may be seen as erythema-
tous, oedematous areas with blistering followed by necro-
sis, scaling, and peeling of the skin.
Foot lesions may include swelling (bacterial infections),
sloughing of the horn (trauma to accessory digits, foot
Suckling piglet and mouth disease), cracks (origin: coronary band – true
Abnormalities of the skin may include necrosis of the ears, sand crack), white line (false sand crack), biotin defi -
tail, or teats; generalized greasy brownish discoloration ciency, overgrown hooves, bruising and thickening of heel
of exudative epidermitis (greasy pig disease; Fig. 16.11), (trauma), vesicles and erosions (vesicular diseases), solar
and purple discoloration in septicaemic conditions. Pallor ulceration, and overgrown hooves.
may be seen with anaemia. Jaundice may be seen in isoim-
mune haemolytic anaemia. Pityriasis rosea lesions with
characteristic ring-shaped areas that coalesce into a
Examination of the mammary gland
mosaic pattern may be present. Pustular dermatitis (strep-
and external genitalia
tococcus) is characterized by pustular lesions and circular The mammary gland of the sow and the external genita-
scabs. Swine pox presents as generalized multiple white lia of the male can be examined before opening the
macules. There may be erosion and bruising on the feet, carcass.
and skin abrasions over the carpal joints. Enlarged joints
indicative of joint infections may be self-evident. Mammary gland
In the sow, the mammary glands should be examined for
Weaner, grower, and adult signs of inflammation and infection. In acute mastitis, the
Swelling of the eyelids may be present in oedema disease. skin over the affected gland(s) is often hyperaemic. The
In chronic cases, the carcass may be emaciated (e.g. in gland may be enlarged or indurated and misshapen.
postweaning multisystemic wasting syndrome, PMWS). Cutting into the gland may indicate an acute infl amma-
Localized erythema (red), purple-black discoloration, or tory response or chronic fibrosis.
cyanosis (blue) of the skin may be seen in systemic infec-
tions such as erysipelas, salmonellosis, and streptococcal External male genitalia
infections. Erythema and haemorrhages of the skin may In the male, the external genitalia should be examined for
be seen in swine fever, African swine fever (ASF), and abnormalities. Cutting into the prepucial diverticulum
porcine dermatitis and nephropathy syndrome (PDNS). and the testis will reveal any gross abnormalities. Dissec-
In PDNS, cutaneous haemorrhages (red circular or oval tion of the penis by incising the prepuce will allow a more
skin lesions) are most obvious on the hind legs, perineum, detailed examination. Abnormalities may be seen in the
and flanks. Jaundice may be seen with Leptospira ictero- prepuce (prolapse), prepucial diverticulum (diverticulitis,
haemorrhagiae, Eperythrozoon suis, PMWS, and Ascaris necrosis, ulceration), penis (persistent frenulum), scrotum
suum (causing bile duct obstruction) infestations. Pallor (adhesions), swellings (hernia, haematoma), testes (hypo-
will be seen with anaemia, as seen with PMWS. plasia, degeneration, enlargement, orchitis), or epidi-
Skin lesions such as erythematous macules or papules dymis (epididymitis, spermatocele). Once the abdominal
and thickened cracked and scaly skin may indicate sarcop- organs have been removed, it is possible to examine the
tic mange. Lice (Haematopinus suis) or lice eggs may be vesicular glands, prostate, and the bulbouretheral glands
observed. In vesicular diseases – which include foot and for abnormalities.

249
CHAPTER 16 SAMPLING AND POST-MORTEM EXAMINATION OF THE PIG

Positioning the carcass for post-mortem part of the abdomen down to the midline along the entire
examination and removal of the skin length of the fl ank.

