PERIOD 1

1491: year before Columbus, final year in which native cultures and civilizations in
US were allowed to progress without the widespread European contact, conquest,
and genocide
1607: first permanent English settlement in the Americas

1.2 NA BEFORE EUROPEAN CONTACT

The spread of maize cultivation from present-day Mexico northward into the
present-day American southwest and beyond supported economic development,
settlement, advanced irrigation, and social diversification among societies.
 Maize: became an important crop to the NA.
o All civilizations in central and south America cultivated maize.
o Supported economic development.
 The Three Sisters: corn, beans, and squash.
As native populations migrated and settled across the vast expanse of North
America over time, they developed distinct and increasingly complex societies by
adapting to and transforming their diverse environments.
 Central and South America NA societies:
o Boasting large urban centers, complex political systems, and well-
formed religions.
o Aztecs: had written language, employed complex systems of
irrigation.
o Maya: developed large cities; made use of complex irrigation and
water storage systems; built stone temples and palaces.
o Inca: grew crops on mountain valleys watered by elaborate systems of
irrigation.
 Great Basin & Great Plains NA societies:
o Societies responded to the aridity of the Great Basin and the
grasslands of the western Great Plains by developing largely mobile
lifestyles (nomadic people).
o A variety of wildlife was used by NA for hunting and grazing (hunter-
gatherer).
 Mississippi River Valley NA societies:
o Much larger and complex societies due to fertile soil surrounding the
rivers; developed mixed agricultural and hunter-gatherer economies
that favored the development of permanent villages.
o Cahokia & Hopewell: engaged in extensive trade networks.
 Northeast & Atlantic Seaboard NA societies:
o Developed mixed agricultural and hunter-gatherer economies that
favored the development of permanent villages.
 o Established trade networks and cultural connections across the
Appalachian Mountains.
o Iroquois: grew three sister crops, built longhouses.
 Northwest NA societies:
o Lived by the sea, settled in fishing villages, relied on elk and used the
vast resources of the ocean.
o Chinook: made use of wood in forests to construct giant plank houses.
 California NA societies:
o Supported themselves by hunting and gathering; lived in permanent
settlements; used the vast resources of the ocean.
o Chumash: specialized in fishing sometime even whaling.
 Southwest NA societies:
o Pueblo: a sedentary population (stayed in one place and didn’t move
around).
 Farmers of maize and built adobe and masonry homes.
 Highly organized society with administrative offices religious
centers.

1.3: EUROPEAN EXPLORATION IN THE AMERICAS

Contact among Europeans, NA, and Africans resulted in the Columbian Exchange
and significant social, cultural, and political changes on both sides of the Atlantic
Ocean.
REASONS FOR EXPLORATION:
 Political changes: monarchs in Portugal, Spain, France, and England were
actively consolidating national power, creating a greater sense of national
identity; eager to enhance the commercial development of their nations.
 Significant population growth: after the 14th century Black Death that
had wiped out 1/3 of Europe’s population, population had rebounded later,
leading to a reawakening of commerce and a rising demand for goods from
abroad.
 Desire for luxury goods imported from Asia (MAIN REASON): land-
based trade routed were largely controlled by Muslims, so Europeans were
unable to establish exchange of goods with Asia on their own terms.
o They needed to find a water-based route to Asia.
 GOD, GOLD, GLORY:
o European nations’ efforts to explore and conquer the New World
stemmed from a search for new sources of wealth, economic and
military competition, and a desire to spread Christianity.
 Gained wealth through mercantilism, making gold, silver, and
other raw materials heavily desired.
 Christopher Columbus: an Italian explorer, sought a sponsorship from
Spain monarchs (Isabella and Ferdinand) to find a route to Asia by sailing
west.
 o 1492: sailed west but landed in San Salvador instead of India (he
thought that was India), ultimately discovering a new continent.

1.4: COLUMBIAN EXCHANGE AND SPANISH CONQUEST

The Columbian Exchange brought new crops to Europe from the Americas,
stimulating European population growth, and new sources of mineral wealth, which
facilitated the European shift from feudalism to capitalism.
 The Columbian Exchange (1492-1800): widespread transfer of plants,
animals, culture, human
populations, technology, diseases,
and ideas between the New World
and the Old World.
CAUSES:
 Improvements in maritime
technology: advances in
navigation made sea travel more
feasible, facilitating the Columbian
Exchange.
o Caravel ship: small, highly maneuverable 容易操作的 sailing ship
developed by the Portuguese; well-suited for exploration and trade;
used by Christopher Columbus during his voyages to the New World.
o Sextant navigation: navigational instrument that allowed sailors to
determine their position at sea; allowed sailors to navigate more
accurately and safely.
o Improved shipbuilding techniques: numerous advancements in
shipbuilding technology that made ships stronger, faster, and more
seaworthy.
 Joint-stock Companies (the method): companies owned by shareholders
which provided the financial resources to fund overseas expeditions.
o Companies were granted charters 特许状 by European monarchs and were
responsible for establishing colonies, extracting resources, and trading
with NA.
 Mercantilism (the motivation): economic theory that stated a positive
balance of trade (more exports than imports) would bring more wealth and
power to a nation.
o Dominated Europe and motivated them to develop colonies.

IMPACT:
Spanish exploration and conquest of the Americas were accompanied and furthered
by widespread deadly epidemics that devastated native populations and by the
introduction of crops and animals not found in the Americas.
 For Europe:
 o New crops high in nutrients never known to Europeans stimulated
population growth.
 Ex: Potatoes became a major staple crop in Europe.
o New sources of mineral wealth facilitated the European shift from
feudalism to capitalism.
 Feudalism 封建等级制: command (centralized) economy; the nobility
controlled the land, and peasants worked the land in exchange
for protection.
 Capitalism: economic system based on the private ownership
of the means of production and their operation for profit.
 For the Americas:
o NA population damaged by widespread diseases.
 Diseases were new to America and Indians lacked immunity,
resulting in 90% of NA wiped out.
o Crops and livestock introduced by Europe diversified Native American
cultures.
 European settlers imported horses, sheep, cattle, pigs, and
chickens.
 Horses increased the intensity of NA warfare; allowed the
NA living on the Great Plains to kill the buffalo more
easily, which became a vital resource for them.
 New crops included cultivated rice, wheat, oats, sugar cane,
bananas, onions, peaches, and watermelon.
o Impact: transformed the agricultural practices of NA; had profound
impact on their economies and cultures; led to cultural exchanges and
the transfer of people (both free and enslaved) between continents.

1.5: LABOR, SLAVERY, AND CASTE IN THE SPANISH COLONIAL

SYSTEM
In the encomienda system, Spanish colonial economies marshaled 控制 NA labor to
support plantation-based agriculture and extract precious metals and other
resources.
 Encomienda system (1500s): extract labor and tribute from NA in
exchange for protection and conversion to Christianity.
o NA could either labor or give tribute.
o This system turned them into slaves, forced to work in brutal
conditions.
o Spanish leaders later turned to slaves imported from Africa due to a
significant decrease NA population caused by smallpox.
European traders partnered with some African groups who practiced slavery to
forcibly extract slave labor for the Americas. The Spanish imported enslaved
Africans to labor in plantation agriculture and mining.
  Middle Passage (1600s-1900s): trade where Africans from central and
western Africa were densely packed onto ships, were transported across the
Atlantic to the West Indies.
o Shipowners wanted the transfer to be as quickly and cheaply as
possible.
o Similar to natives, severe work regimes and rampant disease also
resulted in high death rates among imported blacks.
The Spanish developed a caste system that incorporated, and carefully defined the
status of, the diverse population of Europeans, Africans, and NA in their empire.
 Spanish caste system (1500s-1829): hierarchical social system in which
the Spanish maintained their power and superiority to other racial groups in
the colonies. Slaves at the very bottom of the system, NA just above.
o Goal: maintain social control and was a legacy of Spanish colonialism
in the Americas.

1.6: CULTURAL INTERACTIONS BETWEEN EUROPEANS, NATIVE

AMERICANS, AND AFRICANS
In their interactions, Europeans and NA asserted divergent worldviews regarding
issues such as religion, gender roles, family, land use, and power.
WORLDVIEWS:
 NA believed they were more intelligent and resourceful than European
colonists because they were able to distinguish helpful and harmful resources
in nature while Europeans couldn’t.
 Europeans perceived NA as brutes and uncivilized 'noble savages'.
o Viewed natives’ different religions, uses of land, and gender roles as
backward.
 Religions: NA were largely believers in animism 万物有灵论 and
often polytheistic, which Europeans viewed a primitive.
 Land use: NA did not ascribe to the belief in land ownership.
 Division of labor: Men hunted while women farmed; this
division of labor appalled 使惊骇 Europeans.
 Gender and power: Women were often given prominent roles
in society, which was backward to Europeans.
o Viewed indigenous clothing, architecture, weapons, and technologies
as primitive, unintelligent, and inferior.
INTERACTIONS:
Mutual misunderstandings between Europeans and NA often defined the early years
of interaction and trade as each group sought to make sense of the other. Over
time, Europeans and NA adopted some useful aspects of each other’s culture.
 Europeans adopted the Three Sisters farming method.
  NA adopted European technology, including knives, pots, and weapons.
o Learned European languages and (often forcefully) converted to
Catholicism in the Spanish Empire.
o But they generally resisted assimilation to Spanish culture, retaining
their languages, clothing, housing, agricultural methods, and to a
considerable extent, their religion.
As European encroachments on NA’ lands and demands on their labor increased,
native peoples sought to defend and maintain their political sovereignty, economic
prosperity, religious beliefs, and concepts of gender relations through diplomatic
negotiations and military resistance.
 The Pueblo Revolt: a successful rebellion by NA to reclaim Pueblo religious
practices, culture, and land that had been stripped away by Spanish
colonizers.
Extended contact with NA and Africans fostered debate among European religious
and political leaders about how non-Europeans should be treated, as well as
evolving religious, cultural, and racial justifications for the subjugation of Africans
and NA.
 Bartolome de las Casas: a Spanish priest, criticized Spain’s treatment of
NA in its colonies; but he proposed replacing native labor with African labor.
 Juan de Sepulveda: a Spanish philosopher, believed the NA should be
treated paternalistically, like a father treating their young children.

PERIOD 2
1607: 1st permanent English settlement in the Americas
1754: start of the French and Indian War

2.2 EUROPEAN COLONIZATION

Influenced by different imperial goals, cultures, and the varied North American
environments where Europeans settled, they developed a variety of colonization
and migration patterns and competed with each other and NA for resources.
Spanish, French, Dutch, and British colonizers had different economic and imperial
goals involving land and labor that shaped the social and political development of
their colonies as well as their relationships with native populations.
Spanish colonial efforts to extract wealth from the land led them to develop
institutions based on subjugating 征服 native populations, converting them to
Christianity, and incorporating them, along with enslaved and free Africans, into the
Spanish colonial society.
 Brutal conquest
 Caste System
 Encomienda System (1500s): forced NA to work in brutal conditions and
caused decline the population.
 The Pueblo Revolt (1680): uprising of the Pueblos against the Spanish
colonists.
o Cause: harsh Spanish rule, encomienda system, suppression of native
practices inconsistent with Christianity.
o Result: kept the Spanish out of New Mexico for 12 years.
 Spanish returned and crushed a last revolt.
 NA maintained their own territory and cut down on forced
assimilation.
French and Dutch colonial efforts involved relatively few Europeans and relied on
trade alliances and intermarriage with NA to build economic and diplomatic
relationships and acquires furs and other products for export to Europe.
 Goal: make money through trade.
o Fur trade & fishing.
o Formed allies and intermarriage with NA women to build economic and
diplomatic relationships.
o Had mutual relationship where NA provided them with beaver fur,
while Europeans provided with metal tools and weapons.
English colonization efforts attracted a comparatively large number of male and
female British migrants, as well as other European migrants, all of whom sought
social mobility, economic prosperity, religious freedom, and improved living
conditions. These colonists focused on agriculture and settled on land taken from
NA, from whom they lived separately.
In the 17th century, early British colonies developed along the Atlantic coast, with
regional differences that reflected various environmental, economic, cultural, and
demographic factor.
 Desired economic prosperity & religious freedom.
 Focused on agriculture and settled on land taken from NA.
 Developed a contentious relationship with natives.

2.3: THE REGIONS OF BRITISH COLONIES

In the 17th century, early British colonies developed along
the Atlantic coast, with regional differences that reflected
various environmental, economic, cultural, and
demographic factor.
THE ROANOKE COLONY (IN ROANOKE ISLAND, TODAY NORTH CAROLINA)
 1st attempt to create a permanent English settlement in North America in
1585.
 Lack of supplies and bad relations with the NA led to members returning back
to England.
 Result: colony disappeared mysteriously.
o Discouraged many Englishmen from attempting a colony again.
 1606: the Virginia Company (joint stock company) of London’s goal was to
establish permanent settlement in America (rumors about gold in Virginia).
o Joint stock company: people invest to seek for profit from
expeditions.

THE NEW ENGLAND COLONIES (NEW HAMPSHIRE, MASSACHUSETTS,

RHODE ISLAND, CONNECTICUT)
The New England colonies, initially settled by Puritans, developed around small
towns with family farms and achieved a thriving mixed economy of agriculture and
commerce.
 Climate and geography: extremely cold winters (reduced spread of
disease), mountainous, rocky soil.
 Economic Structure: diverse economy (agriculture and commerce), small-
scale farming, trade, shipping, exported fish and lumber.
o Lived close together with great social interaction.
o Prospered off the Atlantic trading network (Boston: major shipping
and trading port).
The New England colonies based power in participatory town meetings, which in
turn elected members to their colonial legislatures.
 Town Governments: group of people who elect officials on yearly basis,
decides the laws.
o Only white, land-owning, male, church members could vote.
o Elected members to their colonial legislatures.
o Form of self-government and democracy.
 Religious toleration was limited.
 Separatists (pilgrims): didn’t want to purify English Christianity, but
completely separate from it (like William Bradford).
o They were first harassed by King James, moved to Holland, then
negotiated with the Company of Virginia to settle in America.
o 1620: they boarded the Mayflower and sailed to the coast of
Plymouth.
o Mayflower Compact: a compact on their way to Plymouth to submit
themselves to the will of majority (early example of self-government);
available to male church members.
  Organized a system of rules and order in the colony and
contributed to the establishment of local representative
assemblies.
o They also suffered in their first winter like the ones in Jamestown
(Chesapeake), but they stayed there even though a lot of them died.

 Puritans: English religious reformers, known as Calvinists, who wanted to

purify English Christianity; believed that everything is predestined by God (go
to heaven or hell).
o 1630: settled in Massachusetts Bay Area led by John Winthrop, who
established the Massachusetts Bay Colony.
o Goal: settle a close, knit, homogeneous society (not make money like
the ones in Jamestown), worship freely.
o Placed a strong emphasis on education and literacy, leading to the
establishment of Harvard College (1636): first institution of higher
learning in the colonies.
o Had conflict with NA & established praying towns to spread
Christianity.
 Ex: Metacom’s War.
 John Winthrop: famous Puritan who wrote the Model of Christian
Charity: sermon that stated, “We must be knit together in this work as one
man” and fulfill God’s will otherwise God will punish.
o “We shall be a city upon hill”: act as an example to the world.
o Exceptionalism: God chose the few people on the boats to go to
America in order to carry out their mission, and the rest of the world
will watch them.
o Communalism: reflected the Puritan ideals of “love, unity, and
charity”:
 Charity: giving to others who need help.
 Unity: they all had the same goal of serving God.
 Roger Williams: banished from Massachusetts for his views on religious
freedom and fled to present Rhode Island, where he established a colony
based on the principles of religious freedom and tolerance.
 Anne Hutchinson: challenged the authority of the Church and insisted that
women should speak in church; ultimately banished from Massachusetts to
Rhode Island.

THE MIDDLE COLONIES (NEW YORK, PENNSYLVANIA, NEW JERSEY,

DELAWARE)
The middle colonies supported a flourishing export economy based on cereal crops
and attracted a broad range of European migrants, leading to societies with greater
cultural, ethnic, and religious diversity and tolerance.
 Climate and geography: less severe winters, natural harbors, suitable for
farming.
  Economic Structure: medium-scale farming, trade, commercial and diverse
economy.
o Agriculture, shipping, paper, textiles, iron.
o Supported a flourishing export economy based on cereal/staple
crops: wheat, barley, oats, rye and corn.
 Staple crops: agricultural products used as a primary source of
food and are typically grown in large quantities; provide the
basic necessities for life.
 Attracted a broad range of European migrants, leading to societies with
greater cultural, ethnic, and religious diversity and tolerance.
 Quakers: first banned from the New England Colonies because they
offended religious authorities and Puritans.
 William Penn: established Pennsylvania as a haven for Quakers
and named the capital city Philadelphia.
o Believed that every person has the spirit of God (direct contact with
God).
 Refused to pay taxes, serve in military, pay clergy, take oaths.
o Played significant part of the movements for the abolition of slavery, to
promote equal rights for women, and peace.

THE SOUTHERN COLONIES (MARYLAND, VIRGINIA, NORTH CAROLINA,

SOUTH CAROLINA, GEORGIA)
 Climate and geography: warm climate with mild winters (rampant
diseases), fertile lowlands (long growing seasons, ideal soil).
 Economic structure: developed plantation economies based on exporting
cash crops (tobacco, cotton, indigo, sugar cane).
o Cash crops: grown primarily for sale and profit, e.g., tobacco, sugar,
and cotton, rather than for subsistence; have a high market value;
often grown on large plantations or farms.
o Grew prosperous exporting tobacco: a labor-intensive product
initially cultivated by white, mostly male indentured servants and later
by enslaved Africans.
 Southerners spread out from each other, life revolved around plantations and
large farms.
 Elite planters exercised local authority and also dominated the elected
assemblies.
 Religious tolerance was widespread.
 Westward expansion displaced NA populations: war grew with the NA
as their population and reliance of tobacco grew leading to depletion of the
soil (needed more land).
 Indentured servants & enslaved people:
o Governor Yeardley (governor of Virginia): saw these as valuable
commodities (paid to buy slaves / servants).
 Considered as the origin of racism and slavery.
 o Indentured servants: people who signed and worked for a specified
time especially in return for payment of travel expenses and
maintenance.
 1/3 died at sea to the New World.
 Were beaten, bought and sold, worked to death, but can
eventually be freed.
 All hope for better life, but the reality was full of illnesses and
injuries.
 But as the demand for labor in the colonies grew, many turned
to African slaves as a more reliable and profitable source of
labor.
o First Africans brought to America were seized from Portugal ship.
o Enslaved Africans often constituted 40% of the population in these
areas and developed their own forms of cultural and religious
autonomy.
 Slave trade became part of the economy.

THE CHESAPEAKE COLONIES (VIRGINIA AND MARYLAND; WITHIN

SOUTHERN COLONIES)
The Chesapeake and North Carolina colonies grew prosperous exporting tobacco —
a labor-intensive product initially cultivated by white, mostly male indentured
servants and later by enslaved Africans.
 1607: settled in Jamestown.
o First permanent English settlement in the Americas.
o Created the Virginia Colony (capital was Jamestown).
 First attempted a mutual relationship with the NA based on trade, but soon
disease and other conflicts led to a deteriorated relationship.
 John Smith: took charge and organized the colony (1608).
o Established trade with Powhatans and named the settlement
Jamestown.
o Returned to England in 1609, which left the communication between
the English and the Powhatans broken down.
 Trade was cut off, colonists were attacked by Powhatans,
supplies fleet lost in the storm, leading to the Starving Time.
o The Starving Time (1609–1610): mortality was very high, with over
80% of the colonists starved to death.
 Disease, violence, drought, meager harvest, and poor drinking
water left the majority of colonists dead the harsh winter.
 People started eating horses, dogs, cats, and then turned to
eating rats, mice, and shoe leather; some even practiced
cannibalism.
 500 colonists first came, and 60 were left.
 John Rolfe: brought tobacco seeds (Jamestown suitable for tobacco) in 1611.
  House of Burgesses (1619): first representative body in America, made up
with Virginia landowners.
o Showed the desire of self-government.
o Importance: a step towards self-government and political autonomy
played a role in the eventual move towards independence from British
rule.
 Powhatan NA Attack (March 22, 1622): took place at Jamestown.
o Cause: English’s tobacco economy quickly degraded the land and
required new land, led to constant expansion and seizure of Powhatan
lands.
o NA of the Powhatan Confederacy killed around 347 English colonists,
nearly a quarter of the entire English population in Virginia.
 Maryland (1634): founded by Lord Baltimore as a haven for Roman
Catholics escaping anti-Catholic persecution.
o The English colonies were predominantly Protestant, while Catholicism
was associated with England's historical enemy, Spain; thus, there was
often suspicion and hostility towards Catholics.

THE COLONIES OF THE SOUTHERN ATLANTIC COAST AND THE BRITISH

WEST INDIES
 Used long growing seasons to develop plantation economies based on
exporting staple crops; depended on the labor of enslaved Africans, who
often constituted the majority of the population in these areas and developed
their own forms of cultural and religious autonomy.

Distance and Britain’s initially lax attention led to the colonies creating self-
governing institutions that were unusually democratic for the era (the town
government, elite planters etc.)
 Salutary Neglect (1690s-1754): weak enforcement of British trade laws in
the colonies to control trade and commerce in the colonies.
o Cause: long distance between Britain and the colonies; lack of
resources available to enforce the laws; general indifference towards
the colonies; no effective enforcement agencies due to high expense of
sending British troops to America.
o As long as the colonists provided a steady stream of raw materials,
Great Britain turned a blind eye to everything else.
o Effect: allowed the colonies to develop a certain degree of economic
autonomy; allowed for the growth of local industries and trade.

2.4 THE TRANSATLANTIC TRADE

An Atlantic economy developed in which goods, as well as enslaved Africans and
American NA, were exchanged between Europe, Africa, and the Americas through
extensive trade networks. European colonial economies focused on acquiring,
producing, and exporting commodities that were valued in Europe and gaining new
sources of labor.
 Transatlantic/triangular Trade (1607-1754): a system of trade in which
colonists sent rum, tobacco, and rice to England, and manufactured goods
were sent in return for sale.
o Enslaved people were sold in West Indies for molasses or sugar, which
was shipped to New England to make more rum.
 Reason why Africans were shipped to the Americas: high demand of
labor-intensive crops, lack of colonists, indentured servants and NA (resisted
or died of diseases).
o African kingdoms prospered because of it (traded with rum and
weapons).
o Impact: huge impact on Africa’s demographic (less men, mostly
women); led to racism (Europeans believed that Africans were destined
to become slaves, which made it hard for the African descendants to
attain equal status in society)
The British government increasingly attempted to incorporate its North American
colonies into a coherent, hierarchical, and imperial structure in order to pursue
mercantilist economic aims, but the conflicts with colonists and NA led to erratic 不稳定
的 enforcement of imperial policies.
 Mercantilism: economic system that held that a nation’s power was based
on how much gold and silver it accumulated.
o Goal: increase the nation’s wealth, namely gold and silver (wealth was
limited).
o Wanted exports more than imports (to gain more gold and silver).
o European colonial powers used mercantilist policies to establish
colonies in the Americas, extract resources, and control trade.
 Role of colonies: import raw materials to the mother country and serve as a
market for the mother country to sell manufactured goods.
o New England exported lumber and rum; Middle Colonies exported
wheat; Chesapeake exported tobacco; the South exported rice and
indigo and later cotton.
 Navigation Acts (1650-1673): required colonial trade to occur only within
the British Empire, where they could be additionally taxed, but salutary
neglect allowed American merchants to break these laws.
o Certain goods could only be shipped to Great Britain (included sugar,
tobacco, wool, and indigo) regardless of the price they could sell for in
other European markets.
o Goal: sought to establish wide-ranging control over colonial
commerce.
o Bribery and smuggling undercut these acts.
 o Pros: Colonists had a guaranteed buyer.
o Cons: created serious reductions (profit) in the trade of many planters
and merchants.
Continuing trade with Europeans increased the flow of goods in and out of NA
communities, stimulating cultural and economic changes and spreading epidemic
diseases that caused racial demographic shifts.
 The Beaver Wars (1628-1701):
o Beavers were a hot commodity and numbers were declining due to
over-harvesting.
o Intensified territorial conflicts among and between native groups,
particularly the Iroquois, sparking warfare for decades.
 Diseases spread by European traders, French fur trappers forced NA tribes to
remake themselves into new groups and forge new identities and ways of
survival (tribalization).
o Ex: diseases such as smallpox tore through the continent, killing 90%
of NA.

2.5 INTERACTIONS BETWEEN NATIVE AMERICANS AND EUROPEANS

Interactions between European rivals and NA populations fostered both
accommodation and conflict. French, Dutch, British, and Spanish colonies allied with
and armed NA groups, who frequently sought alliances with Europeans against
other NA groups.
 Relations centered around trade and exchange, alliances, and warfare.
o Trade was a key part of colonist-native relations, e.g., furs and crops
were traded for manufactured European products.
British conflicts with NA over land, resources, and political boundaries led to military
confrontations.
 As time passed and more colonists poured into North America, they gradually
pushed westward, which sparked tension and outright warfare with NA up
and down the coast.
 Metacom’s/King Philip’s War (1675–1678): an armed conflict between
NA and New England colonists.
o The war is named after Metacom, the Wampanoag chief who adopted
the name Philip.
o Cause: colonists continued push westward, encroaching on NA lands.
o Result: war ended with colonist victory (Metacom’s head was placed
on a stake and displayed in Plymouth for a generation).
 Made many English colonists becoming more distrustful of NA
and their cultures.
 o Significance: showed European dominance in America and marked
the final major effort by NA in New England to push back against the
colonists.
 Unlike Spanish accommodation of some aspects of NA culture
after the Pueblo Revolt, the English doubled down on expansion
and forced assimilation of NA after the war.
American NA resistance to Spanish colonizing efforts in North America, particularly
after the Pueblo Revolt, led to Spanish accommodation of some aspects of NA
culture in the Southwest.
 The Spanish were forced to negotiate with the Pueblo NA and make some
accommodations to their culture and way of life.
o Ex: allowed NA to practice their traditional religious ceremonies and
allowed them to retain some autonomy in their villages and
communities.

2.6 SLAVERY IN THE BRITISH COLONIES

All the British colonies participated to varying degrees in the Atlantic slave trade
due to the abundance of land and a growing European demand for colonial goods,
as well as a shortage of indentured servants.
 Beginning of slavery (1619): Portuguese forcibly transported Africans to
the Americas for labor via the Middle Passage.
 While colonists initially depended on indentured servants the primary labor
source, this shifted to slavery by the mid-18th century as the labor supply
was cheaper and more abundant.
o Small New England farms: relatively few enslaved laborers.
o Chesapeake and the southernmost Atlantic coast: emerging
plantation systems led to large numbers of enslaved workers.
o West Indies: where the great majority of enslaved Africans were sent.

As chattel slavery became the dominant labor system in many southern colonies,
new laws created a strict racial system that prohibited interracial relationships and
defined the descendants of African American mothers as black and enslaved in
perpetuity.
 Chattel slavery: actual property who could be bought, sold, traded or
inherited who might be abused, branded, bred, exploited or killed; became
dominant form of labor in the 18th century.
 Southern colonies began to create a race-based definition of slavery, writing
this into slave codes.
Africans developed both overt and covert means to resist the dehumanizing aspects
of slavery and maintain their family and gender systems, culture, and religion.
  Covert 秘密的: preserving African cultural traditions, e.g., music and religion;
maintaining family and community networks despite the disruption of
slavery, sabotage of tools, feigning illness.
 Overt 公开的: rebelling, riots (not as common).
 Stono Rebellion (1739): one of the bloodiest slave rebellions, a slave revolt
in South Carolina where 50+ slaves gathered arms to revolt against their
masters.
o Cause: slaves were resisting their place in society.
o 20 slaves broke into a store, stealing weapons and supplies and
heading for the refuge of Spanish-ruled Florida. Grew into a group of
100 upon arriving in Florida, the rebels stopped in an open field and
made a ruckus 喧闹 in hopes other slaves would hear them and join. A
local militia confronted the group, with most of the escaped slaves
caught and executed.
o Result: 25 white people and 35 to 50 black people killed.
o Significance: colonists clamped down on slaves and made harsher
laws.

2.7 COLONIAL SOCIETY AND CULTURES

The presence of different European religious and ethnic groups contributed to a
significant degree of pluralism and intellectual exchange, which were later
enhanced by the First Great Awakening and the spread of European Enlightenment
ideas.
 Pluralism in the colonies: coexistence of multiple cultural, ethnic, and
religious groups within a society.
o Brought together peoples of many different races, ethnic groups,
and nationalities.
THE FIRST GREAT AWAKENING:
 First Great Awakening (1730s): a wave of preachers began delivering
sermons that emphasized personal and emotional connections to God,
sparking a major religious revival (New England colonies).
o Religious fervor spread across the colonies, with large revivals
meetings.
o Counter and concurrent to the Enlightenment.
 Sermons delivered by George Whitefield and Jonathan Edwards, known as
the New Light Preachers, encouraged parishioners to repent their sins and
obey God’s word to earn mercy.
o Old lights (conservative/moderate) vs. New lights (hellfire and
brimstone).
o Aimed to persuade the unconverted to accept Jesus in their hearts,
or they would fall into the eternal fires of hell.
  Jonathan Edwards: New England preacher, basically started the First
Great Awakening.
o “Sinners in the Hands of an Angry God”: his famous sermon
that taught about how sin and rejection of Christ can lead to the
horrors of hell.
 The wicked can only be saved if they accept Jesus Christ.
 Evangelicals: take the Bible seriously and believe in Jesus Christ as
Savior and Lord.
 George Whitefield: England preacher, revolutionized evangelical
preaching in England. Went everywhere to give sermons (England, middle
colonies, New England Colonies), it made him an “itinerant” 巡回者.
o Criticized unconverted ministers.
 Impact:
o Created greater religious diversity and led to greater tolerance of
differing religions.
 New branches, e.g., Baptists, Methodists, and Evangelicals
formed.
o Members of these new churches objected to public taxes and laws
that supported the established churches, which they saw as
oppressive and unjust; believed that individuals should be free to
follow their own religious beliefs without interference from the
state.
o Planted the seeds of American Revolution in 1776; established
religious order and encouraged people to question authority and
think for themselves, which contributed to a spirit of independence
and self-reliance that was central to American identity.
 The revolution also used the colonial newspapers, pamphlets,
circulating letters, outdoor rallies, and radical oratory to
create an American mass movement.
Colonists’ resistance to imperial control drew on local experiences of self-
government, evolving ideas of liberty, the political thought of the Enlightenment,
greater religious independence and diversity, and an ideology critical of perceived
corruption in the imperial system.
 Enlightenment (1685): sparked in Europe as the product of scientific
and intellectual discoveries.
o Encouraged many thinkers to begin celebrating the power of human
reason and to argue that rational thought, not just religious faith,
could create progress.
o Emphasized ideas such as a belief in science and reason over
religion, the equality of all people, individuals can control their own
destiny, and the political ideas associated with democracy and
republicanism.
 It helped produce a growing interest in education and a
heightened concern with politics and government.
 John Locke: played an important role in spreading the Enlightenment.
 o All people are born equal, it is our experiences that make us who
we are.
o Humans had certain inalienable rights: life, liberty, and the right to
property.
o Impact: led colonists to break form the English monarchy, ideas of
natural rights as a foundation for Americans to call for
independence and govern themselves.
The goals and interests of European leaders and colonists at times diverged, leading
to a growing mistrust on both sides of the Atlantic. Colonists, especially in British
North America, expressed dissatisfaction over issues including territorial
settlements, frontier defense, self-rule, and trade.
 Bacon’s Rebellion (1676): uprising of poor, landless whites against the
government of Virginia culminating in the burning of Jamestown, led by
Nathaniel Bacon against the government of Governor William Berkeley
(Chesapeake Colonies).
o Indentured servants vs. planter elites.
o Cause: lack of retaliatory action against NA attacks on western
farmers; declining tobacco prices coupled with excessive taxation
policies that favored the wealthy (high tax, low tobacco price);
accusations of government corruption and favoritism towards the
emerging planter elite in Virginia.
o Significance: demonstrated class tensions, rebellion against
authority, movement away from indentured servants to slaves.
 Searched for other servants who would not start another revolt;
then found out that the African servants better suited for their
needs, who were considered a more reliable and long-term
source of labor.
The British colonies experienced a gradual Anglicization over time, developing
autonomous political communities based on English models with influence from
intercolonial commercial ties, the emergence of a transatlantic print culture, and
the spread of Protestant evangelicalism.
 Anglicization: spread of Anglican Christianity and English cultural
practices.
o English colonizers established the Church of England in the colonies
and promoted English cultural practices and social norms.
 Intercolonial commercial ties: economic relationships between various
English colonies including exchange of goods, e.g., furs and timber, use of
a common currency, and shared trade regulations.
 Transatlantic print culture: exchange of ideas and information
between Europe and the colonies through the medium of print; helped to
shape the political and cultural landscape of the colonies, as it allowed for
the spread of ideas and information across vast distances.
 Protestant evangelicalism: religious movement emphasizing the
personal conversion experience and the authority of the Bible; helped to
 inspire social and political reform movements such as abolitionism and
temperance.
THE FIRST GREAT AWAKENING VS. THE ENLIGHTENMENT
 The Enlightenment: stressed the use of reason and science to explain
the physical world through their experimentation and research; and
emphasized skepticism towards traditional authority and religious beliefs.
 First Great Awakening: stressed emotion and religion to explain the
physical world and the role of individuals.
 Both challenged traditional authority.
o Challenged traditional church of England authority.
o Challenged traditional monarchies, which John Locke said that
people should hold the power in a government system instead of
the monarch being unrestricted.

PERIOD 3
1754: French and Indian War
1800: election of Thomas Jefferson and the birth of modern democracy

3.2 THE SEVEN YEARS’ WAR

The competition among the British, French, and NA for economic and political
advantage in North America culminated in the Seven Years’ War (French and Indian
War), in which Britain defeated France and allied NA.
Colonial rivalry intensified between Britain and France in the mid-18th century, as
the growing population of the British colonies expanded into the interior of North
America, threatening French NA trade networks and NA autonomy.
 By 1754, the Ohio Valley became a hotspot for conflict.
o The British saw this area as their gateway to western expansion.
o The French viewed it as a valuable region for trade and strategic
military positioning.
o French NA trade network: complex web of economic and cultural
interactions between French traders and NA tribes in the Great Lakes
region.
  Fur trade: French traders established trading posts and
exchanged European goods such as guns, knives, and blankets
for furs with NA tribes, particularly those in the Great Lakes
region.
 Both the French and English were aware that the battle for control of North
America would be determined by who could best win the allegiance of native
tribes.
o The French had better and closer relations through intermarriage and
ties through trade.
o The English usually were able to offer better and more plentiful goods
to natives through trade.
 The French and Indian War (1754-1763): part of the Seven Years' War.
o The Algonquins and the Mohawks allied with the French because they
feared British expansion into the Ohio Valley.
o The Iroquois Nation allied with the British, and the colonies fought
under British commanders.
o Result: Britain won.

Britain achieved a major expansion of its territorial holdings by defeating the

French, but at tremendous expense, setting the stage for imperial efforts to raise
revenue and consolidate control over the colonies.
 Treaty of Paris (1763): ended the Seven Years' War, and all French
territory on the mainland of North America was lost.
o The British received Quebec and the
Ohio Valley.
o The port of New Orleans and the
Louisiana Territory west of the
Mississippi were ceded to Spain for
their efforts as a British ally.
After the British victory, imperial officials’ attempts
to prevent colonists from moving westward
generated colonial opposition, while native groups
sought to both continue trading with Europeans and resist the encroachments of
colonists on tribal lands.
 After the British replaced the French, they refused to give supplies to NA;
started settling in NA land and treated them badly.
 Pontiac’s Rebellion (1763-1765): an alliance of tribes, under Chief
Pontiac, struck back.
o Warfare was brutal; the killing of prisoners, the targeting of civilians,
and other atrocities were widespread.
o The ruthlessness and treachery of the conflict reflected a growing
divide between the separate populations of the British colonists and
NA.
o NA were unable to drive away the British but prompt the British
government to modify the policies that had provoked the conflict.
  Led to the Proclamation of 1763.
 Proclamation of 1763: barred American colonists from settling west of the
Appalachian Mountains.
o Line of Proclamation: along ridge of the Appalachian Mountains.
o Purpose: King of England didn’t want colonists to get in conflict with
NA, otherwise it would cost more money to send troops to fight NA.
o Impact: many colonists saw this as an infringement on their rights,
viewing it as a punishment; many simply ignored this order.
 England attempted to increase authority over the colonies, ending salutary
neglect.
o The British started placing and reinforcing restrictions and tax policies
on the colonies.
o Impact: colonists felt that their freedoms were being curtailed.
 Backfire of the Seven Years’ War (relationship between British and
the colonies):
o Financial burden: the war was costly for Britain, and the British
government taxed the American colonies, leading to resentment
among the colonists, who felt that they were being unfairly burdened
with the costs of the war.
o Disagreements over territory: the British imposed policies that
prevented colonists from expanding westward into newly acquired
territories; many colonists felt that they were being denied access to
valuable land.

3.3: TAXATION WITHOUT REPRESENTATION

The imperial struggles of the mid-18th century, as well as new British efforts to
collect taxes without direct colonial representation or consent and to assert imperial
authority in the colonies, began to unite the colonists against perceived and real
constraints on their economic activities and political rights.
BRITISH EFFORTS TO COLLECT TAXES WITHOUT DIRECT COLONIAL
REPRESENTATION:
 Sugar Act (1764): provided for strong customs enforcement of the duties on
refined sugar and molasses imported into the colonies from non-British
Caribbean sources.
o Also imposed duties on foreign wines, coffee, textiles, and indigo
imported into the colonies.
 Stamp Act (1765): a tax represented by a stamp on various forms of
papers, documents, and playing cards.
o Direct tax imposed by the British government without the approval of
the colonial legislatures.
o Started the Revolutionary Period.
o Imposing taxes on goods for enjoyment and entertainment made men
mad.
  Quartering Act (1765): required local governments of the American
colonies to provide the British soldiers with housing and food.
 Townshend Acts (1767): taxes on imported goods including glass, lead,
paints, paper, and tea.
o These goods were not produced within the colonies and had to be
imported from Britain.
 Tea Act (1773): authorized the company to sell a huge tea surplus directly
to the public to save the East India Company from bankruptcy.
o Outraged established tea merchants and effectively gave a monopoly
to the East India Company.
 Intolerable/coercive Acts (1774): a series of punitive laws passed that
aimed to punish Massachusetts colonists for their defiance in the protest of
the Tea Act.
Colonial leaders based their calls for resistance to Britain on arguments about the
rights of British subjects, the rights of the individual, local traditions of self-rule, and
the ideas of the Enlightenment.
 The colonists argued that their own taxes had to go through their own
assemblies, otherwise it was taxation without representation.
 Enlightenment ideals (e.g., John Locke’s life, liberty, and property
natural rights): inspired colonists' arguments against the King.
 Boston Tea Party (1773): the Sons of Liberty, in reaction to the Tea Act,
dumped 342 chests of tea, imported by the British East India Company into
the harbor.
o Boycotts and protests were organized, heavily involving women.
o Ships loaded with tea were not allowed in harbors up and down the
coasts and were sent back to England.
 Boston Massacre (1786): occurred as a result of the presence of British
troops sent to Boston to enforce the Townshend Acts.
o 60 citizens attacked 10 soldiers with sticks, snowballs, and rocks. The
soldiers opened fire, killing 5 colonists. This event stirred up anti-British
sentiment.
 Attacks on tax collectors: tarring and feathering.
o A mean of protesting the Townshend Acts and those who sought to
enforce it.
The effort for American independence was energized by colonial leaders such as
Benjamin Franklin, as well as by popular movements that included the political
activism of laborers, artisans, and women.
POLITICALLY ACTIVE COLONIAL LEADERS (ENERGIZERS WHO ENERGIZED
PEOPLE TO RESIST):
 Benjamin Franklin: argued that the colonies contributed significantly to the
Seven Years’ War through colonial taxes and men; was co-writer of the
Declaration of Independence and gained France's support during the
Revolutionary War.
  Thomas Jefferson: principal author of the Declaration of Independence.
 John Adams: viewed the British imposition of high taxes and tariffs as a tool
of oppression and advocated the buildup of American armed forces.
 John Jay: detected and defeated conspiracies, which monitored British
actions.
 Alexander Hamilton, James Madison.
POLITICALLY ACTIVE COLONIAL LABORERS, ARTISANS, AND WOMEN:
 Mercy Otis Warren: influential female political writer and propagandist that
urged colonists to resist British infringements on colonial rights and liberties.
 Paul Revere: member of the Sons of Liberty, participated in protests against
taxation, drew a famous painting of the Boston Massacre.
 Sons of Liberty: secret organization that advanced rights of the colonists
and fought taxation; played a major role in most colonies in battling the
Stamp Act.
 Daughters of Liberty (1765): formed to protest the Stamp Act and the
Townshend Acts; used as a general term for women who identified
themselves as fighting for liberty during the American Revolution.
 Minutemen of Massachusetts, Thomas Paine, Abigail Adams.
In the face of economic shortages and the British military occupation of some
regions, men and women mobilized in large numbers to provide financial and
material support to the Patriot movement.
 Patriots (Revolutionaries): rejected British rule during the American
Revolution; worked to mobilize public support; later declared the US as an
independent nation.
o Goal: at first, they wanted to protect their rights as English subjects,
not complete independence.
o Represented the spectrum of social, economic, and ethnic
backgrounds including lawyers, farmers, merchants, slaves, freeman.
o Rejected taxes imposed by legislatures in which the taxpayer was not
represented.
 "No taxation without representation”: their slogan,
referring to the lack of representation in the British Parliament.
 The British countered that there was "virtual representation":
all members of Parliament represented the interests of all the
citizens of the British Empire.
 Patriots all energized by the colonial leaders:
o Men joined Continental Army and state militias.
o Women made homespun cloth (manufacturing own goods, not form
England), nursed soldiers, fought in wars, made uniforms, ran farms
and businesses while men were away.