The preferred position for the post-mortem is in lateral Examination of the peritoneum and
recumbency. The body is stabilized in this position by the peritoneal cavity
adducting the upper limbs. This is achieved by cutting
through the skin down into the axilla of the upper foreleg In the normal animal, the peritoneum will contain a small
and through the hip joint and muscles of the upper hind amount of amber-coloured transparent peritoneal fluid.
leg. The upper limbs are refl ected laterally. The skin is Abnormal colour, position, and size of the abdominal
incised along the ventral midline, and the skin is removed organs, and the presence of fibrin, adhesions, and abnor-
to reveal the ribs and abdominal musculature. The super- mal quantities and type of peritoneal fluid, should
ficial lymph nodes (precrural, prescapular, inguinal, and be noted.
axillary) should be identifi ed and examined. Gut rupture will result in gastrointestinal contents
being present in the peritoneal cavity. Fibrinous tags on
the peritoneum and adhesions between organs reflect a
Examination of lymph nodes long-standing peritonitis or inflammation of an underly-
When examining lymph nodes, relate any abnormal fi nd- ing viscus. Umbilical and congenital structures (urachus,
ings to their drainage area. Consider if the response is umbilical arteries, and umbilical vein) may be infected
localized or generalized. Their relative size should be and may become abscessated or contain pus.
assessed. The exterior should be examined for abnormali- Excessive quantities of fluid in the peritoneum may be
ties. The lymph nodes should be cut longitudinally to transudates (from hepatic disease and other conditions
examine the cortex and medulla for congestion, haemor- causing hypoproteinaemia), modified transudates (from
rhage, necrosis, or abscessation. Enlargement is usually haemoperitoneum, uroperitoneum [ruptured bladder], or
due to oedema, inflammation, haemorrhage, emphysema, heart failure), or exudates (e.g. Glasser’s disease presents
benign lymphoid hyperplasia, or neoplasia. Generalized with a serofibrinous or fibrinopurulent peritonitis).
enlargement is associated with septicaemias (e.g. erysi-
pelas and salmonellosis) or systemic viral infections (e.g. Opening the thoracic cavity
PRRS, CSF, ASF, PDNS, and PMWS). In PMWS, the and the pericardium
inguinal lymph nodes are enlarged and easily palpable, To open the thoracic cavity, the diaphragm is identifi ed
although the lymph nodes are not haemorrhagic in this under the last rib and the attachments to the rib cage are
condition. Oedema of the lymph nodes is seen in oedema cut. Using a knife, the cartilage between the costochon-
disease (mesenteric lymph nodes) and mulberry heart dral junction and the sternebrae is cut from the xiphis-
disease (mesenteric, inguinal, and axillary lymph nodes). ternum to the thoracic inlet. In young animals, the rib
Haemorrhagic lymph nodes occur in salmonellosis, cage can be refl ected manually, which results in fracture
anthrax, CSF, ASF, erysipelas, clostridial infections, of the proximal ribs. In adult pigs, the proximal part of
PDNS, thrombocytopenia purpura, and most septicae- the rib has to be cut using bone cutters (hedge secateurs
mias. Mycobacterium avium and bovis (and tuberculosis) are an effective substitute). This can be achieved by
granuloma may be found in the draining lymph nodes at cutting down the intercostal muscles between adjacent
the portal of entry to the body (mesenteric, bronchial, and ribs and cutting each rib just below the articulation with
retropharyngeal). Enlargement of the thymus may indi- the thoracic vertebrae. The pericardium surrounding the
cate a lymphoma. heart is cut open in situ. The pleura should be examined.
In the suckling piglet, septicaemias may cause conges-
tion and darkening of the nodes. Iron injections will cause
darkening of the subcutis and musculature around the site Examination of the pericardium
of an iron injection. The regional lymph node also becomes The pericardial sac is normally thin and transparent. It
darkened. Pigs with PMWS present with a lymphadenopa- contains a small amount of fluid. There are no adhesions
thy with noticeable enlargement of the inguinal lymph with the epicardium. Pericarditis may be recognized by
nodes. pericardiomyocardial adhesions, increased pericardial
fluid (often serosanguineous), and a thickened pericar-
dium. Glasser’s disease presents with a serofibrinous or
Opening the peritoneal cavity fibrinopurulent pericarditis. In mulberry heart disease,
The peritoneal cavity is opened by making a small inci- the pericardium is distended with serous pericardial fluid
sion through the abdominal musculature parallel to the containing fibrin strands. In PDNS and ASF, there can be
last rib. The incision is then extended using scissors so distension of the pericardium resulting from accumula-
that the abdominal muscles are removed from the upper tions of serous fluid in the pericardial sac.