3.4: PHILOSOPHICAL FOUNDATIONS OF THE AMERICAN REVOLUTION

Enlightenment ideas and philosophy inspired many American political thinkers to
emphasize individual talent over hereditary privilege, while religion strengthened
Americans’ view of themselves as a people blessed with liberty.
 John Locke’s view: the government was to protect our rights to life, liberty,
and property; if the government didn’t protect those rights, people had the
right to revolt and create a new government.
 Religion: played a key role in the creation of a unique American identity.
o John Winthrop’s “City Upon a Hill” emphasized American
exceptionalism.
o The First Great Awakening emphasized individual salvation and a
rejection of the Church of England.
The colonists’ belief in the superiority of republican forms of government based on
the natural rights of the people found expression in Thomas Paine’s Common Sense
and the Declaration of Independence. The ideas in these documents resonated
throughout American history, shaping Americans’ understanding of the ideals on
which the nation was based.
EFFORTS COLONISTS MADE FOR INDEPENDENCE:
 Thomas Paine’s Common Sense (1776): a pamphlet advocating
independence from Great Britain.
o Made a persuasive and impassioned case for independence, which
before the pamphlet, no one has given serious intellectual
consideration.
o Published anonymously, sold and distributed widely, and read aloud at
taverns and meeting places.
o Central idea: the colonies should declare independence from Great
Britain.
 Mercantilism has become limiting and oppressive.
 Distance makes English rule ludicrous.
 England has mistreated its colonies politically: not protecting the
colonies’ interests, but rather using them for their own gain.
 Monarchy is outdated.
 Thomas Jefferson’s Declaration of Independence (1776): announced
that the colonies would regard themselves as 13 independent sovereign
states, no longer under British rule.
o Relied on Enlightenment ideas of social contract theory and belief in
natural rights.
 Social contract theory: people agreed to give up many of
their rights to a government to protect their lives.

3.5: THE AMERICAN REVOLUTION

Despite considerable loyalist opposition, as well as Great Britain’s apparently
overwhelming military and financial advantages, the Patriot cause succeeded
because of the actions of colonial militias and the Continental Army, George
Washington’s military leadership, the colonists’ ideological commitment and
resilience, and assistance sent by European allies.
 Continental Army vs. British Army:
o Continental Army: undisciplined, unprepared, with makeshift
uniforms and sloppy tactics (at least at the beginning of the war).
o The British Army: world's elite fighting force and fresh of victory of
the globe-spanning Seven Years’ War against France.
 The Battle of Lexington and Concord (1775):
o The American Revolutionary War began with the “shot heard around
the world.”
 Crossing of the Delaware (1776):
o The Continental Army was facing a series of devastating defeats at the
hands of the British. Morale was low, and many soldiers were
considering desertion.
o Washington decided to cross the Delaware River into New Jersey in a
surprise attack on the British; resulted in a decisive victory that helped
turn the war back to the American's favor.
 Battle of Saratoga (1777):
o A key turning point came at the Battle of Saratoga when British
General John Burgoyne was forced to surrender his entire field army.
o The French were convinced at this point that the Americans would win,
which led to a formal military alliance with the French. The French
supported with military, financially, diplomatically, and morally. The
Dutch provided gunpowder and loans.
 Valley Forge (1777-1778):
o Washington made camp for the winter at Valley Forge where his army
suffered incredible hardship through the winter, facing disease, cold,
hunger, and lack of supplies.
 Battle of Yorktown (1781):
o Despite being heavily outnumbered, Washington was able to
coordinate a joint assault with French forces and attacked the British at
Yorktown, Virginia.
o Last major battle of the Revolution, followed by the surrender of the
British.
 George Washington: commander of the Continental Army.
o Greatest achievements: surprise victory at Trenton, holding the
army together at Valley Forge, and major victory at Yorktown.
 Treaty of Paris (1783): signed between the American colonies and Great
Britain, which ended the American Revolution, and formally recognized the
US as an independent nation.

3.6: THE INFLUENCE OF REVOLUTIONARY IDEALS

During and after the American Revolution, an increased awareness of inequalities in
society motivated some individuals and groups to call for the abolition of slavery
and greater political democracy in the new state and national governments.
The ideals that inspired the revolutionary cause reflected new beliefs about politics,
religion, and society that had been developing over the course of the 18th century.
 Quakers: among the first white people to denounce slavery in the American
colonies.
o In much of the North, antislavery sentiments spread widely.
o Pennsylvania became the first state to declare slavery illegal in 1780.
 Abigail Adams’ “Remember the Ladies” (1776): wrote to her husband,
John Adams, urging him and the other members of the Continental Congress
not to forget about the nation’s women when fighting for America’s
independence from Great Britain.
o The long Revolutionary War had a profound impact on women beyond
the war.
o The emphasis on liberty and the “rights of man” led some women to
begin to question their own position in society.
o Purpose of this letter: republican motherhood.
 Virginia Statute for Religious Freedom (1786): the statute
disestablished the Church of England in Virginia and guaranteed freedom of
religion to people of all religious faiths, including Christians of all
denominations, Jews, Muslims, and Hindus.
In response to women’s participation in the American Revolution, Enlightenment
ideas, and women’s appeals for expanded roles, an ideal of Republican Motherhood
gained popularity. It called on women to teach republican values within the family
and granted women a new importance in American political culture.
 Republican motherhood: women had a particularly important role in this
society, instructing their children in the virtues of republicanism and raising
virtuous and patriotic citizens who would support and strengthen the new
nation.
o Republic: where people are elected to make laws.
o Children were taught about the principles of the new republic,
including democracy and civic duty by reading works like the
Declaration of Independence and the Common Sense under
republicanism.
o Importance: seen as crucial in shaping the next generation of citizens
to ensure that the nation would be governed by virtuous and
responsible citizens; emphasized the importance of education for girls
and paved the way for later movements for women’s suffrage and
gender equality.
The American Revolution and the ideals set forth in the Declaration of
Independence reverberated 使回响 in France, Haiti, and Latin America, inspiring future
independence movements.
  The French Revolution (1789): dissenters rebelled in France.
 The Haitian Revolution (1791): over 100,000 revolutionaries mostly
enslaved black Haitians led by Toussaint-Louverture, defeated both the white
settlers on the island and the French colonial armies sent to quell the
rebellion.
 Independence movements in Latin America: replicated the language of
the Declaration of Independence.

TOPIC 3.7 THE ARTICLES OF CONFEDERATION

FORMS OF GOVERNMENT:
 Confederate Form of Government: the power of the federal (national)
government < power of the state government(s).
 Federal (national) Form of Government: the federal government and the
state government(s) share some power (NOT divided).
 Unitary (e.g., British) Form of Government: the power of the federal
government > power of the state government(s).
Many new state constitutions placed power in the hands of the legislative branch
and maintained property qualifications for voting and citizenship.
 Legislative branch: seen as the most democratic branch of government, as
it was the most directly accountable to the people; had the power to pass
laws and levy taxes, which were seen as the primary functions of
government.
 Property qualifications for voting and citizenship: property owners
would be more likely to vote responsibly and in the best interests of society
as a whole.
After declaring independence, American political leaders created new constitutions
and declarations of rights that articulated 明确 the role of the state and federal
governments while protecting individual liberties and limiting both centralized
power and excessive popular influence.
 Articles of Confederation (1781-1787): 1st written constitution of the US.
o Confederate form of government.
o States remained sovereign and independent, with Congress serving as
the last resort on appeal of disputes.
o Consisted of a unicameral Congress, with each state having one vote,
regardless of size or population.
o Weaknesses (need to remember 3):
 Congress had no power to levy or collect taxes → the
government was always short of money.
 No power to regulate foreign trade → trading with other
countries was difficult.
 No power to enforce its laws → the government depended on
the states for law enforcement.
  Approval of nine states was needed to enact laws → difficult to
enact laws.
 13 states needed to approve amendments to the articles → no
practical way to change the powers of government.
 The government had no executive branch → no effective way to
coordinate the work of government.
 There was no national court system → central government
had no way to settle disputes among the states.
o Lasted less than a decade and switched to a federal government.

The Articles of Confederation unified the newly independent states, creating a

central government with limited power. After the Revolution, difficulties over
international trade, finances, interstate commerce, foreign relations, and internal
unrest led to calls for a stronger central government.
 Shays’ Rebellion (1786): Massachusetts farmers attacked the Springfield
arsenal.
o Named after its leader, Revolutionary War veteran Daniel Shays.
o Cause: farmers were aggrieved by high taxes, eviction, and
imprisonment for debt.
o Effect: while the rebellion was eventually put down by state militia, it
also helped make clear the need for a stronger central government
capable of protecting democratic institutions and responding to
national emergencies.
As settlers moved westward during the 1780s, Congress enacted the Northwest
Ordinance for admitting new states; the ordinance promoted public education, the
protection of private property, and a ban on slavery in the Northwest Territory.
 Land Ordinance Act (1785): allowed the federal government to sell
western lands to pay off the national debt and organize these new lands into
townships and public schools.
 Northwest Ordinance (1787): admitted new states, promoted public
education, protected private property, banned slavery in the Northwest
territory.
o Established the process for territories to become states.
o Guaranteed certain basic rights to the people living in those territories,
including freedom of religion, trial by jury, and habeas corpus.
o While the Ordinance also established the orderly westward expansion
of the American states, it did so at the expense of NA already living in
the territory.

3.8: THE CONSTITUTIONAL CONVENTION

Delegates from the states participated in a Constitutional Convention and through
negotiation, collaboration, and compromise proposed a constitution.
  Delegates consisted of framers and founders:
o Framers: included founders and others that contributed to the
Constitution.
o Founders: people who contributed to the development of
independence and nationhood.
 Constitutional Convention (1787): called together in Philadelphia for the
sole and express purpose of amending the Articles of Confederation.
 3 branches of government (separated powers):

LEGISLATIVE (makes EXECUTIVE JUDICIAL (interprets

laws) (enforces laws) laws)
The US Capitol The White House The US Supreme Court
Congress -> Senate & President -> Vice Supreme Court ->
House of Representatives President & Cabinet other federal courts
 Separation of powers in the US is associated with the Checks and Balances
system: provides each branch of government with individual powers to
check the other branches and prevent any one branch from becoming too
powerful.
o Ex: the legislative branch can check the power of the executive branch
by overriding a presidential veto with a 2/3 vote.
The Constitutional Convention compromised over the representation of slave states
in Congress and the role of the federal government in regulating both slavery and
the slave trade, allowing the prohibition of the international slave trade after 1808.
 Compromise was critical to the creation of the constitution. The final
document has come to be known as a “bundle of compromises”.
THE GREAT COMPROMISE:
 Virginia Plan (Large States Plan) drafted by James Madison:
o Called for a government with 3 independent branches in which each
would have certain powers and could check the others (checks and
balances).
o Congress was to be made up of two houses, the House of
Representatives and the Senate, and the number of lawmakers that a
state could send to Congress depended on the state's population.
o This plan favored the states with the largest populations: the higher a
states’ population, the more representatives it had.
 New Jersey Plan (Small States Plan) proposed by William Paterson:
o Called for a unicameral 单院的 legislature in which each state had equal
representation (regardless of state population).
 Great Compromise (Connecticut Compromise) suggested by Roger
Sherman: created the Congress, a bicameral legislature.
o Senate: each state had equal representation in the upper house.
o House of Representatives: lower house based on state population.

THREE-FIFTHS COMPROMISE:
  A bitter debate continued over slavery, representation, and power:
o Southerners wanted enslaved people to be counted for purposes of
deciding representation in the House, but not for determining taxes,
while Northerners disagreed.
 Three-Fifths Compromise proposed by James Madison: 3/5 of the
enslaved African Americans in a state would be counted for congressional
representation and taxation.
 Commerce and Slave Trade Compromise: prevent Congress from taxing
American exports in order to protect their agricultural trade; allowed the
importation of slaves to continue for 20 years, after which Congress would
have the power to regulate or abolish it.
 Electoral College Compromise: established the Electoral College as the
method for selecting the President of the US, which gave states an indirect
say in the election. Each state would have a number of electors equal to its
number of representatives in Congress.
In the debate over ratifying the Constitution, Anti Federalists opposing ratification
battled with Federalists, whose principals were articulated in the Federalist Papers
(primarily written by Alexander Hamilton and James Madison). Federalists ensured
the ratification of the Constitution by promising the addition of a Bill of Rights that
enumerated individual rights and explicitly restricted the powers of the federal
government.
 After receiving the US Constitution, Congress sent it out to the states for
ratification. Supporters (Federalists) and opponents (Anti-Federalists) debated
the new form of government in the thirteen states, most contentiously in
Virginia and New York.
 Bill of Rights: include 10 amendments that provide specific protections for
individual liberties, such as freedom of speech, religion, the right to bear
arms; intended to ensure that citizens had the necessary protections against
government overreach and abuse.
o Many Anti-Federalists opposed the constitution because it did not
sufficiently protect individual rights; they argued that a Bill of Rights
was necessary to ensure that the new government did not become
tyrannical.
o It was eventually added to the Constitution in 1791.
o Importance: the ratification of the Bill of Rights helped to bring many
states on board, with Virginia and New York, two of the largest states,
only ratifying the Constitution after being promised the addition of a
Bill of Rights.
FEDERALISTS VS. ANTIFEDERALISTS:
 The key issue: what was the proper role of government?
FEDERALISTS:
 Characteristics:
o Tended to be wealthier, better educated, and more influential.
 o Craftsmen, artisans, merchants who sought a sound economic
foundation.
o Most lived along the coast and in cities.
 Beliefs:
o Trusted a strong national government that balanced security and
liberty.
 The Federalist Papers (1787): a series of 85 essays written by Alexander
Hamilton, John Jay, and James Madison trying to persuade delegates to vote
for ratification.
o Attempted to explain the meaning of each clause in the Constitution
and how it would be implemented.
ANTI-FEDERALISTS:
 Characteristics:
o Mostly farmers, the lower working class, and debtors.
o Many lived in the less settled western and northern regions of each
state.
 Beliefs:
o Trusted local and state governments and wanted a national
government lacking the ability to exercise power.
 Wanted authority and sovereignty to remain with local and state
governments.
o Feared that the Constitution’s constant mentioning of power will take
away people’s natural rights.
o Concerned about the lack of a bill of rights, fearing that by not
enumerating 列举 the natural rights of the people, these rights would not
be protected.
 Wrote the Anti-Federalist Papers but never gained the prominence of the
Federalist Papers.

3.9: THE CONSTITUTION

Delegates from the states participated in a Constitutional Convention that created a
limited but dynamic central government embodying federalism and providing for a
separation of powers between its three branches.
 Preamble: Reasons
o Create a better, stronger national government, ensure a system of
justice, provide for peace at home, provide for the defense of the
nation, promote the well-being of the people, secure liberty to the
people and to future generations.
 Article I: The Legislative Branch
o Establishes the bicameral legislature (two houses):
 House of Representatives: at least 1 per state, based on
population.
  Senators: 2 per state, equal for all states.
 Article II: The Executive Branch
o Elected through the Electoral College (each state’s electors is the total
of their reps + senators); a candidate needs a majority of the electoral
votes to become President.
o President’s responsibilities: signs bills into laws (or vetoes); issues
executive orders that have the effect of laws; appoints judges,
diplomats, and other high government officials; can grant reprieves,
pardons, and amnesties.
 Article III: The Judicial Branch
o Creates the Supreme Court and gives Congress the power to create
lower federal courts.
o Supreme Court: has appellate jurisdiction: in a lower court, if the
losing side believes a judge made a mistake in applying the law, it can
be appealed to a higher court.
KEY PRINCIPLES:
 Popular sovereignty: people have the right to decide what kind of
government they want to have and what laws they want to live by.
 Limited government and the rule of law: government is limited by law,
and no one is considered above the law.
 Federalism: the share of power between federal and state government.
o Reserved powers: powers neither delegated to the national
government nor denied to the states.
o Concurrent power: shared power; belong to both national and state
governments.
o Enumerated powers: national government’s power.
 Separation of powers: power to govern at the national level is divided
among the legislative, executive, and judicial branches to ensure no single
branch can dominate the government.
o Checks and balances: each branch of the national government has
ways to check, or control, the other branches; prevents one branch
from gaining too much power and helps to maintain the rule of law.
 Republic: system of government in which power is held by the people
through their elected representatives; allows for a representative democracy,
in which the people have a say in the decisions that affect their lives.
 Judicial independence: judges are appointed rather than elected and serve
a lifetime in order to ensure that the judicial system is independent from
political influence.
 Taxation: federal government assumes 承担 all of the individual debts of each
state from the war in order to create credit that the federal government
would eventually pay off.
o Importance: shown importance of federal government and provided
stability for the new US economy in the 1790s.
3.10: SHAPING A NEW REPUBLIC
The US government forged diplomatic initiatives aimed at dealing with the
continued British and Spanish presence in North America, as US settlers migrated
beyond the Appalachians and sought free navigation of the Mississippi River.
 Jay’s treaty (1794):
o Cause: situation in foreign affairs worsened when Britain issued orders
by which US vessels were seized and American seamen were
impressed into service in the British navy; retained military posts in
direct violation of the Treaty of Paris and continued to incite NA tribes
in the Ohio Valley to attack American frontiersmen.
o In an effort to avoid war, Washington dispatched John Jay, the chief
justice of the US, to Britain as a special envoy to negotiate US
grievances.
 Jay Treaty was signed but Britain only agreed to evacuate its
posts on the US western frontier, and they would continue to
search American vessels.
War between France and Britain resulting from the French Revolution presented
challenges to the US over issues of free trade and foreign policy and fostered
political disagreement.
 France was upset at the results of Jay’s Treaty because it benefited their
enemy, Britain. France started to seize American merchant ships in 1797.
 XYZ Affair (1797): Adams sent three American diplomats to France to
negotiate. France had deployed 3 secret diplomats, X, Y, and Z to the talks.
These 3 men wanted expensive bribe money from the Americans for the
mere opportunity to talk with France. Negotiations quickly failed, and the
Americans returned home.
o Americans were furious upon learning of these bribes and the
disrespect.
 Quasi War (1798-1800): unofficial fighting with France where
private American ships fought the French navy.
 Result: ended the Treaties of Alliance and Commerce
(promoted trade between France and the US) and re-asserted
the US right to free trade.
The Spanish expanded their mission settlements into California; these provided
opportunities for social mobility among soldiers and led to new cultural blending.
 Spanish Mission System (1769-1833): series of 21 religious outposts
established in California.
o Founded by Catholic priests to convert the NA.
o NA were forced to live in settlements called reductions: towns
modeled on villages and towns in Spain, disrupting their way of life.
An ambiguous relationship between the federal government and NA tribes
contributed to problems regarding treaties and NA legal claims relating to the
seizure of their lands.
 The Constitution did not clarify the precise legal standing of NA within the US,
giving NA no direct representation in the new government and not addressing
the major issue of land.
During the presidential administrations of George Washington and John Adams,
political leaders created institutions and precedents that put the principles of the
Constitution into practice.
POLITICAL INSTITUTIONS AND PRECEDENTS:
o Cabinet: Jefferson at State, Hamilton at Treasury, Knox at War.
o Two Term Presidency: left the presidency after 2 years, setting the
unofficial for a two-term limit.
Political leaders in the 1790s took a variety of positions on issues such as the
relationship between the national government and the states, economic policy,
foreign policy, and the balance between liberty and order. This led to the formation
of political parties — most significantly the Federalists, led by Alexander Hamilton,
and the Democratic Republican Party, led by Thomas Jefferson and James Madison.

FEDERALISTS DEMOCRATIC-REPUBLICANS
Leader: Alexander Hamilton Leader: Thomas Jefferson and
James Madison
Favored: Favored:
Rule by the wealthy class Rule by the people
Northern states Southern states
Strong federal government Strong state governments
Emphasis on manufacturing Emphasis on agriculture
British alliance French alliance
National bank (created in 1791) State banks
Protective tariffs Free trade

DEBATE OVER LIBERTY AND ORDER:

 Alien and Sedition Acts of 1798: passed by Federalists which aimed at the
immigrants who were joining Jeffersonians.
o Alien Act: allowed the federal government to deport 驱逐出境 non-citizens
who were a threat to national security.
o Sedition Act: violated the 1st Amendment’s guarantees of freedom of
speech and press by allowing the jailing of anyone who criticized the
president or Congress.
 Kentucky and Virginia Resolutions: Thomas Jefferson and James
Madison’s response to these acts; claimed that the federal government had
exceeded its power with the Alien and Sedition Acts. Since the states created
the Constitution, the states had the right to decide what was constitutional.
George Washington’s Farewell Address encouraged national unity, as he cautioned
against political factions and warned about the danger of permanent foreign
alliances.
 Faction: political parties or interest groups.
 George Washington’s Farewell Address (1796): as George Washington
left office, he wrote a farewell address to be published in newspapers that
warned Americans:
o Don’t embrace parties or factions.
o Not get involved in European affairs.
o Don’t make “permanent alliances” with other countries (European
countries) because they always fight like crazy (like cats and dogs).
o Don’t get distracted by regional differences between states.
o Impact: its emphasis on national unity and the dangers of political
factionalism helped shape the early years of the American republic, as
political leaders sought to implement Washington’s advice and build a
stable and prosperous nation.
 As sectional tensions mounted and the US headed toward civil
war, the principles were invoked as a model for national unity.
Political leaders pointed to Washington’s warnings against
sectionalism and political factionalism as a guide for the nation
to follow.
 Justify the US policy of neutrality during the Napoleonic Wars
and its isolationist stance in the years leading up to WW2.

3.11: DEVELOPING AN AMERICAN IDENTITY

New forms of national culture developed in the US alongside continued region
interests.
EMERGING NATIONAL IDENTITY (1763-1800):
 The colonists who came to live in what was to become the US did not, until
around the 1770s, think of themselves as "Americans."
o Most colonists identified themselves as English citizens.
 Era of Good Feeling: period of relative political stability and economic
prosperity characterized by a sense of national pride and unity, as Americans
celebrated their victory over the British in the War of 1812 and the expansion
of the US westward; saw the emergence of a distinctive American cultural
identity.
o American writers and artists began to celebrate American themes and
subjects, rather than simply imitating European models.
 Then colonists began to develop a greater national identity as independence
was won from England, and the united colonies formed their own
government. Thus, identification with Britain naturally lessened.
Ideas about national identity increasingly found expression in works of art,
literature, and architecture.
  Letters from an American Farmer (1782): J. Hector St. John de
Crèvecoeur published a volume of narrative essays that explored the
“American Dream”: characterized American society by the principles of
equal opportunity and self-determination.
o First writer to describe the life on the American frontier to Europeans
across the sea.
o The writing celebrated American ingenuity and its uncomplicated
lifestyle.
 Described the religious diversity in America as a melting pot
created from a variety of ethnic and cultural backgrounds.
 Provided useful information of the “New World” by helping
create an American identity in the minds of Europeans with his
descriptions of the new country of America.

3.12: MOVEMENT IN THE EARLY REPUBLIC

Various NA groups repeatedly evaluated and adjusted their alliances with
Europeans, other tribes, and the US, seeking to limit migration of white settlers and
maintain control of tribal lands and natural resources. British alliances with NA
contributed to tensions between the US and Britain.
 During the War of 1812, some NA groups saw the British as allies in their
efforts to resist American expansion, and British support for these groups was
viewed by the US as a violation of American sovereignty.
As increasing numbers of migrants from North America and other parts of the world
continued to move westward, frontier cultures that had emerged in the colonial
period continued to grow, fueling social, political, and ethnic tensions.
 Whiskey Rebellion (1791-1794): an uprising of Western Pennsylvania
farmers that took place in response to Alexander Hamilton's excise tax on
whiskey.
o Cause: in 1791, Congress passed an excise tax (tax on products sold)
on whiskey recommended by Hamilton to help reduce the national
debt.
o In 1794, farmers in western Pennsylvania raised a major challenge to
federal authority when they refused to pay the new whiskey excise tax
and began terrorizing tax collectors in the region.
o Washington assembled an army of 15,0000 to put down this Whiskey
Rebellion, even personally leading the troops himself.
o Effect: showed that the federal government had the strength to
enforce its law, but also raised concerns over its increased power.
The expansion of slavery in the Deep South and adjacent western lands and rising
antislavery sentiment began to create distinctive regional attitudes toward the
institution.
  Slavery expanded in the Deep South:
o Cause: Eli Whitney’s 1793 invention of the cotton gin accelerating the
profitability of slavery and increasing economic demands of the cotton
industry led to further expansion in the South.
o Solidified its shaping of a region tied firmly to slavery and agriculture.
o Impact: contributed to the growing sectional tensions that eventually
led to the Civil War.
 Northern states begun abolishing slavery after independence:
o Shaped into a region of immigrants who provided the cheap labor
supply as the North industrialized.

PERIOD 4
1800: the election of Jefferson and the birth of modern democracy

1848: the Mexican American War and the Treaty of Guadalupe Hidalgo

4.2 THE RISE OF POLITICAL PARTIES AND THE ERA OF JEFFERSON

In the early 1800s, national political parties continued to debate issues such as
tariffs, powers of the federal government, and relations with European powers.

FIRST POLITICAL PARTIES: FEDERALISTS VS. DEMOCRATIC REPUBLICANS

(1792-1824):

 2 national parties competed for control of the presidency, Congress, and the
states:
o Federalist Party: formed by Alexander Hamilton; fought for powerful
and vigorous central government; favored manufacturing interests.
o Jeffersonian Democratic-Republican Party: formed by Thomas
Jefferson and James Madison; fought for limited central government
 (should not interfere in lives of citizens); favored the ideal of
agrarianism: nation of self-sustaining farmers.
 Limited power of federal government by:
 Reducing the size of the military and navy to keep the
budget in balance.
 Reducing the number of federal jobs.
 Abolishing the excise taxes (whiskey tax).
 The Federalists were dominant until 1800 (first two presidents were
Federalists), while the Republicans were dominant after 1800 (Jefferson
became president).
 Lewis and Clark Expedition (1804):
o Cause: Jefferson tasked Lewis and Clark to explore lands west of the
Mississippi River that comprised the Louisiana Purchase.
 This 8000-mile journey lasted over two years.
o Effect: provided new geographic, ecological and social information
about previously uncharted areas of North America.
 Embargo Act (1807): closed US ports to all exports and restricted imports
from Britain.
o Cause: the capture of US trade ships and the impressment of
American soldiers during the Napoleonic Wars (1803-1815).
o Effect: American industry suffered as Britain started substituting
South American goods for American goods.

Supreme Court decisions established the primacy of the judiciary in determining the
meaning of the Constitution and asserted the federal laws took precedence over
state laws.

 Marbury v. Madison (1803): John Marshall established the power of

judicial review: the power to declare acts of the legislative branch and
orders of the executive branch unconstitutional.
 Limited Congress power (if Congress wants a law to be
established, the court sees that its unconstitutional, it gets
ripped).
 McCulloh v. Maryland (1819): argued whether a state had the power to
tax a federal bank.
o Result: states can’t tax federal bank; national law trumps state laws
whenever the two contradict (example of expansion of federal power).

4.3 POLITICS AND REGIONAL INTERESTS

Regional interests often trumped national concerns as the basis for many political
leaders’ positions on slavery and economic policy.
  Henry Clay’s American System (1815): a legislative economic program
designed to unify the national economy by:
o Tariffs: set protective tariff to encourage American manufacturing and
purchase of domestic goods.
o Federally funded improvements: build roads, canal, railroads in
north across the east.
o National bank: Created a 2nd national bank to provide financial
support by extending credit to farmers (rechartered in 1816 for 20
years).

Congressional attempts at political compromise, such as the Missouri Compromise,

only temporarily stemmed growing tensions between opponents and defenders of
slavery.

 Missouri Compromise (1820): proposed by Henry Clay which drew an

imaginary line across the former Louisiana Territory, establishing a boundary
between free and slave regions; admitted
Missouri as a slave state and Maine as a free
state.
o Cause: there were 11 slaves and non-
slave states, so Missouri request to
become a slave state would be the
12th slave state (imbalance).
o Tensions began to rise between
proslavery and anti-slavery factions.
 Reached a boiling point after Missouri’s 1819 request for
admission to the Union as a slave state, which threatened to
upset the delicate balance between slave states and free states.

4.4 AMERICA ON THE WORLD STAGE

Struggling to create an independent global presence, the US sought to claim
territory throughout the North American continent and promote foreign trade.

 Louisiana Purchase (1803):

o Spain secretly transferred Louisiana territory to France; when US found
out, they negotiated with France to buy a piece of land along the
Mississippi River.
o Result: Jefferson sent James Monroe to France, and the US bought
land West of Mississippi & East of Rocky Mountains, doubled US
territory.
 Jefferson (strict constructionism: strict interpretation of the
Constitution) knew that the Constitution had no provision to
purchase foreign territory (became more like Federalists).
  Excuse: cheap, expands country, removes French with no
bloodshed.
o Effect: removal of NA and increased number of slaves.
 Expanded agricultural markets which expanded demand of slave
labor and required more land.

Following the Louisiana Purchase, the US government sought influence and control
over North America and the Western Hemisphere through a variety of means,
including military actions and diplomatic efforts such as the Monroe Doctrine.

 The War of 1812 (England vs. US):

o Cause: continued British impressment of American citizens into
fighting for the British; British sending aid to Indians who were
attacking westward migrating settlers.
o War was declared on Britain, but Federalists opposed this war and
threatened to secede from the union over this disagreement.
o British set the white house on fire.
o Result: American won; established the credibility of the US among
other nations; fostered a strong sense of national pride among the
American people.
 Era of Good Feeling (1815-1825):
 Means: development of American culture; cultural
means: tradition belief, value, practice.
 First Seminole War (1816-1818):
o Cause: began over attempts by US authorities to recapture runaway
black slaves living among Seminole bands.
o Andrew Jackson led military forces to invade the area, scattering the
villagers, burning their towns.
o Result: Americans won, and in 1819, Spain was induced to cede its
Florida territory under the terms of the Transcontinental Treaty.
 Monroe Doctrine (1823): President James Monroe asserted that the US
would not tolerate further colonization from European countries.
o Cause: British impressment.
 Mexican American War (1846-1848):
o Marked the first US armed conflict chiefly fought on foreign soil.
o A border skirmish 边境冲突 along the Rio Grande River started off the
fighting and was followed by a series of US victories.
o Result:
 Treaty of Guadalupe Hidalgo: Mexico losing about 1/3 of its
territory, including California, Nevada, Utah, part of Arizona, part
of New Mexico (American southwest).
o Effect on NA and slaves: every time US moved westward, they were
offended.
4.5 THE MARKET REVOLUTION: INDUSTRIALIZATION
Entrepreneurs helped to create a market revolution in production and commerce, in
which market relationships between producers and consumers came to prevail as
the manufacture of goods became more organized.

 Market Revolution (1820s-1840s): fundamental shift in market; increased

buying and sale in distant markets (from local to distant); linked northern
industries with southern farms.
o Occurred with the Industrial Revolution: shifted from making things
at home or shops to making them in factories; hand work to machine
work; manufacturing to industries.
o Shifted from agrarian society (farmer) to capitalist society.

BEFORE THE MARKET REVOLUTION:

 Colonists depended on the British for refined and manufactured goods →

household manufacturing prevailed (hand-made, home-made, made in
shops).
 In the absence of British rule and with the development of a new spirit of
nationalism, local industry began to develop.

INNOVATIONS OF THE MARKET REVOLUTION

 The first successful factory (1790): constructed in Rhode Island by

Samuel Slater, a mechanic born in England. He had slipped out of England to
America in 1789, with British factory plans committed to memory (it was
illegal to export British machines or plans abroad).
 Lowell Mills (1820s): a more efficient power loom constructed by Francis
Cabot Lowell.
o Concentrated on mass-production and standardization.
 Recruited young farm women and housed them in company
dormitories, a model that other factories soon imitated.
 Effect: increase in women obtaining positions in textile mills
further supported the household income.
 Cotton gin (1793): invented by Eli Whitney; easily separated the seeds
from cotton fibers.
o Transformed southern agriculture, increased demand for slaves in the
South, supplied the burgeoning textile industry in New England.
o Kicked off the 1st Industrial Revolution.
 Interchangeable parts (1801): a system devised by Eli Whitney that
helped to increase production efficiency.
o Allowed relatively unskilled workers to produce large numbers quickly
and at lower cost and made repair and replacement of parts much
easier.
 o Became the basis for mass production methods in northern factories
and would give rise to the assembly line a century later.
 Steam engine (1804): led to inventions of steamboats, locomotives, and
textile machines.
 Telegraph (1830s): a system of wires zigzagging between cities and towns.
o Allowed messages to be transmitted in just minutes through electricity,
which transformed communication.

Legislation and judicial systems supported the development of roads, canals, and
railroads, which extended and enlarged markets and helped foster regional
interdependence. Transportation networks linked the North and Midwest more
closely than either was linked to the South.

 Erie Canal (1825): waterway that linked western farms with eastern
manufacturing.
 Prospered New York: where large scale business took place.
o Effect: Large scale commercial, immigration, agricultural
development.

Increasing Southern cotton production and the related growth of Northern

manufacturing, banking, and shipping industries promoted the development of
national and international commercial ties.

 The South produced all the cotton, and the North produced all the industrial
goods.
 Different regions grew increasingly interconnected economically and
increasing economic ties internationally.
o Unify the nation while also encouraging the growth of different regions
in order to project strength internationally.

4.6 MARKET REVOLUTION: SOCIAL AND CULTURE

Large numbers of immigrants moved to industrializing northern cities.

 Irish immigration (starting in 1830s):

o Push factor: overpopulation, crop failure, and lack of fertile land in
Ireland.
o Pull factor: Industrial Revolution and chances to work in factories.
o Irish were typically illiterate and poor.
 Stayed in eastern cities where they landed and became part of
the unskilled labor force (factories located mostly in the east).
 Worked in the factories, and as domestic servants, construction
workers.
Large numbers of immigrants moved west of the Appalachians, developing thriving
new communities along the Ohio and Mississippi rivers.

 German immigration (starting in 1830s):

o Push factor: displaced farmers whose crops failures invited them to
look elsewhere.
o Pull factor: cheap farmland.
o Germans were wealthier than the Irish and brought over more
possessions.
 Tended to arrive with some foundational money and thus
generally moved to the Northwest, where they became farmers
or small businessmen.
 Lived along the Mississippi River because it provided water and
transportation.

The growth of manufacturing drove a significant increase in prosperity and

standards of living for some; this led to the emergence of a larger middle class and
a small but wealthy business elite but also to a large and growing population of
laboring poor.

 The emergence of a larger middle class resulted from the growth of small
towns and urban areas, which presented opportunities for business owners
and merchants.
o Middle class women usually remained in the household; many were
able to hire servants.
 Gap was widening between the upper and lower classes.
o Upper class: merchants and industrialists accumulated enormous
fortunes.
 New York City developed a particularly elaborate high society.
o Lower class: as machines gradually replaced skilled labor, displaced
workers descended into the mass of unskilled wage earners.
 Gap also widened between owners and unskilled laborers (free Black
Americans, native-born women and children, and immigrants).

Gender and family roles changed in response to the market revolution, particularly
with the growth of definitions of domestic ideals that emphasized the separation of
public and private spheres.

 The growing separation between the workplace and the home resulting from
industrialization sharpened distinctions between the social roles of men and
women across class boundaries.
 Cult of domesticity (1800s): an idea that women should stay at home and
should not do any work outside of the home (private sphere).
o Men were to navigate the more “dangerous” public sphere of
employment and politics.
 o Effect: women had lack of freedom and working rights, which led to
the development of the women's movement in direct response to the
standards set upon women by society.

Increasing numbers of Americans, especially women and men working in factories,

no longer relied on semi-subsistence agriculture; instead, they supported
themselves producing goods for distant markets.

4.7 EXPANDING DEMOCRACY

The nation’s transition to a more participatory democracy was achieved by
expanding suffrage from a system based on property ownership to one based on
voting by all adult white men, and it was accompanied by the growth of political
parties.

 Panic of 1819: cause of participatory democracy expansion; people

demanded the franchise (the right to vote) because the bank limited loans to
control inflation, which caused mortgages to be foreclosed, people were
rendered homeless, unemployment was at a high, and fall in prices
negatively impacted both agriculture and manufacturing. Therefore, many
white male property owners lost their land and the right to vote.
 Cause: the collapse of the strong foreign markets for
commodities that had fueled the American economy in the years
following the War of 1812.

SUFFRAGE:

 Most states in the 1820s restricted the franchise to white male property
owners or taxpayers or both.
 By 1856, all requirements to own property had been dropped.
 Effect: civic participation increased, and political parties more actively
sought to speak for newly enfranchised voters, which led to the growth of
new political parties (Democrats and Whigs).

4.8 JACKSON AND FEDERAL POWER

By the 1820s and 1830s, new political parties arose — the Democrats, led by
Andrew Jackson, and the Whigs, led by Henry Clay — that disagreed about the role
and powers of the federal government and issues such as the national bank, tariffs,
and federally funded internal improvements.

SECOND PARTY SYSTEM (1828-1854):

DEMOCRATIC PARTY: Andrew WHIG PARTY: Henry Clay

Jackson
 Strict interpretation of the
  Loose interpretation of the
Constitution. Constitution.
 Against American System:  Favored American System:
o Favored state banks. o Favored national banks.
o Private funded internal o Federally funded internal
improvements. improvements.
o Free trade & taxes (make o Protective tariffs.
money); opposed to  Resembled the Federalist Party
monopolies, high tariffs, of Hamilton.
high land prices.  Supporters came from
 Resembled the Republican Party Northeast states, and
of Jefferson. Protestants of English heritage.
 Supporters came from the South
and West, urban workers, and
immigrants.
DISAGREEMENTS OVER ROLE AND POWERS OF THE FEDERAL
GOVERNMENT:

2nd NATIONAL BANK (1832):

 In 1832, Henry Clay convinced Nicholas Biddle, the president of the national
bank, to ask Congress to renew the charter early.
o Jackson promptly vetoed it, because he said that the bank itself was
unconstitutional and was making “the rich richer and the potent more
powerful.”
o He then ordered to move money from the National Bank into 80 state
“pet banks” as a way to diminish the National Bank’s power.

NULLIFICATION CRISIS (1832-1833):

 In 1832, after the passage of a tariff, South Carolina declared the tariffs null
and void, and threatened to leave the Union in the Ordinance of Nullification.
o Theory of nullification: a state could nullify federal laws it didn’t
agree with.
 President Jackson saw this as a direct challenge to the authority of the federal
government and the Union itself.
o In 1833, he persuaded Congress to pass a Force bill with gave him
authority to respond to South Carolina’s insolence with military action.
o South Carolina backed off and just asked for the tariff to be reduced.

INTERNAL IMPROVEMENTS

 Whigs: believed that these expenditures were a necessary part of keeping

the nation connected.
 Jacksonian: saw this as federal overreach and believed that such
expenditures were unconstitutional.
Frontier settlers tended to champion expansion efforts, while American Indian
resistance led to a sequence of wars and federal efforts to control and relocate
American Indian populations.

 Tecumseh’s Confederacy (1808-1813): Tecumseh was a Shawnee warrior

chief who organized a Native American confederacy in an effort to create an
autonomous Indian state and stop white settlement in the Northwest
Territory.
 Battle of Tippecanoe (1811):
o Cause: tensions between NA and American frontier settlers in the
Northwest territories.
o Result: US forces defeated a coalition of NA warriors.
o It was an important victory for the US and held great significance in the
psyche of frontier settlers in the following years.
 First Seminole War (1816-1818): a conflict between US armed forces and
the Seminole Indians of Florida (Spanish territory).
o Cause: began over attempts by US authorities to recapture runaway
Black slaves living among Seminole bands.
o Result: US military forces invaded the area, scattering the villagers,
burning their towns, and seizing Spanish territory. In 1819, Spain was
induced to cede its Florida territory under the terms of the
Transcontinental Treaty.
 Indian Removal Act (1830): a law made by Congress and by President
Andrew Jackson that removed Indians out of their land to the west.
o Authorized the president to negotiate with southern NA tribes for their
removal to federal territory west of the Mississippi River in exchange
for white settlement of their ancestral lands.
o Strongly supported by southern and northeastern populations but was
opposed by NA and the Whig Party who feared the expansion of
slavery.
 Trail of Tears (1831-1877): series of forced relocations of NA from their
ancestral homelands in the Southeastern US to areas west of the Mississippi
River designated as Indian Territory.
o Carried out by the government after the Indian Removal Act.
o The relocated people suffered from exposure, disease, and starvation;
many died before reaching their destinations.
 Second Seminole War (1835-1842): the US undertook to force the
Seminole Indians to move from a reservation in central Florida to the Creek
reservation west of the Mississippi River.
o It was the longest of the wars of Indian removal.