250
 POST-MORTEM TECHNIQUE AND DIAGNOSTIC GROSS PATHOLOGY

Examination of the pleura

Adhesions indicating pleurisy may be observed. In the
normal animal, there are only small quantities of pleural
fluid. Abnormalities such as an increase in quantity or
changes in colour (bloody) or clarity (turbid, flocculent)
should be noted.
Pleuritis may be seen in association with enzootic pneu-
monia. Haemophilus parasuis (Glasser’s disease), Myco-
plasma hyorhinis, Actinobacillus pleuropneumoniae,
and ASF present with a serofibrinous or fibrin purulent
pleuritis. Serous fluid can be present in PDNS and ASF
infections. Multiple subpleural petechial and ecchymotic
haemorrhages may be present in CSF, ASF, and Fig 16.12 – Mycoplasma pneumonia: cranioventral
bronchopneumonia of the lung lobes. (Courtesy of the Pig Research
septicaemias.
and Development Corporation.)

Removal of the heart and lungs from

the thoracic cavity
Removal of the lungs and heart from the thoracic cavity
can be achieved by cutting transversally through the
trachea, the oesophagus, and the major blood vessels in
the upper cervical area. The heart and lung are pulled up
using the trachea, oesophagus, and blood vessels for trac-
tion, and the attachments ventral and dorsal to the tho-
racic cavity are severed. The ‘pluck’ is elevated out of the
thoracic cavity, and the oesophagus is cut just proximal
to the stomach. Ligation of the oesophagus before cutting
is recommended to prevent contamination by refluxing
material. The thoracic organs can then be removed from
the thoracic cavity.

Examination of the lungs

Fig 16.13 – Actinobacillus pleuropneumoniae: the right middle lobe
In the healthy animal, the upper lung surfaces are pink is dark red due to extensive haemorrhage, and the lung is coated in
and smooth with a soft rubbery texture on palpation. The a sheet of fibrin. (Courtesy of the Pig Research and Development
lower lungs are normally darker due to hypostatic conges- Corporation.)
tion. Oedematous lungs are heavy and wet with a rubbery
consistency, and copious amounts of clear to serosanguin-
eous fluid are present at cut surfaces. Multiple infections and the piglet has been stillborn. The collapsed lung is
are common. The presence of adhesions between the usually red-blue to purple. Pneumonia in piglets may be
lung lobes indicates pleuritis. Oedematous lungs occur caused by Bordetella bronchiseptica (scattered red
in pneumonic, systemic, and cardiovascular conditions. patches), Pasteurella multocida, and Streptococcus suis
Firm dark brown or grey areas indicate pneumonia. (grey ventral consolidation). Escherichia coli septicaemia
Abscesses may be a sequel to chronic bronchopneumonia can produce a fibrinous pleural and peritoneal exudate. In
(Arcanobacter pyogenes and Pasteurella multocida are PRRS, gross lesions are usually absent.
common causes). Cutting down the trachea and into the
major bronchi will reveal any abnormal contents. Squeez- Weaners, growers, and adults
ing the cut surface of a lung lobe may reveal purulent Streptococcus suis or Pasteurella multocida pneumonia
material in the bronchioles. may cause a purulent to fibrinous bronchopneumonia
with patchy lobular consolidation with fluid or fibrin in
Neonatal and suckling piglets the pleural cavity. Mycoplasma pneumonia is character-
Meconium in the trachea or major bronchi may be present ized by darker sunken areas at the ventral edges of the
in piglets that have died from fetal anoxia and inhalation lung lobes (Fig. 16.12). Pleuropneumonia is associated
of meconium as a result of fetal stress. Complete atelec- with haemorrhages (Fig. 16.13), which may be more
tasis of the lungs indicates that the lungs have not expanded common in the caudal lung lobes; cutting into the trachea

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CHAPTER 16 SAMPLING AND POST-MORTEM EXAMINATION OF THE PIG

and extending the cuts into each major bronchus will

reveal blood-stained froth. Haemorrhages on the serosal
surface of the lung are also seen in CSF and ASF. In PRRS,
gross lesions are usually absent, although the interstitial
pneumonia may give the lungs a mottled appearance.
Swine influenza causes a bronchointerstitial pneumonia
with cranioventral lung consolidation. There is a copious
thick mucoid exudate that may be blood-stained in the
trachea and bronchi. In chronic CSF, there is a fibrinous
pleuritis and pneumonia. In some cases of PDNS, PMWS,
and ASF, the lungs are fi rm and rubbery. Pleurisy may be
present. Concurrent conditions may be present, particu-
larly with PMWS. Flotation tests in water will indicate
lung segments that are consolidated. Consolidated and
pneumonic lung tissue sinks.
Exploration of the bronchi by cutting and squeezing the
lungs may reveal thread-like lungworm (metastrongyles).
There may also be multiple grey nodules along the ven-
trocaudal aspects of the diaphragmatic lobes in meta-
strongyle infestations.
Fig 16.14 – Mulberry heat disease: petechial epicardial
haemorrhage with pallor of the right ventricular myocardium.
Examination of the heart (Courtesy of the Pig Research and Development Corporation.)
The size and colour of the heart should be noted. The
ventricles and auricles of the right and left sides of the
heart are cut to expose the heart valves. pattern on the surface, which is sometimes described as
Congestive heart failure is characterized by hydroperi- being similar in appearance to Moroccan leather.
cardium, hydrothorax, pulmonary congestion and Hepatic torsion of the left lateral lobe that rotates
oedema, ascites and hepatic congestion, and centrilobular through 180–360° should easily be identified. The liver
necrosis. The heart may be enlarged (congestive heart surface is usually smooth, evenly coloured, and fi rm on
failure). The valves may be roughened and have fulminat- palpation, with sharp edges. Congested livers are dark
ing attachments indicating valvular vegetative endocardi- purple with rounded edges. Pallor may result from
tis (usually caused by erysipelas or streptococci infections). anaemia, ischaemia, or fibrosis. Increased friability is
Haemorrhages on the external surface of the heart are present in fatty change, necrosis, and autolysis. Increased
sometimes present in vitamin E or selenium deficiency fi rmness indicates fibrosis. White spots that extend below
(myocardium may be pale), CSF, ASF, or septicaemia. In the surface indicate damage by ascarids (Ascaris suum).
mulberry heart disease and ASF, there is a hydrothorax Mycobacterium avium and Mycobacterium bovis can
with effusion of fibrin, pulmonary oedema, and epicardial produce granulomas, ‘white spots’, which may be distrib-
petechial haemorrhages (Fig. 16.14). Diffuse and focal uted throughout the hepatic parenchyma. Focal hepatic
pallor is seen in conditions causing myocardial necrosis necrosis and haemorrhage can be produced by a number
(mulberry heart disease, foot and mouth disease, and of diseases, including salmonellosis. Cystic structures
encephalomyocarditis viruses). Pericardial adhesions may indicate Cysticercus tenuicollis (intermediate stage
indicate a pericarditis. Taenia hydatigena) or Echinococcus granulosus in
outdoor pigs. Adhesions and fibrin indicate an inflam-
matory process. Centrilobular pallor may indicate isch-
Neonatal and suckling piglets aemic necrosis caused by cardiac failure (e.g. mulberry
An enlarged pale heart may be seen in iron deficiency. Pale heart disease, endocarditis). In hepatosis dietetica, the
stripes – ‘tiger heart’ – may be seen in piglets in foot and liver is grossly mottled in appearance, with yellow areas
mouth and encephalomyocarditis viral infections. of degenerate hepatic tissue and red areas of haemorrhage.
Hepatic abscesses are occasionally found. Acute aflatoxi-
Examination of the liver cosis causes severe hepatic necrosis.
The liver should be observed in situ. The size, colour,
Examination of the peritoneal cavity
texture, and position should be evaluated. The liver can
be removed by cutting the attachments to the diaphragm The peritoneum should be examined. The position and
and other organs. The porcine liver has a reticulated appearance of the intestines and the stomach should be

252
 POST-MORTEM TECHNIQUE AND DIAGNOSTIC GROSS PATHOLOGY

noted (bloated, twisted, or torsion). The position of the

spleen should be appraised in situ to check for splenic
torsion.