4.9 THE DEVELOPMENT OF AN AMERICAN CULTURE

The US began to develop a modern democracy and celebrated a new national
culture while Americans sought to define the nation's democratic ideals and change
their society and institutions to match them.

A new national culture emerged that combined American elements, European

influences and regional cultural sensibilities.

 American Culture: as the US grew larger, richer, and more centralized, new
generations with limited ties to Europe were carving out their own distinct
American identity.

Liberal social ideas from abroad and Romantic beliefs in human perfectibility
influenced literature, art, philosophy, and architecture.
 Romanticism: artistic, literary, and intellectual movement emphasizing
emotion, individualism, and nature.
o Effect: led to many social reforms and the Second Great Awakening.
 Knickerbocker Group: group of 19th-century American writers that lived in
New York City (e.g., Washington Irving).
o The group's penchant 倾向 was writing heroic or epic stories in a
sophisticated manner.
o They especially utilized parody, satire and romanticism.
 Hudson River School of Art: first great school of American painters in New
York.
o American painters sought to capture the power of American nature by
portraying some of the nation’s most spectacular and undeveloped
areas.
 Transcendentalism: emphasized the indefinable and the unknowable.
o They were complete individualists, believing that people could stretch
beyond their known capabilities.
o Ex: Henry David Thoreau wrote “Resistance to Civil Government,”
which advocated “civil disobedience” or “passive resistance” to unjust
laws.

4.10 THE SECOND GREAT AWAKENING

While Americans embraced a new national culture, various groups developed
distinctive cultures of their own.

 Second Great Awakening (1800-1830s): rise of democratic and

individualistic beliefs, a response to rationalism, and changes to society
caused by the market revolution, which emphasized righteous living,
personal restraint, and a strong moral rectitude that would lead a person and
society to salvation.
 o Spread throughout the country by revival camp meetings where
preachers spoke with great emotion throughout the day.
o Reflected growing democratization of society.
 Causes:
o Democratic beliefs: the American Revolution elevated ideas of
individual liberty and reason borrowed from the Enlightenment, thus
traditional forms of religious practice had weakened.
o Individualistic beliefs: as more White male Americans saw their
political participation expand (expansion of participatory democracy),
they began to believe that individuals should have a greater role in
democracy and political decision making, which in turn influenced the
emphasis on personal salvation.
o Market Revolution: American migrations to the west drew them
away from their churches and ultimately their connection to their
religious faith.
 Message of preachers: similar to the Market Revolution (economic success
or failure was largely in their own hands, work hard leads to success),
salvation was in their hands, reform your life, do justice, and you would
receive everlasting bliss.
o Different from the First Great Awakening where Calvinists believed that
salvation was in hands of God.
 Charles G. Finney: most effective of the charismatic evangelists (in New
York) whose sermons were emotional, but in plain languages (not
philosophical like Jonathan Edwards).
o Emphasized individual conversion, moral reformation of society,
theological perfection.
 Western Frontier: few churches existing led to fear that the west would be
induced by violence, alcohol, gambling, etc., but new roads allowed for
preachers to travel to the west and enabled them to reach more people.
 New Theology: Baptist and Methodist churches were the most active.
o Held individual conversion to be most important.
o Emphasized individual conversion to all people, so allowed African and
NA to be involved.

EFFECTS:

 Religious Changes:
o Growth of spiritual egalitarianism 平等主义: different classes and
backgrounds participated in religious meetings, and all considered
spiritually equal in the eyes of God.
o Reflected the growth of spiritual individualism and democratization in
America.
o Religious denominations grew and became more diverse.
 Women:
 o Achieved a greater role in church hierarchy:
 Female converts far outnumbered male converts.
 Women in this period felt particularly responsible for the
Christian education of their children, which fell within their
separate sphere (cult of domesticity).
o Provided for women access to a new range of activities, from
charitable societies to missionary organizations.
o All-female seminaries 神学院 were founded to further educate women the
revival catapulted some to begin the work of social reform.
 African Americans:
o Number of African American preachers increased who became
important figures within the black community.

4.11 AN AGE OF REFORM (1830-1850)

The rise of democratic and individualistic beliefs, a response to rationalism, and
changes to society caused by the market revolution, along with greater social and
geographical mobility, contributed to moral and social reforms and inspired utopian
and other religious movements.

 Cause of the reform movements: largely occasioned by the profound

cultural and economic shifts resulting from the Market Revolution.
 Based on the ideals of individualism and spiritual perfectionism, leaders
sought to improve society in a series of reforms to end drinking and improve
education, asylums, and prisons.

RELIGIOUS REFORMS:

 Utopian communities: sought human perfectibility; live in utopian

communities outside of society.
o Brook Farm: Transcendentalist utopian community of writers and
intellectuals.
o New Harmony: communal society of scientists, scholars, and
educators who pursued perfection through their daily life and conduct,
including celibacy.
o Oneida Community: espoused complex marriage and selection of
parents to produce superior offspring (eugenics).
 New Religious Movements:
o Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-Day Saints/Mormons: founded
by Joseph Smith.
 Believed that the churches have strayed from the true teachings
and witness of Christ, and Joseph smith was God’s appointed
prophet to bring the church back to its true form.
 o Unitarianism 唯一神教派: believe in the oneness of God, reject the divinity
of Christ, and emphasize the inherent goodness of mankind.

Americans formed new voluntary organizations that aimed to change individual

behaviors and improve society through temperance and other reform efforts.

TEMPERANCE MOVEMENT:

 Temperance Movement: reformers sought to improve the body and fight

against the prevalence and effects of alcohol in American society.
 Cause: induced by the Second Great Awakening and began as a movement
in the Protestant church through moral exhortation 劝告 to cure social ills by
abandoning alcohol.
o American Temperance Society (1820s): at first wanted to limit the
amount of alcohol an individual could consume, and later the goal was
to achieve complete abstinence.
 Believed that temperance could increase productivity and
reduce crime.
 Middle class women were most active in the movement.
o Alcohol had a negative impact on families leading to destitution and
abuse from drunken husbands.
o An expansion of their domestic role as the moral protector of family
and home.
 Shifted to the political arena as state leaders began to see that curbing
alcohol abuse led to greater productivity in the workplace and fewer
accidents.
 Result: Maine was the first state to prohibit the manufacture and sale of
alcoholic beverages in 1851 with 12 states following.

ABOLITIONISM:

Abolitionist and antislavery movements gradually achieved emancipation in the

North, contributing to the growth of the free African American population, even as
many state governments restricted African Americans’ rights.

 Cause: Second Great Awakening led some to question the morality of slavery
and sought to eliminate it; it convinced people that slavery was a sinful
institution.
 Northern slavery began to decline after the American Revolution and African
Americans began to seek their own liberty.
 African American life in the North:
o The free African American population grew but still faced restrictions
on their civil rights in a variety of ways:
 Some states made it difficult for them to purchase land.
 Restrictions on voting rights.
 Discrimination in employment.
 o Some African Americans achieved gradual emancipation in Northern
states.

Abolitionist movements increased in the North.

 They worked to end slavery with hundreds of anti-slavery societies that used
moral suasion.
o Women, both white and black, became active in the movement as
participants and speakers.
 William Lloyd Garrison: white founder of the New England Anti-Slavery
Society and founder of The Liberator, an anti-slavery newspaper.
o Called for immediate emancipation and citizenship for African
Americans.
 American Anti-slavery Society (1833): goal was to immediately and
unconditionally abolish slavery and believed that the Constitution was a pro
slavery document (radical).
o Sponsored speaking tours of orators, including Frederick Douglass, and
published antislavery books, newspapers, and pamphlets.
 The Liberator (1831): published in Boston by William Lloyd Garrison;
denounced all people and acts that would prolong slavery including the US
Constitution.
 Frederick Douglass: African American that escaped slavery from Maryland
and spoke in the North and in England.
o His autobiography, The Narrative of the Life of Frederick Douglass
emphasized the dehumanization.

WOMEN’S RIGHTS:

A women’s rights movement sought to create greater equality and opportunities for
women, expressing its ideals at the Seneca Falls Convention.

 Seneca Falls Convention and the Declaration of Sentiments (1848):

first woman's rights convention held in New York that discussed the social,
civil, and religious condition and rights of women.
o Cause: women realized that they needed more rights to advocate for
things e.g., abolitionism; specifically wanted to fight for being able to
have custody of their children after divorce, right of property, and right
to education.
o Attracted widespread attention and was followed by other women's
rights conventions.
o Effect:
 Became birth of women's suffrage movement, which more than
70 years later ensured women the right to vote.
 Called for abolition of slavery.
  Declaration of Sentiments: modeled after the Declaration of
Independence, implying that women believed that the rights that men have
should also be applied to women.

OTHER REFORMS:

 Asylums (by Dorothea Dix): worked to improve institutions for the

mentally ill.
o She petitioned the state of Massachusetts to move mentally ill patients
from poor and inhumane conditions in prisons to better treatment
facilities.
 Prison reform: change in the penal system from punishment to
rehabilitation.
o Prisoners would be taught job skills and allowed access to religious
services to further their self-improvement.
o Prison reformers sought to cultivate personal autonomy 培养个人自主权.
o The goal was to reduce recidivism (return to prison) by reforming
prisoners.
 Education Reform:
o Horace Mann, founder of the Massachusetts Board of Education worked
to establish:
 State-supported public schools through taxes-universal public
education.
 Professional training for teachers in normal schools.
o Public schools would aid in social stability by teaching moral values
omitted by parents.
o Prepare students to work in the industrial economy by teaching
discipline.
o State college systems: tax-supported which would make higher
education more accessible.

4.12 AFRICAN AMERICANS IN THE EARLY REPUBLIC

Antislavery efforts increased in the North, while in the South, although the majority
of Southerners owned no slaves, most leaders argued that slavery was part of the
Southern way of life.

 Wealth in the South was measured in terms of land and slaves.

o Slaves were treated as property, subject to being bought and sold.
 Underground Railroad: secret routes with a series of safe hiding places
used by those escaping slavery to free northern states and Canada.
 o Many Quakers were active in assisting fugitives in Philadelphia,
Pennsylvania.
o Harriet Tubman: escaped from slavery, was a major “conductor" on
the Underground Railroad.
 Returned to the south more than 15 times to bring people to
freedom.
 Liberty Party (1840): created by abolitionists who believed in political
action to further antislavery goals.
 Frederick Douglass’ North Star (1847): an antislavery newspaper that
helped guide those escaping slavery to the North.

Enslaved blacks and free African Americans created communities and strategies
to protect their dignity and family structures, and they joined political efforts
aimed at changing their status.
 Antislavery efforts in the South were largely limited to unsuccessful slave
rebellions.
o Denmark Vesey’s rebellion (1822): Vesey allegedly used his
substantial influence among the black community to plan a major slave
revolt. Vesey and his followers planned to kill slaveholders in
Charleston, liberate the slaves, and sail to the newly independent black
republic of Haiti for refuge.
o Nat Turner’s rebellion (1831): organized slave revolt in Virginia led
by an enslaved worker named Nat Turner.
 Kill numerous masters of plantations, but militias then took them
down and they were all hanged.
 Kept their African names, languages, religions:
o Negro spirituals: songs sung by slaves that told stories of a rescuer
from the North or ways to hide.
 Covert resistance: work slowdowns, sabotage.
 Overt resistance: runaways, rebel.

4.13 THE SOCIETY OF THE SOUTH IN THE EARLY REPUBLIC

Southern business leaders continued to rely on the production and export of
traditional agricultural staples, contributing to the growth of a distinctive Southern
regional identity.

 Slow urban growth:

o The South became increasingly tied to the system of slavery.
o They didn’t have a mixed economy and only depended on cotton
(mainly bought by Europeans).
o Effect: led down a different path of economic development than the
North, with less industry, substantially few immigrants, fewer major
 cities, and less technological progress. Even railroads were constructed
almost exclusively to transport cotton.
 Planter aristocracy (“cottonocracy”): planters’ values and aspirations
came to dominate southern life for all.
o Racism, regional loyalty, and kinship ties all played a role in this
development.
o John C. Calhoun (Vice president of US): saw slavery as a “positive
good.”
 Some adopted a “paternalism” mindset, viewing themselves as
fatherly figures responsible for the well-being of slaves, masking
slavery’s brutal reality.
 Some found legitimation for slavery in the Bible and argued that
slavery was a way to civilize “uncivilized” Africans.
 Some insisted that the system of slavery guaranteed equality for
white Americans, who otherwise would have been doomed to a
life of unskilled labor.
o Planter elites consolidated power:
 Had a larger population (many slaves), which meant more
power.
 Made loans to those in need.
 Hired poor whites for work.
 Used resources to transport crops of yeoman farmers to market.
 Made white society dependent among themselves.
o White supremacy: superiority of white race.
 Cotton is king:
o Cotton became the most important commodity in international trade
because the Market Revolution centered on using cotton as the raw
material to manufacture cloth.
o Southern businessmen believed that the southern economy should
focus on the export of select agricultural products.
o Subsistence farming (farmed to feed themselves) shifted to
commercial farming, and cash crops like cotton and tobacco were
grown to be traded in distant markets (cotton in Britain textile
factories).
As over-cultivation depleted arable land in the Southeast, slaveholders began
relocating their plantations to more fertile lands west of the Appalachians, where
the institution of slavery continued to grow.

 Growth of the internal slave trade:

o Cause: the US acquisition of lands in the West gave rise to contests
over the extension of slavery into new territories.
o As Southerners moved further into the Southwest, the international
slave trade ended in 1808, bringing an end to the Middle Passage.
  This development gave rise to a massive internal slave trade, in
which more than 2 million slaves were sold between 1820 and
1860.
 The impact of the trade on familial structures was disastrous.

PERIOD 5
1844: the election of Polk and the coining of the term Manifest Destiny

1877: the end of Reconstruction

5.2 MANIFST DESTINY
The desire for access to natural and mineral resources and the hope of many
settlers for economic opportunities or religious refuge led to an increased migration
to and settlement in the West.

Advocates of annexing 抢占 western lands argued that Manifest Destiny and the
superiority of American institutions compelled the US to expand its borders
westward to the Pacific Ocean.

 Manifest Destiny (1800s-1877): widely held belief that Americans have a

God-given right to have a nation that extends from the Atlantic to Pacific
Ocean.
o Motivation for settlement: greater land opportunities with the
Louisiana Purchase; depleted soil in the East; easier travel with
railroads and canals; economic opportunities that also attracted
European and Asian immigrants.

 Oregon Trail (1811-1840 laid): east-west, large-wheeled wagon route and

emigrant trail that connected the Missouri River to valleys in Oregon.

 California Gold Rush (1848): the influx of gold (getting rich quickly)
attracted settlers from the US, Europe, and Asia, especially young single
men.
o Cause: the acquisition of significant territory following the Mexican
American War.
o Result: precipitous native population decline from disease, genocide
and starvation.
 California Trail: emigrant trail across the western half of the North
American continent from Missouri River towns to California.
o After the discovery of gold, more than 250,000 businessmen, farmers,
pioneers and miners passed over the California Trail to California.

 Mormon Migration: Mormons sought refuge to practice their religion freely;

avoided owning slaves; practiced polygamy (one husband multiple wives).
o Polygamy is illegal in the US.
o Mormon scripture denounced slavery and abolitionism: it was
not right for men to be in bondage to each other 奴役, but people should
not interfere with the slaves of others.
 Mormon Trail (1839-1846): route from Illinois to Utah that members of The
Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints traveled for 3 months.

Westward migration was boosted during and after the Civil War by the passage of
new legislation promoting Western transportation and economic development.
  Homestead Act (1862): provided government land to anyone who agreed
to farm the land.
o Sponsored land opportunities for settlers on the Great Plains.
 Settlers included: urban dwellers, European and Asian
immigrants, and formerly enslaved African Americans.
 Pacific Railway Act (1862): series of acts of Congress that promoted the
construction of a "transcontinental railroad" through authorizing the issuance
of government bonds and the grants of land to railroad companies.
 Transcontinental Railroad (1863-1869): led by the Pacific Railway Act
and stretched from the East Coast to the West Coast.
o The major groups of immigrants that worked on the transcontinental
railroad were from Ireland and China.

US interest in expanding trade led to economic, diplomatic, and cultural initiatives

to create more ties with Asia.

 Treaty of Wanghia (1844): it assured the US the same trading concessions

granted to other powers, greatly expanding America's trade with the Chinese.
 Commodore Perry and Japan (1853):
o Before the Commodore Perry’s expedition, Japan had isolated itself
from outside influences (closed-door policy); only allowed Dutch ships
to land on their shores once a year for trading purposes.
o Goal of the expedition:
 Use Japan as a base where US steamboats could go to in order
to restock their supply of coal.
 Ensure that all future shipwrecked sailors be treated fairly by the
Japanese.
 Expand US trade routes and foreign market to bring in more
revenue.
o Gunboat diplomacy: Perry led a small squadron of US Navy warships
to Tokyo Bay with the goal of establishing relations with Japan.
 Result: the trade was established and led to the collapse of the
ruling Tokugawa shogunate.

5.3 THE MEXICAN AMERICAN WAR

The US added large territories in the West through victory in the Mexican American
War and diplomatic negotiations, raising questions about the status of slavery, NA,
and Mexicans in the newly acquired lands.

 Mexican American War (1846-1848): an armed conflict between the US

and Mexico.
o Cause: US annexation 合并 of Texas (1845) was not recognized by the
Mexican government. US then sent troops to the disputed area and a
 diplomatic mission to Mexico. After Mexican forces attacked US forces,
the Congress declared war.
 Treaty of Guadalupe Hidalgo & Mexican Cession (1848): result of the
Mexican American War.
o Mexico acknowledged the loss of Texas; gave the US ownership of
California and a large area comprising roughly half of New Mexico,
most of Arizona, Nevada, and Utah and Colorado.
 Intensified the debate over slavery, which increased sectional
tensions between the North and the South.
 Raised questions about the status of enslaved people, NA, and
Mexicans in the newly acquired land.

US government interaction and conflict with Mexican Americans and NA increased

in regions newly taken from NA and Mexico, altering these groups’ economic self-
sufficiency and cultures.

 Sand Creek Massacre (1851-1890): massacre of Cheyenne and Arapaho

people (Indians) by the US Army.

5.4 THE COMPROMISE OF 1850

The Mexican Cession led to heated controversies over whether to allow slavery in
the newly acquired territories.

The courts and national leaders made a variety of attempts to resolve the issue of
slavery in the territories, including the Compromise of 1850.

 Compromise of 1850: 5 separate bills brokered by Henry Clay and Stephen

Douglas that defused 化解 a political confrontation between slave and free
states on the status of territories acquired in the
Mexican American War.
o California was admitted as a free state,
and remaining portions of the Mexican
Cession were organized into New Mexico
territory and Utah territory.
o Under popular sovereignty, the people of
each territory would decide whether or not slavery would be permitted.
o Included a more stringent Fugitive Slave Law 逃亡奴隶法 and banned the
slave trade in Washington D.C.
 The issue of slavery in the territories would be re-opened by the Kansas–
Nebraska Act.

5.5 SECTIONAL CONFLICT: REGIONAL DIFFERENCES

Substantial numbers of international migrants continued to arrive in the US from
Europe and Asia, mainly from Ireland and Germany, often settling in ethnic
communities where they could preserve elements of their languages and customs.

 Sectional differences: difference over the rules.

 Regional differences: differences between different regions (north, south,
east, west).
 Chinese immigrants and the Gold Rush (1848): the first Chinese miners
arrived in San Francisco.
o The majority of Chinese men who sailed to California were illiterate but
dreamed of new possibilities.
o Push factor: high taxes after the Opium Wars had forced peasants
and farmers off their land; several years of floods and droughts led to
economic desperation.

A strongly anti-Catholic nativist movement arose that was aimed at limiting new
immigrants’ political power and cultural influence.

 Nativism (1844): 本土主义 the policy of protecting the interests of native-born

or established inhabitants against those of immigrants.
o Nativists didn’t consider themselves as nativists; nativist was a
negative term; they rather consider themselves as Patriots.
o Viewing society as a hierarchy of races, nativists relied on flawed
scientific ideas that saw new immigrants as inferior and unassimilable.
 Know-Nothing Party (1850s-1856): an American nativist political party.
o It was primarily anti-Catholic, xenophobic 排外, and hostile to
immigration, starting originally as a secret society.
o Collapsed due to a deep split over the issue of slavery.