Peritoneum
Check for adhesions, particulate matter from the gut,
fibrin tags, and excessive amounts of peritoneal fluid.
Oedema may be present in PDNS.
Fig 16.16 – Splenic infarcts. (Courtesy of the Pig Research and
Removal of the gastrointestinal tract Development Corporation.)
The intestine should be ligated just below the pylorus and
at the rectum before removal to prevent contamination by
gut content. The intestines, stomach, and spleen are then Examination of the spleen
removed from the abdominal cavity by severing the
The spleen can be removed prior to the removal of the
attachments.
gastrointestinal tract by dissecting the attachments, or
removed with the gastrointestinal tract.
Examination of the stomach
Enlargement and congestion of the spleen will follow
The stomach is isolated from the intestines by placing a gastric or splenic torsion. Torsion of the spleen may occur
ligature at the pylorus. The stomach is opened along the independently to gastric torsion and rupture may follow.
greater curvature to check the contents and the mucosa. External trauma can result in rupture of the spleen with
haemorrhaging. Splenic infarcts are seen in pigs with CSF,
Weaners, growers, and adults ASF, and PDNS, although it is often incorrectly stated
The stomach may be twisted, bloated, and sometimes that it is pathognomic for CSF (Fig. 16.16). Moderate
ruptured if there is a gastric volvulus. The mucosa of the splenomegaly may be found following a systemic infection
pars oesophagea may be ulcerated, and the stomach may (e.g. Eperythrozoon suis, erysipelas, and septicaemic sal-
contain clotted blood from a bleeding ulcer. Foreign monellosis). Abscesses are uncommon in the spleen.
objects (stones) may be present. Hyostrongylus rubidus Nodular lymphomas in the spleen have been reported.
may be present. These are small reddish worms. In oedema
disease, there may be marked submucosal oedema, which
can be detected by making shallow cuts across the serosal
Examination of the intestines
surface of the stomach (Fig. 16.15). The intestine should be appraised for the presence of
haemorrhages, thickening, and adhesions. Torsion of the
Suckling piglets greater mesentery may be obvious by the twists in the root
In normal piglets, the stomach should be full of milk. of the mesentery. A cut should be made into the intestines
Absence of milk indicates anorexia or agalactia in the to examine the contents (watery, bloody, solid, or pasty).
sow. Ascaris suum worms may be present.

Examination of the small intestine

Weaners, growers, and adults
In proliferative enteritis, thickening of the terminal 30 cm
of the small intestine is common, with haemorrhagic
and necrotic lesions. There is segmental hyperplasia and
congestion of the ileal mucosa in porcine intestinal
adenomatosis and proliferative haemorrhagic entero-
pathy. Proliferative haemorrhagic enteropathy is com-
monly associated with massive intraluminal haemorrhage.
In salmonellosis, the luminal contents may be watery,
yellow to grey, and turbid, and they may contain fibrino-
necrotic material. In some cases, blood is also present
and the contents are described as dysenteric. Obstruction
of the intestine may be caused by ascarid worms (Fig.
Fig 16.15 – Oedema disease: submucosal oedema of the stomach. 16.17), an intussusception, or an indigestible foreign
(Courtesy of the Pig Research and Development Corporation.) material (e.g. sawdust). Scrotal hernias and umbilical

253
CHAPTER 16 SAMPLING AND POST-MORTEM EXAMINATION OF THE PIG

Fig 16.17 – Ascaris suum in the intestines. (Courtesy of the Pig

Research and Development Corporation.)