The North’s expanding manufacturing economy relied on free labor in contrast to

the Southern economy’s dependence on slave labor. Some Northerners did not
object to slavery on principle but claimed that slavery would undermine the free
labor market. As a result, a free-soil movement arose that portrayed the expansion
of slavery as incompatible with free labor.

 Free-Soil Party (aka Movement) (1848-1854): short-lived political party

that focused on the single issue of opposing the expansion of slavery into the
western territories.
o Cause of formation: aftermath of the Mexican American War and
debates over the extension of slavery into the Mexican Cession.
 After the Whig Party and the Democratic Party nominated
presidential candidates who supported the extension of slavery
into the Mexican Cession, anti-slavery Democrats and Whigs
formed the Free-Soil Party.
o Most Free Soilers then joined the Republican Party: anti-slavery (Third
Party System).
African American and white abolitionists, although a minority in the North, mounted
a highly visible campaign against slavery, presenting moral arguments against the
institution, assisting slaves’ escapes, and sometimes expressing a willingness to use
violence to achieve their goals.

 Abolitionist Movement: a push for the immediate emancipation of all

slaves and the end of racial discrimination and segregation.
o Different from “Free-Soil” activists who sought to restrict slavery to
existing areas and prevent its spread.
o Partly fueled by the religious fervor of the Second Great Awakening,
which prompted many people to advocate for emancipation on
religious grounds.
 William Lloyd Garrison’s Liberator & the American Antislavery
Society: promoted "immediate emancipation" of slaves.
 Harriet Tubman & the Underground Railroad (1849): helped slaves to
escape to the north for freedom.
 Harriet Beecher Stowe’s Uncle Tom’s Cabin (1852): anti-slavery, best-
selling novel that had profound effect on attitudes toward African Americans
and slavery in the US and is said to have "helped lay the groundwork for the
Civil War".
 John Brown’s Raid on Harpers Ferry (1859): armed slave revolt in
Southern states initiated by abolitionist John Brown which ought to take over
a US arsenal at Harpers Ferry, Virginia.
o Known as the dress rehearsal for the Civil War.
o Brown's party was eventually defeated by US Marines.

Defenders of slavery based their arguments on racial doctrines, the view that
slavery was a positive social good, and the belief that slavery and states’ rights
were protected by the Constitution.

 Positive Good Argument: Southern politicians had excused slavery as a

"necessary evil," Senator John C. Calhoun asserted that slavery was a
"positive good.”
o Rooted claim on two grounds: white supremacy and paternalism 家长
主义.
 All societies are ruled by an elite group that enjoys the fruits of
the labor of a less-exceptional group.

5.6 FAILURE OF COMPROMISE

 Kansas Nebraska Act (1854): proposed by Stephen Douglas, repealed the
Missouri Compromise (denied the line creating separate slave and non-slave
states), created two new territories.
 o Allowed each territory to decide the issue of slavery on the basis of
popular sovereignty: let voters decide whether Nebraska and
Kansas are proslavery or antislavery.
o Effect:
 Led to Bleeding Kansas, as proslavery and antislavery activists
flooded into the territories to sway the vote.
 Kansas was admitted as a free state, right next to Missouri, a
slave state.
 Bleeding Kansas (1854-1861): a series of violent civil confrontations
which emerged from a political and ideological debate over the legality of
slavery in the proposed state of Kansas.
o Electoral fraud, raids, assaults, murders were carried out in Kansas and
Missouri.
 Proslavery: slavery is positive good argument, moves whites
forward.
 Antislavery: worried, immoral, undermine free labor market.
o Core question: whether Kansas Territory enter the Union as a slave
state or a free state.
o Conclusion: sectional disputes were unlikely to reach compromise
without bloodshed, so it directly presaged the Civil War.
 Caning of Senator Charles Sumner (1856): Southern Congressman
Preston Brooks (pro-slavery) savagely beats Northern Senator (abolitionist)
Charles Sumner.
o The attack was in retaliation for a speech given by Sumner 2 days
earlier criticizing slaveholders, including South Carolina Senator
Andrew Butler, a relative of Brooks.
o Effect: contributed significantly to the country's polarization over the
issue of slavery.
 Dred Scott v. Sanford (1857): court ruled that enslaved people and
African Americans were not citizens and not eligible to sue in court.
o Dred Scott was a slave who had lived with his owner in a free state
before returning to the slave state of Missouri.
o They claimed that they were free due to their residence in a free
territory where slavery was prohibited, but supreme court denied it.
o Effect: the court’s decision outraged abolitionists and increased
sectional strife.
 Compromise of 1877: effectively ended the Reconstruction era. Southern
Democrats' promises to protect the civil and political rights of Black people
were not kept, and the end of federal interference in southern affairs led to
widespread disenfranchisement of Black voters.
o Federal troops are going to be withdrawn.
  Failure of compromise: the courts and national leaders made a variety of
attempts to resolve the issue of slavery in the territories, but all ultimately
failed to reduce conflict.

The Second Party System ended when the issues of slavery and anti-immigrant
nativism weakened loyalties to the two major parties and fostered the emergence of
sectional parties, most notably the Republican Party in the North.

 End of the Second Party System (1850s): parties split heavily over the
issue of slavery, and led to the start of the Third-Party System:
o Republican Party (1854): emerged to combat the expansion of
slavery into American territories after the passing of the Kansas–
Nebraska Act.
 Lincoln’s House Divided Speech (1858): the opening speech of the US
Senate campaign against Stephen A. Douglas, in which Abraham Lincoln
depicted the danger of slavery-based disunion, and it rallied Republicans
across the North.
 Lincoln-Douglas debates (1858): a series of seven debates between
Abraham Lincoln, the Republican Party candidate for the US Senate, and
Senator Stephen Douglas, the Democratic Party candidate.
o Main issue discussed was slavery, particularly its future expansion into
new territories.

5.7 ELECTION OF 1860 AND SECESSION

Abraham Lincoln’s victory on the Republicans’ free-soil platform in the election of
1860 was accomplished without any Southern electoral votes. After a series of
contested debates about secession, most slave states voted to secede from the
Union, precipitating the Civil War.

 Election of 1860: Lincoln won the election of 1860 without any Southern
votes and became the first Republican president.
 Southern secession: the secession of 11 Southern states eventually formed
the Confederate States of America.
o Goal: protect their states' rights, the institution of slavery, and
disagreements over tariffs.
o Southern states believed that a Republican government would dissolve
the institution of slavery, would not honor states' rights, and promote
tariff laws.

5.9 MILITARY CONFLICT IN THE CIVIL WAR

The North’s greater manpower and industrial resources, the leadership of Abraham
Lincoln and others, and the decision to emancipate slaves eventually led to the
Union military victory over the Confederacy in the devastating Civil War. The Union
victory in the Civil War and the contested Reconstruction of the South settled the
issues of slavery and secession but left unresolved many questions about the power
of the federal government and citizenship rights.

 Causes of the civil war:

o Long term: expansion of slavery, Uncle Tom’s Cabin, popular
sovereignty (Kansas Nebraska).
o Short term: election of 1860, Lincoln sought to keep slavery from
expanding (not abolish).
 During the war:
o Poor people were forced to fight as rich people paid to replace their
children with poor people.
o Lincoln’s goal: at first, the war was to preserve the union, then the
Emancipation Proclamation changed the purpose of the war.

Both the Union and the Confederacy mobilized their economies and societies to
wage the war even while facing considerable home front
opposition.

 War Democrats and Peace Democrats (both in

the North) (1864):
o War Democrats: members of the
Democratic Party who supported the Union.
o Copperheads (or Peace Democrats): faction of Democrats in the
Union who opposed the Civil War and wanted an immediate peace
settlement with the Confederates.

Although the Confederacy showed military initiative and daring early in the war, the
Union ultimately succeeded due to improvements in leadership and strategy, key
victories, greater resources, and the wartime destruction of the South’s
infrastructure.

 Industrialization of the North allowed for greater production of war materials

for the Union army, while the Southern economy was more agrarian and
didn’t have the resources to mobilize and adequately supply the Confederate
army.
 Victory at Gettysburg (1863): involved the largest number of casualties of
the entire war and was described as a turning point toward the final Union
victory.
 Victory at Vicksburg (1863): great significance towards the overall war
effort by giving the Union complete control over the Mississippi River and
splitting the Confederacy in two.
 o The Union could utilize the river again for agricultural exports from the
Midwest as well as deprive the Confederacy of critical men and
supplies from their western states.
 Sherman’s March to the Sea (1864): the army marched in Southern
territory, which proved to the Confederate population that its government
could not protect the people from invaders.
 Lee’s surrender at Appomattox Courthouse (1865): Confederate
general Robert E. Lee surrendered his army to Union general Ulysses S.
Grant, leading to the end of the Civil War.

5.9 GOVERNMENT POLICIES DURING THE CIVIL WAR

Lincoln and most Union supporters began the Civil War to preserve the Union, but
Lincoln’s decision to issue the Emancipation Proclamation reframed the purpose of
the war and helped prevent the Confederacy from gaining full diplomatic support
from European powers. Many African Americans fled southern plantations and
enlisted in the Union Army, helping to undermine the Confederacy.

 Emancipation Proclamation (1863): issued by Lincoln following the Union

victory at the Battle of Antietam, freed the slaves of the Confederate states in
rebellion against the Union.
o But the proclamation was limited in many ways:
 Applied only to states that had seceded from the US, leaving
slavery untouched in the loyal border states.
 Expressly exempted parts of the Confederacy that had already
come under Northern control.
 The freedom it promised depended upon Union’s military
victory.
 It didn’t end slavery in the whole nation.
o But still captured hearts and imagination of millions of Americans; gave
the north moral high ground isolating the south and transformed the
character of the war.
o Significance: purpose of the Civil War shifted to abolishing slavery.
o Effect:
 Allowed the enslaved African Americans in the South to escape
to the North and join the military.
 But in segregated units, paid less than whites.
 Kept Europe out of the war (Europe banned slavery, and since
Lincoln made slaves wrong, so the Europeans won’t support the
South anymore).
 Massachusetts 54th Regiment (1863): first state to enlist black soldiers,
proving that blacks can indeed fight battles.
Lincoln sought to reunify the country and used speeches such as the Gettysburg
Address to portray the struggle against slavery as the fulfillment of America’s
founding democratic ideals.

 Gettysburg Address (1863): Lincoln's message that the best way to honor
the dead is to keep fighting and win this war to reunite the union continue
the work they gave their lives for.
o Context: due to the geographical position of Gettysburg (very close to
the US capital), if they lose the war in Gettysburg, they’ll lose the Civil
War, so Lincoln had to the address the importance of the war.
o Effect: irritated Northerners (wanted punishment of the southerners,
not peace).

5.10 RECONSTRUCTION
Reconstruction altered relationships between the states and the federal
government, and led to debates over new definitions of citizenship, particularly
regarding the rights of African Americans, women, and other minorities.

 Reconstruction (1865-1877): refers to the period of history describing the

attempt to answer each of the following three questions:
o How should the rebellious states be readmitted to the Union?
 Punished leniently or harshly.
o Should Confederate leaders be jailed, have the right to vote, be
permitted to run for office?
 Leaders like Robert E. Lee.
o Should freedmen (ex-slaves) be able to do what “whites” do? Vote?
Free travel? Attend school?
 Should they be treated equally as whites.
 Lincoln’s Reconstruction plan: Ten-Percent Plan, which required 10% of
male population to pledge loyalty to the Union & ratify the 13th Amendment
to reestablish their state governments and rejoin the Union.
o Lenient requirements.
 Andrew Johnson’s plan: under the administration of President Johnson
(1865-1866), he attempted to carry out Lincoln’s plan (Lincoln was killed), but
as a southerner, he had no sympathy for emancipation or equality of the
black and white races.
o Many southern state legislatures passed restrictive “black codes” to
not let blacks act freely and forced them to work for low wages.
o Outrage in the North over these codes led to the triumph of the more
radical wing of the Republican Party.

Efforts by radical and moderate Republicans to change the balance of power

between Congress and the presidency and to reorder race relations in the defeated
South yielded some short-term successes. Reconstruction opened up political
opportunities and other leadership roles to former slaves, but it ultimately failed,
due both to determined Southern resistance and the North’s waning resolve.

 Radical Republicans’ plan: didn’t agree with both Johnson and Lincoln and
wanted harsh punishments on the Southerners.
o Passed legislation that upheld and extended rights for blacks in the
South while suppressing any attempt at Southern resurgence. 帮助奴隶 抵制
南方人
 Legislations proposed by radical republicans:
o Freedmen’s Bureau (1865): provide food, shelter, clothing, medical
services, and land to freed African Americans.
o Civil Rights Act of 1866: protected citizenship of blacks and gave
them equal protection under the laws.
 Johnson vetoed both legislations, but radical republicans
overrode Johnson’s veto and got the laws passed.
o Reconstruction Acts of 1867: laws were to be enforced in the
South; increased requirements for Southern states to rejoin the union;
required ratification of 14th amendment.
 Presaged the failure of reconstruction.
 Promises made during Reconstruction:
o 13th amendment (1864): ban slavery.
o 14th amendment (1868): blacks treated equally to whites.
 Proposed after the Civil Rights Act to solidify the rights given to
blacks (by radical republicans).
o 15th amendment (1870): blacks allowed to vote.

The women’s rights movement was both emboldened and divided over the 14th and
15th amendments to the Constitution.

 The 14th amendment extends the Constitution's protection to all males; the
15th guarantees Black men the right to vote.
o Women of all races were still denied the right to vote.

5.11 FAILURE OF RECONSTRUCTION

 The end of Reconstruction resulted in the undoing of many policies related to
the protection of civil rights.

Southern plantation owners continued to own the majority of the region’s land even
after Reconstruction. Former slaves sought land ownership but generally fell short
of self- sufficiency, as an exploitative and soil-intensive sharecropping system
limited blacks’ and poor whites’ access to land in the South.
  Sharecropping: slaves worked for landowners and got a share of crops from
the owners (instead of money, they get crops).
o This was how freed slaves make money after 13 th amendment.

Segregation, violence, Supreme Court decisions, and local political tactics

progressively stripped away African American rights, but the 14th and 15th
Amendments eventually became the basis for court decisions upholding civil rights
in the 20th century.

 Southern Black Codes (1865-1866): restrictive laws designed to limit the

freedom of African Americans and ensure their availability as a cheap labor
force, which prevented them from achieving political and economic
autonomy.
 White supremacy:
o Ku Klux Klan: secret society organized to terrorize blacks in the
South.
 Supreme Court decisions:
o Declared the Civil Rights Act of 1875 unconstitutional in 1883.
o Congress lacked the constitutional authority under the 14 th
Amendment to grant equal protections under the law to blacks; only
states and local governments could do that.
o The Enforcement Act of 1871, which forbade meetings of Ku Klux Klan
members, was unconstitutional.
 PERIOD 6
1865: the end of the Civil War
1898: the Spanish American War

6.2 WESTWARD EXPANSION: ECONOMIC DEVELOPMENT

Improvements in mechanization helped agricultural production increase
substantially and contributed to declines in food prices.
 Mechanical reaper: a semi-automated device that harvests crops, invented
during the First Industrial Revolution.
 Mechanical combine: a more efficient way to harvest crops that replaced
the reaper.
Many farmers responded to the increasing consolidation in agricultural markets and
their dependence on the evolving railroad system by creating local and regional
cooperative organizations.
 Farmer unions were upset about consolidation and government allowing it to
take place.
 Southern Farmers’ Alliance (1875): organized agrarian economic
movement among farmers.
o Goal: end the adverse effects of the crop-lien system on farmers in the
period following the Civil War.
 Crop-lien system: a method by which sharecroppers and
tenant farmers could obtain credit to purchase supplies from
landowners. This credit came with punitively high interest rates
and gave wealthy planter class opportunity to oppress newly
freed slaves and poor white southerners.
o Supported the government regulation of the transportation industry,
establishment of an income tax in order to restrict speculative profits,
and the adoption of an inflationary relaxation of the nation's money
supply to ease the burden of repayment of loans by debtors.
o Moved into politics in the early 1890s under the People's Party:
“Populists”.
 National Farmers’ Alliance (1877): sought to improve the economic
conditions for farmers through the creation of cooperatives and political
advocacy.
  Colored Farmers’ Alliance (1886): solicited funds to help sick and
disabled members.
Following the Civil War, government subsidies for transportation and
communication systems helped open new markets in North America.
 Federal funded transatlantic telegraph cable (1858):
o First Transatlantic Cable: reduced the communication time between
North America and Europe from ten days to a matter of minutes.
 Federal funded transcontinental railroads (1863-1869): funded
through land grants.
The building of the transcontinental railroad, the discovery of mineral resources,
and government policies promoted economic growth and created new communities
and centers of commercial activity.
 Cow towns: Midwestern frontier settlements that catered to the cattle
industry.
o The economies of these towns were heavily dependent on the seasonal
cattle drives from Texas, which brought the cowboys and the cattle
that these towns relied upon.
 Boomtowns: community that undergoes sudden and rapid population and
economic growth, or that is started from scratch.
o Growth is normally attributed to the nearby discovery of a precious
resource such as gold, silver, or oil.
 Ex: California Gold Rush stimulated numerous boomtowns.
o Boomtowns often decrease in size as fast as they initially grew.

6.3 WESTWARD EXPANSION: SOCIAL AND CULTURAL DEVELOPMENT

In hopes of achieving ideals of self-sufficiency and independence, migrants moved
to both rural and boomtown areas of the West for opportunities, such as building
the railroads, mining, farming, and ranching.
 Migrants moved to rural areas (in the Great Plains): to farm, acquire
free land as result of Homestead Act.
 Jews’ migration westward:
o Jewish men and women were lured to western boomtowns with the
hope of striking it rich or having a new life for themselves and their
families.
 Italians’ migration westward:
o Italian laborers who went to these areas were later joined by wives and
children, which resulted in the establishment of permanent Italian
American settlements in diverse parts of the country.
As migrant populations increased in number and the American bison population was
decimated, competition for land and resources in the West among white settlers,
NA, and Mexican Americans led to an increase in violent conflict.
  Las Gorras Blancas (1880 & 1890): group of Mexican Americans living in
New Mexico who attempted to protect their land and way of life from
encroachment by white landowners.
The US government violated treaties with NA and responded to resistance with
military force, eventually confining NA to reservations and denying tribal
sovereignty.
 Black Hills: a small and isolated mountain range covered in trees rising from
the Great Plains in western South Dakota and extending into Wyoming (led to
the Treaty of Fort Laramie & the Great Sioux War).
 Treaty of Fort Laramie (1868): signed between the US Government and
the Sioux Nation.
o Goal: establish peaceful relations between the US and NA parties and
settle reservation boundaries in which NA agreed to settle.
 Relinquished 放弃 the Bozeman Trail in exchange for the cessation
of NA raids.
 Gave the land west of the Missouri River, including the sacred
land of the Sioux, the Black Hills to NA.
 Great Sioux War/Black Hills War (1876-1877): series of battles and
negotiations which occurred in between the Lakota Sioux, Northern
Cheyenne, and the US army.
o Cause: desire of the US to obtain ownership of the Black Hills.
 Gold had been discovered in the Black Hills, settlers began to
encroach onto NA lands, and the Sioux and Cheyenne refused to
cede ownership to the US.
 Battle of the Little Bighorn / Custer's (US general killed) Last Stand
(1876): armed engagement in the Great Sioux War.
o Result: defeat of US forces.
 Reservation System (1851): established tracts of land for NA to live on as
white settlers took over their land.
 Dawes Act (1887): the federal government aimed to break up tribal lands
and assimilate Native Americans into mainstream US society by encouraging
them towards farming and agriculture,
o Divided tribal lands into individual plots were sold to non-native US
citizens.
o Only NA who accepted the division of tribal lands were allowed to
become US citizens.