hernias may contain incarcerated and infarcted small Fig 16.18 – Swine dysentery: thickened colon with haemorrhage.
intestines. Rupture of the small intestines may follow (Courtesy of the Pig Research and Development Corporation.)
ischaemic necrosis or severe external trauma. CSF and
ASF can cause petechial and ecchymotic haemorrhage on
the serosa and mucosa.
due to external trauma may be seen. The contents of the
Suckling piglets
large intestine should be washed out. The intestine should
Transmissible gastroenteritis coronavirus and rotavirus
be checked for thickening and ulceration. Nodules con-
cause villous atrophy in the jejunum and ileum. Appraisal
taining Oesophagostomum larvae may be present.
of villous atrophy can be performed in euthanized animals
Mucosal inflammation and mucohaemorrhagic faeces
by placing inverted small sections of intestine into a test
will be present with swine dysentery. Rectal stricture will
tube of water for visual appraisal, or by fi xing small sec-
be identified as a fibrotic ring constriction at the ecto-
tions of the intestine in formol saline for subsequent his-
endoderm junction of the rectum and may be associated
topathological examination. Autolysis occurs quickly
with salmonellosis or rectal prolapse.
following death, and interpretation then becomes impos-
Deep erosions or ulcerations are seen in salmonellosis
sible if these procedures are delayed. Intensely dark red to
(usually Salmonella typhimurium), yersiniosis (Yersinia
black haemorrhagic intestines are seen in mesenteric
pseudotuberculosis), ASF, CSF, PDNS, and PMWS.
torsion and intestinal haemorrhage syndrome. In Clos-
These are sometimes called ‘button ulcers’ because of
tridium perfringens type C infection, the upper small
their raised edges. In salmonellosis, there is a fibrino-
intestines are usually affected and are thickened. The
necrotic membrane attached to the mucosa of the large
necrotic membrane produced by coccidiosis is usually
intestine. Ulceration is usually most severe in the large
found in the lower half of the small intestine in the jejunum
intestine. In oedema disease, the large intestine serosa
and ileum. Impression smears and histopathology can be
may appear gelatinous as a result of the accumulation of
used to confi rm coccidiosis. Enterotoxigenic colibacillosis
oedema. This may also be seen in mulberry heart disease,
results in flaccid distension of the small intestine, with
ASF, and swine dysentery. Serosal haemorrhage is seen in
voluminous, watery, or creamy intestinal contents; in
CSF and ASF. Haemorrhagic contents are seen sometimes
some cases, these appear haemorrhagic. Campylobacter
with bleeding gastric ulceration, proliferative haemor-
coli is associated with a pale and thickened terminal ileum
rhagic enteropathy, and torsions of the intestines. Blood
with a hyperaemic mucosa. In this condition, the intesti-
from bleeding gastric ulcers will appear tar-like black
nal contents may be watery or creamy and may contain
(melaenic) in the large intestine due to partial digestion of
blood. Occlusion causing obstruction of the small intes-
the blood. Large intestinal haemorrhage is seen in swine
tine may be present in atresia ilei.
dysentery, salmonellosis, CSF, and ASF. In swine dysen-
tery, the mucosal surface is often covered with flecks of
Examination of the large intestine fresh blood and fibrinous necrotic material (Fig. 16.18).
Weaners, growers, and adults Firm contents are seen in diseases causing luminal
Proximal colonic bloat and rupture may be seen and are obstruction (rectal stricture, atresia ani, and megacolon).
usually diet-related. A peritonitis may be present depend- Impaction from ingesting sawdust may occur. The small
ing on the survival time following the rupture. Rupture Trichuris suis nematode may be present and associated

254
 POST-MORTEM TECHNIQUE AND DIAGNOSTIC GROSS PATHOLOGY

with diarrhoea; the large intestine is sometimes thick-

ened, with focal haemorrhages on the mucosal surface.