6.4 THE NEW SOUTH

Despite the industrialization of some segments of the Southern economy — a
change promoted by Southern leaders who called for a “New South” — agriculture
based on sharecropping and tenant farming continued to be the primary economic
activity in the South.
  Old South: South before the Civil War, in which the economy was based on
plantations and farming (enslaved labor) thus not much industrialization took
place.
o Had a larger black population than whites; southern women worked as
housewives.
 New South: South’s post-Reconstruction economic shift from an exclusively
agrarian society to one that embraced industrial development.
o Rejected slavery; built a few more railroads, used machines for
farming, but still lacked factories.
o People used the term “New South” to persuade to have more factories
in south (but were rejected).
 Sharecropping and tenant farming: new system of labor.
o Sharecropping: sharecroppers who worked in crop lands lived in
white landowner’s house and they gave crops to sharecroppers at
harvest time.
o Tenant farming: freedmen and poor whites rent a plot of land from
white landowner, and they grow and sell crops to pay rent and other
bills.
The Supreme Court decision in Plessy v. Ferguson that upheld racial segregation
helped to mark the end of most of the political gains African Americans made during
Reconstruction. Facing increased violence, discrimination, and scientific theories of
race, African American reformers continued to fight for political and social equality.
 Political gains African Americans made during Reconstruction:
Congress granted Black American men the status and rights of citizenship,
including the right to vote, as guaranteed by the 14th Amendment and 15th
Amendment to the US Constitution.
 Plessy v. Ferguson (1896): allowed for equal but separate
accommodations for the white and colored races.
o Established the constitutionality of racial segregation (Jim Crow) laws
for public facilities as long as the segregated facilities were equal in
quality.
o Effect: legitimized the many state laws re-establishing racial
segregation that had been passed in the American South after the end
of the Reconstruction Era (1865–1877).
o Jim Crow Laws (1877): state and local laws that mandated racial
segregation in the South.
THREE FAMOUS REFORMERS:
 Booker T. Washington’s Atlanta Compromise (1895): demanded that
African American better themselves individually to achieve equality.
o Asked whites to trust Blacks and provide them with opportunities so
that both races could advance in industry and agriculture.
o Believed blacks are not yet ready enough to fight (no education, no
money, not professional, not civil) against Whites.
 Wanted blacks to separate.
  Marcus Garvey: all black people should return to the western seaboard of
Africa (where slave trade started).
o Believed that whites will never give up on holding blacks as second
classes: genetically racists (nothing can change that).
 W.E.B. du Bois: called for the black community to demand immediate
equality and was a founding member of the National Association for the
Advancement of Colored People (NAACP).
 Washington believes blacks are able to fight in the future; Garvey believes
that blacks are not able to fight; W.E.B. believes that blacks should fight right
now.

 Ida Wells-Barnett’s anti-lynching crusade 死刑改革 (1890s): crusading

African American journalist that waged a valiant campaign against lynching.
o Sought a federal anti-lynching law that would convict forms of
violence.
 National Association of Colored Women (1896): dedicated to uplifting
women, children, families, the home and the community through service,
community education, scholarship assistance and the promotion of racial
harmony among all people.

6.5 TECHNOLOGICAL INNOVATION

Businesses made use of technological innovations and greater access to natural
resources to dramatically increase the production of goods.
 Prior to industrialization, Americans made things either to use themselves or
to be sold locally.
 Gilded Age: Americans began mass-producing and manufacturing goods to
be sold all over the world.
 Oil business (John D. Rockefeller): ended the whaling industry (from First
Industrial Revolution).
 Steel making business (Andrew Carnegie): enabled manufacturers to
produce greater quantity and quality of steel.
 Railroad business (Cornelius Vanderbilt): quick and easy means of
transported goods created national market for sales, and it opened up mass
production and mass consumption.
 Transatlantic telegraph business (Cyrus Field): created international
market for basic goods like coal, steel, oil, and grain.
 Banking business (J.P. Morgan)

6.6 THE RISE OF INDUSTRIAL CAPITALISM

Large-scale industrial production— accompanied by massive technological change,
expanding international communication networks, and pro-growth government
policies—generated rapid economic development and business consolidation.
  Second Industrial Revolution (1865-1914):
o First Industrial Revolution saw the rise of factories and mechanized
production; Second Industrial Revolution occurred at the end of Civil
War with the introduction of assembly-line production, new
technologies: telephone, automobile, electrification of homes and
businesses, etc.
 Rise of industrial capitalism: used factory system of production to make
profit; characterized by large scale production, accumulation, and private
ownership.
o Capitalism: economic system based on the private ownership of the
means of production and their operation for profit.
o Industry: economic activity concerned with the processing of raw
materials and manufacture of goods in factories.
Businesses made use of redesigned financial and management structures,
advances in marketing, and a growing labor force to dramatically increase the
production of goods.
 Redesigned financial and management structures: vertical and
horizontal integration (monopoly)
 Advances in marketing: mail order catalog business.
o A publication containing a list of general merchandise from a company
that can be sold to public.
 Growing labor force: referred to men (immigrants, poor white farmers), not
women.
Many business leaders sought increased profits by consolidating corporations into
large trusts and holding companies, which further concentrated wealth.
 Consolidation: the merger and acquisition of many smaller companies into
a few much larger ones (similar to monopoly).
o 2 forms of consolidation:
 Vertical integration: the merging of business in all phases of
manufacturing from mining to marketing.
 Horizontal integration: the merging of business in the same
industry (controlling all competition in a particular industry:
monopoly).
o Ruined people, employees, and other businesses.
 Trusts and holding companies:
o Trust: stockholders in a company assign their shares to trustees, who
have the voting power to guide the decision-making of that company.
o Holding company: one business acquires the ownership rights of
another.
 Industrial capitalists:
o John D. Rockefeller (oil): forced competitors to sell their companies
to him, thus eliminating competition (horizontal integration).
o Andrew Carnegie (steel): dominated steel business through vertical
integration.
 o Cornelius Vanderbilt (railroads)
o J.P. Morgan (banking)

Businesses increasingly looked outside US borders in an effort to gain greater

influence and control over markets and natural resources in the Pacific Rim, Asia,
and Latin America.
 Industrial capitalists saw the opportunity to acquire new markets to sell
products to people in new places so they could acquire natural resources.

6.7 LABOR IN THE GILDED AGE

As the price of many goods decreased, workers’ real wages increased, providing
new access to a variety of goods and services; many Americans’ standards of living
improved, while the gap between rich and poor grew.
Labor and management battled over wages and working conditions, with local
workers organizing local and national unions and/or directly confronting business
leaders.
 Labor unions: solution to addressing wages and working conditions which
made factory owners listen to workers.
o Tactics included: political action, slowdowns, and strikes.
 Homestead Strike of 1892: steelworkers protested a proposed wage cut.
o Result: major defeat for the union of strikers and a setback for their
efforts to unionize steelworkers.
 Pullman Strike of 1894: widespread railroad strike and boycott of the
American Railway Union (ARU) that severely disrupted rail traffic in the
Midwest.
o The Pullman Car Company manufactured railroad cars and the
company’s workers lived in a planned worker community.
o Cause: cut wages of the Pullman workers due to economic depression.
o Result: the boycott dissolved, and the ARU was defeated.
 SUMMARY: Gilded age perspective on labor: maximization of profit,
labor strikes, anti-union.
The industrial workforce expanded, and child labor increased.

6.8 IMMIGRATION AND MIGRATION THE GILDED AGE

The industrial workforce expanded and became more diverse through internal and
international migration.
As cities became areas of economic growth featuring new factories and businesses,
they attracted immigrants from Asia and from southern and eastern Europe, as well
as African American migrants within and out of the South. Many migrants moved to
escape poverty, religious persecution, and limited opportunities for social mobility in
their home countries or regions.
 Immigration:
o New Immigrants (late 1880s): influx of Italian, Russian, and Jewish
immigrants from southern and eastern Europe.
o Push factors: unemployment, not safe (war), poverty, natural
disasters (crop failure, drought.
o Pull factors: potential jobs (greater wealth), safer environment, food
and land.
o Chinese immigrants:
 Made up 1/5 of the population of the four counties that
constituted the Southern Mines (California).
 Faced racism (anti-Chinese sentiment; not allowed to testify in
court).
 Did all kinds of businesses and jobs.
 Internal migration (migrants moving from the farms to the cities in
the north):
o Exodusters (1870s): African Americans who left South to go to the
Great Plains for free land.
 Push factor: sharecropping and segregation.
 Pull factor: Homestead act and raise cattle.
 1st migration of black people after the Civil War.
o Poor male whites that had no slaves from the South migrated to the
Great Plains.
o Farmers (rural residents) migrated to cities due to the better living and
production environment in urban.
 They worked in factories and attempted to build new industries.
o Westward migration also continued.

Urban neighborhoods based on particular ethnicities, races, and classes provided

new cultural opportunities for city dwellers.
 Urban neighborhoods: enclaves that eased transition into the American
culture.
o People of the same culture settled together in certain areas.
 Little Italys across America: small “Italys” in the middle of a large non-
Italian city.
 Chinatowns across America: earliest Chinatowns tended to be on the west
coast; spurred by the California Gold Rush and the Transcontinental railroad.

6.9 RESPONSES TO IMMIGRATION IN THE GILDED AGE

Increasing public debates over assimilation and Americanization accompanied the
growth of international migration. Many immigrants negotiated compromises
between the cultures they brought and the culture they found in the US.
 Americanization and assimilation: the process by which an immigrant to
the US becomes a person who shares American values, beliefs, and customs
by assimilating into American society.
o Involves learning English and adjusting to American culture, values and
customs.
Social commentators advocated theories later described as Social Darwinism to
justify the success of those at the top of the socioeconomic structure as both
appropriate and inevitable.
 Social Darwinism: vision/perspective during the Gilded Age.
o Apply natural selection and survival of the fittest to sociology and
politics.
o The strong should see their wealth and power increase while the weak
should see their wealth and power decrease.
o Declined in popularity following WW1 partially due to its association
with Nazism and growing scientific consensus that it was scientifically
groundless.
Many women sought greater equality with men, often joining voluntary
organizations, going to college, promoting social and political reform, and, like Jane
Addams, working in settlement houses to help immigrants adapt to US language
and customs.
 Jane Addams: a middle-class woman dedicated to uplifting the urban
masses; college educated (one of first generation); established the Hull
House in Chicago in 1889 (most prominent American settlement house,
mostly for immigrants).
 Settlement Movement (1880s-1920s): reformist social movement that
sought to bring the rich and the poor of society together in both physical
proximity and social interconnectedness.
o Goal: establishment of "settlement houses" in poor urban areas, in
which volunteer middle-class "settlement workers" would live, hoping
to share knowledge and culture with, and alleviate poverty of their low-
income neighbors.
o Provided services such as daycare, education, and healthcare to
improve the lives of the poor in these areas.

6.10 DEVELOPMENT OF THE MIDDLE CLASS

Corporations’ need for managers and for male and female clerical workers as well
as increased access to educational institutions, fostered the growth of a distinctive
middle class. A growing amount of leisure time also helped expand consumer
culture.
 Need for managers and clerical workers: as factories and commercial
enterprises expanded, they required bookkeepers, managers, and secretaries
to keep business running smoothly.
o These new clerical jobs fostered the growth of a middle class of
educated office workers who spent their surplus income on a growing
variety of consumer goods.
o Women operating typewriters and telephone switchboards found new
levels of freedom and independence as wage-earners.
 Increased access to education institutions: Congress passed the Morrill
Land Grant Act (1862): gave federal land for the purpose of building public
universities.
o Higher education, once reserved for the children of the elite, opened to
more young people, both men and women.
 At the end of the century, about 40% of college graduates were
women.
 Rise of consumer culture: incomes rose with the amount of leisure time
activities middle and upper-class families could enjoy:
o Amusement parks, circuses, dances, sporting events, theatre, and
vaudeville shows: performances made up of a series of separate,
unrelated acts (musicians, singers, dancers, comedians, trained
animals, magicians, etc.)
Some business leaders argued that the wealthy had a moral obligation to help the
less fortunate and improve society, as articulated in the idea known as the Gospel
of Wealth, and they made philanthropic contributions that enhanced educational
opportunities and urban environments.
 Andrew Carnegie’s (philanthropist) Gospel of Wealth (1889): article
that describes the responsibility of philanthropy by the new upper class of
self-made rich.
o Carnegie argued that surplus wealth is put to best use (i.e., produces
the greatest net benefit to society) when it is administered carefully by
the wealthy.
 This approach contrasted with traditional bequest such as
patrimony 继承遗产.
o Argued against wasteful use of capital in the form of extravagance,
irresponsible spending, or self-indulgence, instead promoting the
administration of said capital over the course of one's lifetime toward
the cause of reducing the stratification between the rich and poor.

6.11 REFORM IN THE GILDED AGE

A number of artists and critics, including agrarians, utopians, socialists, and
advocates of the Social Gospel, championed alternative visions for the economy and
US society.
 Social Gospel: Christian wing of the progressive movement which had the
aim of combating injustice, suffering and poverty in society.
Many women sought greater equality with men, often joining voluntary
organizations, going to college, and promoting social and political reform.
 Middle and lower-class women’s household work decreased, and they
became involved in voluntary organizations aimed at reforming society.
 Coxey’s Army March (1893): a protest march by unemployed workers led
by Ohio businessman, Coxey in response to the severe economic hardship
and income inequality; challenged laissez-faire by calling for government
intervention in the economy to address issues of unemployment and poverty.
 Interstate Commerce Act (1887): required railroad rates be "reasonable
and just," but did not empower the government to fix specific rates.
o Significance: one of the first federal efforts to regulate business and
industry.
 Sherman Antitrust Act (1890): authorized federal action against any
combination in the form of trusts or otherwise, or conspiracy, in restraint of
trade.
o It was a paper tiger at first: wasn’t enforced.
o Significance: helped to shape the development of modern antitrust
law and was a significant step in the development of government
regulation of the economy.

6.12 CONTROVERSIES OVER THE ROLE OF GOVERNMENT IN THE

GILDED AGE
Some argued that laissez-faire policies and competition promoted economic growth
in the long run, and they opposed government intervention during economic
downturns.
 Laissez-faire capitalism: economic system in which transactions between
private parties are absent from any form of government intervention
(regulation, tariffs and subsidies).
o Proponents of laissez-faire argue for a complete separation of
government from the economic sector.
Foreign policymakers increasingly looked outside US borders in an effort to gain
greater influence and control over markets and natural resources in the Pacific Rim,
Asia, and Latin America.
 Purchase of Alaska (1867): driven by economic interests in which it was
believed to be rich in natural resources such as timber, gold, and fish.
  Annexation of Hawaii (1898): American businessmen had established
large plantations on the islands, and the US government saw the annexation
as a way to secure these interests and gain greater control over Hawaii's
sugar industry.
o Provided a strategic naval base in the Pacific and helped to solidify US
influence.

6.13 POLITICS IN THE GILDED AGE

Economic instability inspired agrarian activists to create the People’s (Populist)
Party, which called for a stronger governmental role in regulating the American
economic system.
 Populist Party (late 19th Century): agrarian political party that to curb
the influence of corporate and financial interests, empower small farmers and
laborers, and pressure the government to take a greater role in regulating
the American economic system (challenge laissez-faire).
o Called for collective bargaining and federal regulation of railroad rates
by establishing a graduated income tax, direct election of Senators, a
shorter workweek, public ownership of railroads and communication
lines, and a postal savings system.
The major political parties appealed to lingering divisions from the Civil War and
contended over tariffs and currency issues, even as reformers argued that
economic greed and self-interest had corrupted all levels of government.
In an urban atmosphere where the access to power was unequally distributed,
political machines thrived, in part by providing immigrants and the poor with social
services.
 Political machine: a political group in which an authoritative boss or small
group commands the support of a corps of supporters and businesses
(usually campaign workers), who receive rewards for their efforts.
o Goal: get out the vote for their candidates on election day.
o Often rely on patronage and the spoils system.
 Patronage 赞助: the support, encouragement, privilege, or
financial aid that an organization or individual bestows to
another.
 Spoils system 政党分肥制: a political party, after winning an
election, gives government civil service jobs to its supporters as
a reward and incentive to keep working for the party.
 Boss Tweed: a politician most notable for being the "boss" of the Tammany
Hall Political Machine; played a major role in the politics of 19th century New
York City and State.
o Controlled political patronage in New York City and ensured the loyalty
of voters through jobs he could create and dispense on city-related
projects.
 PERIOD 7
1890: the Progressive Era (Wounded Knee Massacre)
1945: the end of WW2

7.2 IMPERIALISM: DEBATES

Imperialists cited economic opportunities, racial theories, competition with
European empires, and the perception in the 1890s that the Western frontier was
“closed” to argue that Americans were destined to expand their culture and
institutions to peoples around the globe.
 Imperialism: when one country goes into another country for political and
economic gain.
 Alfred Thayer Mahan’s Influence of Sea Power Upon History (1890):
claimed that a strong navy is the key to world dominance; encourages
America to build its navy, acquire defensive bases in the Caribbean and the
Pacific and take possession of Pacific islands like Hawaii.
o An effective advocate of imperialism.
o Effect: marked the beginning of American imperialism; expanded
territories for greater naval power and led to the US building a huge
navy.
 Ex: obtaining a perpetual lease for a naval base at Guantanamo
Bay, Cuba.
 Census of 1890 & the Closure of the Frontier: the US Census Bureau
closed the frontier because the West had been fully settled, meaning that
there was no more land available for expansion.
o Effect: the federal government gained more control over the direction
of the nation; made Americans believe that they were destined to
expand their culture and institutions to peoples around the globe.
 Frederick Jackson Turner’s Significance of the Frontier in American
History (1894): an essay that argued that the western frontier has closed.
o The existence of a "frontier" (a place of open land for settlement)
played a crucial role in shaping American democracy and identity.
o Frontier experience, with its emphasis on individualism, self-reliance,
and democracy, was a major influence on American culture and
politics.
 Rudyard Kipling’s White Man’s Burden (1895): poem that encouraged
imperialism and colonialism, mainly taking over the Philippines.
o Reflected racist idea: it was the duty of white, western nations to
"civilize" and "Christianize" the non-Western world.
o Promoted the idea that non-Western peoples were inferior and in need
of rescue by Western nations, which is seen as justification for the
exploitative and exploitive policies of imperial powers.
 Overthrow of Hawaiian government (1893): US troops invaded Hawaii
without just cause, leading to surrender of Queen Lili'uokalani.
 Annexation of Hawaii (1898): met with opposition from some Native
Hawaiians and American expansionists.
o Native Hawaiians: the annexation was a violation of their
sovereignty and rights and the US government has not fully
acknowledged or addressed the harm caused by the annexation.
 They were forced to the sign the annexation legislation; had no
voting rights; many protested but failed.
o American expansionists: the annexation was necessary for the
expansion of American economic and political power.
  Both imperialists and anti-imperialists argued their idea with racial difference
between Filipinos and White Americans.
o Imperialists: colonizing peoples overseas by asserting the superiority
of White American society.
o Anti-imperialists: non-White people were not ready for or capable of
democratic government and that their incorporation into the US empire
would harm democracy at home.
Anti-imperialists cited principles of self-determination and invoked both racial
theories and the US foreign policy tradition of isolationism to argue that the US
should not extend its territory overseas.
 Anti-imperialists believed that the US should not colonize the Philippines by
appealing to principles of self-determination: the concept that a nation’s
people should decide their own form of government.
o Main goal: avoid political or military interventions into global affairs
since it has been a tradition of isolationism (Washington’s farewell
speech).
o Ex: soldiers opposed US annexation of the Philippines; reflecting a
desire by many to leave military service and a belief that the US should
not engage in conflict with insurgents 叛乱分子.

7.3 THE SPANISH AMERICAN WAR (1898)

The American victory in the Spanish American War led to the US acquisition of
island territories in the Caribbean and the Pacific, an increase in involvement in
Asia, and the suppression of a nationalist movement (seek independence for people
controlled by the US) in the Philippines.
CAUSE:
 Yellow journalism agitating US in supporting the independence of Cuba and
Philippines (under Spanish rule), and the US battleship USS Maine sinking in
Havana Harbor (Cuba), causing the US public to demand war.
 Yellow journalism: exaggeration of stories to sell newspaper; contributed to
swaying public opinion, leading President McKinley and the Congress to
declare war on Spain.
 William Randolph Hearst & Joseph Pulitzer: yellow journalists;
competitors selling newspaper.
o Published stories of Spanish atrocities being committed against the
Cuban people, sympathies of the American people rose, and anti-
Spanish sentiment grew.
o Blamed the Spanish for the explosion of USS Maine; published
headlines calling for war and continued to blame the Spanish for the
destruction of the USS Maine.
 Later found out that the explosion was an accident, not done by
Spain.
RESULT:
 Platt Amendment: Cuba can’t have treaties with other countries that
compromises independence, or else the US can intervene to restore order,
own Guantanamo Bay (have military base).
 Treaty of Paris (1898): US emerged as a
world power; Cuba gained independence from
Spain; the US gained possession of the
Philippines, Guam, and Puerto Rico.
 Suppression of Philippine nationalist
movement: actions taken by the US
government to quell the independence movement in the Philippines following
the war.
o American government implemented policies aimed at assimilating
Filipinos into American culture (e.g., suppression of the use of the
national language and promotion of American values and customs) and
suppressing their independence movement by force.
o Philippine Insurrection (1899-1902): US military suppressed
counter-insurgency campaigns brutally, killing thousands of Filipinos.
o President McKinley’s view: supported it as a means of spreading
American values and civilization; sought to Christianize and civilize the
Philippines; able to provide new markets and resources for American
businesses.
 But many Americans also disagreed with this idea.
 Open Door Policy (1899): no country should have exclusive control over
any portion of China and that all nations should have the right to trade freely
with China.
o The policy was intended to keep China from being divided up; some
major powers were getting privileges trading with China.
o US worried that it was going to lose trading access with China, and it
wanted a policy in place to protect its ability to continue trading with
the Chinese.