Examination of the kidney and bladder

The zoonotic risk from leptospirosis should be consid-
ered when examining the urinary tract. The bladder can
be cut open and the mucosa and urine examined. The
kidney can be removed and cut longitudinally to examine
the cortex and medulla.
The bladder wall may be thickened and inflamed, indi-
cating cystitis. Red urine may indicate haemolytic anaemia
or haematuria. CSF and ASF present with petechial and
ecchymotic haemorrhages on the bladder mucosa. Pus
may be present in the urine as well as the medulla of the Fig 16.19 – Acute endometritis: the uterine mucosa is hyperaemic,
bladder in pyelonephritis. Stephanus dentatus may be with suppurative exudate in the lumen. (Courtesy of the Pig
found in the kidneys and ureters. In PDNS, the kidneys Research and Development Corporation.)
are often swollen with pale foci and/or haemorrhages on
the surface of the cortex. In PMWS, the kidneys may be
pale but not haemorrhagic, with subcapsular white foci.
CSF and ASF have petechial and ecchymotic haemor-
rhages in the renal parenchyma.

Examination of the uterus, vagina,

and ovaries
These structures can be removed from the peritoneal
cavity by severing the attachments.
Check the uterus for dead piglets, endometritis (Fig.
16.19), and metritis. The ovaries can be cut to investigate
the status of the follicles and corpora lutea.

Examination of the Fig 16.20 – Osteochondritis dissecans of the medial condyle of the
musculoskeletal system distal femur: there is a large defect in the articular surface.
(Courtesy of the Pig Research and Development Corporation.)
Bones, joints, and muscles
Several joints should be cut open to check for signs of
infection. Samples of joint fluid and bacterial swabs can
be taken. Articular cartilage should be carefully exam-
ined. Muscles can be cut at various sites to check for
Examination of the skull
abnormalities. Dissection of suspected traumatized sites Removal of the brain and spinal cord in adults is best
may provide the diagnosis. performed at a regional laboratory with appropriate
Several joints should be cut open to check for signs of facilities. The nasal turbinates can be exposed with a
infection. Articular cartilage should be carefully exam- cross-sectional cut. In animals older than 5 months, the
ined for signs of osteochondrosis, particularly the lateral cut is between premolars one and two, using a hacksaw.
aspect of the medial femoral condyle and the lateral head
of the humerus (Fig. 16.20). Suspected traumatic injuries Suckling pigs
such as humeral or femoral fractures, torn adductor The head is split longitudinally using a knife. Pus on the
muscles, and savaging should be examined in detail to surface of the meninges indicates a purulent meningitis.
obtain a diagnosis. Muscles can be cut at various sites if Half the brain can be fi xed in 10–20 times its volume of
porcine stress syndrome is suspected to check for pale, formol saline. The other half can be submitted fresh in a
soft musculature, although this is often difficult to inter- sterile plastic bag. Take a swab of the meninges in sus-
pret. Similar changes may be seen with vitamin E defi - pected cases of meningitis. The nasal turbinates can be
ciency, particularly in the psoas muscles. exposed with a cross-sectional cut using a hacksaw. In

255
CHAPTER 16 SAMPLING AND POST-MORTEM EXAMINATION OF THE PIG

swine influenza, there is inflammation of the turbinate necrosis of the turbinates is sometimes seen with inclusion
mucosa. Atrophic rhinitis causes distortion of the tur- body rhinitis. A sample of turbinate scroll can be placed
binates, which may or may not be evident at this age. in formol saline. Histopathological examination will be
Bordetella bronchiseptica and Pasteurella multocida may able to identify the inclusion bodies or characterize the
be isolated if bacterial swabs are taken. Diphtheritic abnormalities.

FURTHER READING

Andrews JJ, Holter JA, Daniels GN et al. 1986 Diagnostic necropsy Sims LD, Glastonbury JRW (eds) 1996 Pathology of the pig. Pig
of suckling swine. Vet Clin North Am 2(1):159–172 Research and Development Corporation and Agriculture Victoria
Long GG 1986 Examination of the porcine fetus. Vet Clin North Am Australia, Canberra
2(1):147–158 Smith WJ, Taylor DJ, Penny RHC 1990 A colour atlas of diseases
Pig Research and Development Corporation 1995 Postmortem and disorders of the pig. Wolfe, London
Manual. PRDC, Canberra. Thacker HL 1986 Necropsy of the feeder pig and adult swine. Vet
Pig Veterinary Society 2001 Casualty Pig. PVS Clin North Am 2(1):173–186

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