7.4 THE PROGRESSIVES

Growth expanded opportunity, while economic instability led to new efforts to
reform US society and its economic system.
In the Progressive Era of the early 20th century, Progressives responded to political
corruption, economic instability, and social concerns by calling for greater
government action and other political and social measures.
 Progressive Era (1890s-1920s): period of widespread social activism and
political reform.
 Progressive movement: addressed problems caused by industrialization,
urbanization, immigration, and political corruption.
 o Targeted political machines and their bosses; took down corrupt
representatives in office to let direct democracy be established;
regulated of monopolies and corporations through antitrust laws to
promote equal competition; advocated for new government roles,
regulations, and agencies to carry out those roles.
Some Progressive Era journalists attacked what they saw as political corruption,
social injustice, and economic inequality, while reformers, often from the middle
and upper classes and including many women, worked to effect social changes in
cities and among immigrant populations.
 Progressive Era journalists (aka muckrakers 探听丑闻): sought to expose
corruption in big business and government; influenced the passage of key
legislation that strengthened protections for workers and consumers. (3
examples of muckrakers below)
 Jacob Riis and his photographs “How the Other Half Lives” (1890): a
"muckraking" journalist and social documentary photographer that uses great
photographic and journalistic talents to help the impoverished in New York
City.
o Attempted to alleviate the bad living conditions of poor people,
especially immigrants by exposing their living conditions to the middle
and upper classes.
o Highlighted the need for government intervention in the economy to
address social and economic problems.
 Ida Tarbell and her book The History of the Standard Oil Company
(1904): a critical exposure of the business practices of the Standard Oil Co.
and its founder, John D. Rockefeller; revealed the corrupt and monopolistic
practices of the company; exposed the negative consequences of unchecked
business power that were rapidly established.
o Effect: played a significant role in shaping public opinion on the issue
of big business and their practices; contribute to the dissolution of the
Standard Oil monopoly and helped usher in the creation of the Federal
Trade Commission (FTC) and the Clayton Antitrust Act, seeking to deal
with political corruption, social injustice, and economic inequality.
 Upton Sinclair and his book The Jungle (1906): portrays harsh
conditions and exploited lives of immigrants in Chicago and similar
industrialized cities; called for government regulation of business and
industry to protect the interests of workers and consumers.
o Effect: readers were concerned with passages exposing health
violations and unsanitary practices in the American meat packing
industry, which greatly contributed to a public outcry which led to
reforms (e.g., Meat Inspection Act).
o Depicts working-class poverty, the lack of social supports, harsh and
unpleasant living and working conditions, brutal and inhumane
treatment of the animals, dangerous and unsanitary conditions in
which the meat was processed, the ruthless efficiency with which the
 meatpacking industry operated; the industry was willing to go to
maximize profits at the expense of the welfare of animals and human.
 Jane Addams and her Hull House Settlement House (1889): a social
reformist who sought to bring the rich and the poor of society together via
the construction of Hull House.
o Hull House: settlement houses and located in a poor urban area (NY)
that provided daycare, education, and healthcare to improve the lives
of the poor.
o Middle-class "settlement workers" volunteered to live there, hoping to
share knowledge and culture with, and alleviate the poverty of, their
low-income neighbors.
On the national level, Progressives sought federal legislation that they believed
would effectively regulate the economy, expand democracy, and generate moral
reform. Progressive amendments to the Constitution dealt with issues such as
prohibition and women’s suffrage.
Federal legislation that Progressives sought:
 Sherman Antitrust Act (1890): a federal law that aimed to prevent
monopolies and promote competition in the marketplace by making it illegal
for companies to engage in anti-competitive practices such as price fixing
and collusion.
 Federal Reserve System (1913): central banking system of the US and it
was created to stabilize the economy by providing a flexible and stable
supply of money and credit.
 Clayton Antitrust Act (1914): a federal law that addressed shortcomings
of the Sherman Act and enforce more effective and specific tools for
preventing and punishing antitrust violations.
 Federal Trade Commission (FTC) (1914): an agency of the federal
government responsible for protecting consumers from fraudulent and anti-
competitive business practices.
 16th Amendment (1909) and the federal income tax: allowed the federal
government to impose a tax on income.
 17th Amendment (1913) and the direct election of US Senators:
changed the way US senators are elected, from being appointed by state
legislators to being elected by the citizens of each state.
 18th Amendment (1919) and prohibition: prohibited the manufacture,
sale, or transportation of alcoholic beverages in the US.
 19th Amendment (1920) and women’s suffrage: guaranteed the right to
vote to women.

 Teddy (Theodore) Roosevelt: progressive president who criticized the

wealthy class of Americans:
o Continued exploitation of the public resulting in violent uprisings.
 But if a trust controlled an entire industry but provided good
service at reasonable rates, it was a "good" trust to be left alone;
 only the "bad" trusts that jacked up rates and exploited
consumers would come under attack.
o Captains of industry were arrogant enough to believe themselves
superior to the elected government. Now that he was President,
Roosevelt went on the attack.
 Ex: he sued JP Morgan, who owned the railroad company, Northern
Securities, and thereby controlled the bulk of railroad shipping across the
northern US.
o He informed Morgan that no compromise could be reached, and the
matter would be settled by the courts.

 The USSC found the Standard Oil Co. guilty of monopolizing the petroleum
industry through a series of abusive and anti-competitive actions.
o The Court's remedy was to divide Standard Oil into several
geographically separate and eventually competing firms.
Preservationists and conservationists both supported the establishment of national
parks while advocating different government responses to the overuse of natural
resources.
 National parks were created to protect public land from
exploitation/development.
The Progressives were divided over many issues. Some Progressives supported
Southern segregation, while others ignored its presence. Some Progressives
advocated expanding popular participation in government, while others called for
greater reliance on professional and technical experts to make government more
efficient. Progressives also disagreed about immigration restriction.

7.5 WW1 - MILITARY AND DIPLOMACY

After initial neutrality in WW1, the nation entered the conflict, departing from the
US foreign policy tradition of noninvolvement in European affairs, in response to
Woodrow Wilson’s call for the defense of humanitarian and democratic principles.
 Sinking of the Lusitania (1915): the German submarine sank the British
Lusitania, killing 1,198 people, including 128 Americans, which outraged the
American public and brought the US closer to entering WW1.
 Zimmerman Telegram (1917): German Foreign Secretary Zimmerman
sent a secret telegram to the German ambassador in Mexico, proposing that
Mexico join war with Germany and promising they would help Mexico regain
territories lost to the US.
o The telegram was intercepted by British intelligence, and its contents
were made public, further enraging the American public and pushing
the US closer to joining WW1.
  Unrestricted submarine warfare (1917): Germany resumed sinking any
ship, including those carrying civilians, that entered war zones around the
British Isles.
 Selective Service Act (1917): passed by the US Congress, which required
all men between the ages of 21-30 to register for the draft.
o This was a major step in the US fully mobilizing for war and providing
the manpower needed to fight in Europe.
 Main cause of the US entering WW1: changes in US foreign policy related
to national security; Woodrow Wilson argued that intervention overseas was
necessary to protect democracy at home and abroad.

 Wilson’s Fourteen Points (1918): a set of principles for peace in Europe

that intended to provide a basis for peace negotiations and were influential in
shaping the Treaty of Versailles.
o Ex: Open diplomacy, freedom of the seas, removal of economic
barriers, reduction of armaments, creation of an association of nations.
o He advocated applying democratic principles to relationships between
countries.
 After WW1, the US used peace treaties and military intervention to promote
international order.
o Wilson pursued greater self-determination for nations incorporated into
larger empires and a peaceful mechanism for resolving disputes
between countries as a means to prevent the outbreak of future wars.
Although the American Expeditionary Forces played a relatively limited role in
combat, the US’s entry helped to tip the balance of the conflict in favor of the Allies.
 The Harlem Hellfighters: an African American infantry unit in WW1 who
spent more time in combat than any other American unit. But they returned
home to face racism and segregation.
 Trench warfare: a form of warfare in which armies fight from trenches dug
in the battlefield. Horrible living conditions, great slaughter, no gains,
stalemate.
Despite Wilson’s deep involvement in postwar negotiations, the US Senate refused
to ratify the Treaty of Versailles or join the League of Nations.
 Treaty of Versailles (1919): a peace treaty signed between the victorious
Allied powers and Germany, to officially end WW1.
o Didn’t want the US to be pulled into more international conflicts where
American soldiers would have to fight for the interests of other
countries.
o It imposed heavy penalties on Germany, including significant territorial
losses, a large reduction in its military, and the payment of reparations
to the Allied powers.
o It led to Wilson establishing the League of Nations: an international
organization to promote peace and cooperation between nations.
  3 main objectives: prevent war, resolve disputes peacefully,
and improve the living conditions of people around the world.

7.6 WW1 – HOMEFRONT

Official restrictions on freedom of speech grew during WW1, as increased anxiety
about radicalism led to a Red Scare and attacks on labor activism and immigrant
culture.
 The 1st Red Scare (1917-1920): the fear that communism would take over
America, especially after the rise of the Bolsheviks in Russia. Many Americans
were afraid of any communistic ties, which led to suspected socialists and
anarchists being hunting down and anti-foreigner acts.
 Schenck v. US (1919): free speech could be limited when the words pose a
"clear and present danger" to the nation.
Immigration from Europe reached its peak in the years before WW1.
 Immigration Act of 1924: create immigration quota of 3% for immigration
based on nationality.
o Cause: many Americans feared that as immigration increased, jobs
and housing would become harder to obtain due to high
unemployment after WW1; a legislative expression of the xenophobia 仇
外.
 Nativism: inspired by WW1 that targeted German immigrants, Americans of
German descent and even the German language. They were attacked and
lynched.
The increased demand for war production and labor during WW1 and WW2 and the
economic difficulties of the 1930s led many Americans to migrate to urban centers
in search of economic opportunities.
In a Great Migration during and after WW1, African Americans escaping
segregation, racial violence, and limited economic opportunity in the South moved
to the North and West, where they found new opportunities but still encountered
discrimination.
 Great Migration (1910-1970): 6 million African Americans moved from the
South to the North, Midwest, and West taking advantage of the need for
industrial workers that arose during WW1.
o Cause: segregation, racial violence, and limited economic opportunity.
 Chicago Race Riot (1919): a white police officer prevented a black police
officer from arresting the white man responsible for someone’s death but
arrested a black man instead.
o Black opposition was met with violent white resistance. Attacks
between white and black mobs erupted swiftly.
7.7 1920S: INNOVATIONS IN COMMUNICATION AND TECHNOLOGY
New technologies and manufacturing techniques helped focus the US economy on
the production of consumer goods, contributing to improved standards of living,
greater personal mobility, and better communications systems.
Technological advances, large-scale production methods, and the opening of new
markets encouraged the rise of industrial capitalism in the US.
 The US continued its transition from an agricultural economy to an industrial
economy.
 Henry Ford’s Model T (1908-1927): produced by Ford Motor Company,
regarded as the first affordable automobile.
o Effect: provided inexpensive transportation and opened travel to the
common middle-class American due to efficient fabrication, including
assembly line production instead of individual hand crafting.
 Signified innovation for the rising middle class and became a
powerful symbol of the US age of modernization.
 Henry Ford’s Assembly Line: a manufacturing process in which parts are
added sequentially until final assembly is completed.
o By mechanically moving the parts to the assembly work, a finished
product can be assembled faster and with less labor than by having
workers carry parts to a stationary piece for assembly.
 Hoover Model O Vacuum Cleaner: the world's first commercially
successful portable vacuum cleaner, which replaced brooms and rug beaters.
 Refrigerator: this innovation provided reliable, affordable electric
refrigeration which replaced wooden boxes filled with ice.
New forms of mass media, such as radio and cinema, contributed to the spread of
national culture as well as greater awareness of regional cultures.
 Radio (1920s): radios became a common feature in American homes after
WW1.
o Hundreds of radio stations popped up which broadcasted news, serial
stories, and political speeches.
 Cinema (movies) (1930s): the entire film industry transformed, and
“Hollywood” became synonymous with big studio pictures and became the
standard for movies around the world.

7.8 1920S: CULTURAL AND POLITICAL CONTROVERSIES

By 1920, a majority of the US population lived in urban centers, which offered new
economic opportunities for women, international migrants, and internal migrants.
 The standard of living rose, and more and more people moved to urban
centers due to improved industrial efficiency, which resulted in lower prices
for goods.
After WW1, nativist campaigns against some ethnic groups led to the passage of
quotas that restricted immigration, particularly from southern and eastern Europe,
and increased barriers to Asian immigration.
 Nativist campaigns: sought to restrict immigration and promote the
interests of native-born citizens, often at the expense of immigrants.
o Believed that immigrants, particularly those from southern and eastern
Europe and Asia, were a threat to American society and culture and
were seen as racially and culturally inferior.
o Effect: passed a several laws that restricted immigration and set
quotas for different ethnic groups:
 Emergency Quota Act of 1921 & Immigration Act of 1924:
established quotas for ethnic groups and greatly reduced the
number of immigrants.
 These laws were not repealed until the Immigration and
Nationality Act of 1965, which abolished the quotas and other
restrictions on immigration and opened the door to immigrants
from all over the world.
Migration gave rise to new forms of art and literature that expressed ethnic and
regional identities, such the Harlem Renaissance movement.
 Harlem Renaissance (1910s-1930s): the development of the Harlem
neighborhood in New York City as a black cultural mecca and the subsequent
social and artistic explosion that resulted.
o New Negro Movement: a golden age in African American culture,
manifesting in literature, music, stage performance and art.
In the 1920s, cultural and political controversies emerged as Americans debated
gender roles, modernism, science, religion, and issues related to race and
immigration.
 The Roaring Twenties: period of economic prosperity with a distinctive
cultural edge, marked by a general feeling of novelty associated with
modernity and a break with tradition.
o Effect: rapid industrial and economic growth, accelerated consumer
demand, and introduced significantly new changes in lifestyle and
culture.
 Large-scale development and use of automobiles, telephones,
movies, radio.
 Women won the right to vote.
o The Wall Street Crash of 1929 ended the era, as the Great Depression
brought years of hardship worldwide.
 Flappers: carefree young women with short, "bobbed" hair, heavy makeup,
and short skirts, which symbolized the new "liberated" woman and reinforced
the idea that women had more freedom.
  Scopes “Monkey” Trial (1925): prosecution of science teacher John
Scopes for teaching evolution in a Tennessee public school, which a recent
bill had made illegal.
o Opposed the theory of evolution proposed by Darwin.
 Nativism in the 1920s: posited white people whose ancestors had come to
the Americas from northern Europe as "true Americans".

7.9 THE GREAT DEPRESSION

Episodes of credit and market instability in the early 20th century, in particular the
Great Depression, led to calls for a stronger financial regulatory system.
 Panic of 1907: a financial crisis that took place when the New York Stock
Exchange fell almost 50% from its peak the previous year.
o Many state and local banks and businesses entered bankruptcy.
o Effect: led to the creation of the Federal Reserve System.
 Federal Reserve System (1913): central banking system of the US.
o Cause: created after a series of financial panics which led to the desire
for central control of the monetary system in order to alleviate
financial crises.
 The Great Depression (1929-1933): a severe worldwide economic
depression beginning in the US.
o Cause: episodes of credit and market instability undermined the
financial system, causing a major fall in stock prices and the Black
Tuesday: stock market crash.
o Exposed the flaws of an unregulated market and demonstrated the
need for government intervention in the economy to address issues of
unemployment, poverty, and inequality.
o Effect: personal income, tax revenue, profits and prices dropped,
unemployment rose, banks went out of business (people took all their
money from the bank), farming communities and rural areas suffered
as crop prices fell.
 Migration pattern: drove many rural Americans to leave their
land and look for jobs in cities.

7.10 THE NEW DEAL

During the 1930s, policymakers responded to the mass unemployment and social
upheavals of the Great Depression by transforming the US into a limited welfare
state, redefining the goals and ideas of modern American liberalism.
 Limited Welfare State: the federal government acted to insure at least a
basic level of subsistence for the American populace, led by the Great
Depression.
 o Naturally increased the degree of equality as the less fortunate gained
at least some protection against economic exigencies.
Franklin Roosevelt’s New Deal attempted to end the Great Depression by using
government power to provide relief to the poor, stimulate recovery, and reform the
American economy.
 New Deal (1933-1939): a series of programs, public work projects, financial
reforms, and regulations enacted by President Franklin D. Roosevelt that
responded to needs for relief, reform, and recovery from the Great
Depression to stimulate economic recovery, marking a significant departure
from previous government practices.
o Provided support for farmers, the unemployed, youth and the elderly.
o Focused on the "3 Rs": recovery of the economy, relief for the
unemployed and poor, and reform of the financial system to prevent a
repeat depression.
 Works Progress Administration (WPA) (1935): an agency that employed
people to carry out public works projects, including the construction of public
buildings and roads.
o Promoted economic recovery and growth by stimulating demand and
creating jobs.
 Civilian Conservation Corps (CCC) (1933): provided jobs and income to
unemployed young men, specifically work programs to improve America's
public lands, forests, and parks.
o Provided relief to the poor and unemployed by providing them with a
source of income.
 Social Security Act (1935): a social insurance program designed to pay
retired workers aged 65 or older a continuing income after retirement.
o Reform of the financial system by reducing the risk of financial
instability due to elderly poverty and family financial crises.
Radical, union, and populist movements pushed Roosevelt toward more extensive
efforts to change the American economic system, while conservatives in Congress
and the Supreme Court sought to limit the New Deal’s scope.
 Huey Long’s “Share Our Wealth” program (1934): provide a decent
standard of living to all Americans by spreading the nation’s wealth among
the people.
 The US Supreme Court & the New Deal: the US Supreme Court used the
power of judicial review to overturn six key New Deal programs and close one
government agency.
Although the New Deal did not end the Depression, it left a legacy of reforms and
regulatory agencies and fostered a long-term political realignment in which many
ethnic groups, African Americans, and working- class communities identified with
the Democratic Party.
 New Deal’s political change: African Americans shifted their support to the
Democratic Party.
 o African Americans who were permitted to vote had tended to support
the Republican Party since Reconstruction, but that alignment shifted
in the 1920s-1930s as the Democratic Party increasingly offered some
modest support for African American civil rights. Following the New
Deal, African Americans predominantly voted for Democrats.

7.11 INTERWAR FOREIGN POLICY

Participation in a series of global conflicts propelled the US into a position of
international power while renewing domestic debates over the nation’s proper role
in the world.
In the years following WW1, the US pursued a unilateral foreign policy that used
international investment, peace treaties, and select military intervention to promote
a vision of international order, even while maintaining US isolationism.
 Neutrality Acts of 1936-1938: tried to keep the US out of war, by making
it illegal for Americans to sell or transport arms, or other war materials to
belligerent nations.
In the 1930s, while many Americans were concerned about the rise of fascism and
totalitarianism, most opposed taking military action against the aggression of Nazi
Germany and Japan until the Japanese attack on Pearl Harbor drew the US into
WW2.
 Strong isolationist sentiments after the WW1 left many Americans wary of
involvement in another European conflict.
o As Nazi Germany rose to threaten European stability in the 1930s, the
US remained cautious about intervening, encouraged by many political
and religious leaders to avoid involvement in European affairs.
 Japanese attack on Pearl Harbor (1941): brought the US into WW2, as it
immediately declared war on Japan.
o Pearl Harbor was the most important American naval base in the
Pacific.
In the late 19th century and early 20th century, new US territorial ambitions and
acquisitions in the Western Hemisphere and the Pacific accompanied heightened
public debates over America’s role in the world.
DIFFERENT APPROACHES TO FOREIGN POLICY
Roosevelt Taft Wilson
Big stick diplomacy Dollar diplomacy Moral diplomacy
 Believed American  Believed US should  Believed the US
military should be invest in foreign should spread
used to achieve economies to peace and
goals. increase American democracy.
 Wanted to civilize influence.  Believed other
other countries.  Continued nations should be
 Didn’t believe Roosevelt's foreign self-governing.
 nations should be policy but with less  Wished to cultivate
self-governing. aggression. a friendship with
 Opposed European  Worked for stability Latin America.
intervention in the in Latin America.
Western  Worked to expand
hemisphere. economic
opportunities in
China.

WW1 and its aftermath intensified ongoing debates about the nation’s role in the
world and how best to achieve national security and pursue American interests.
US participation in WW2 transformed American society, while the victory of the US
and its allies over the Axis powers vaulted the US into a position of global, political,
and military leadership.

7.12 WW2: MOBILIZATION

The mass mobilization of American society helped end the Great Depression, and
the country’s strong industrial base played a pivotal role in winning the war by
equipping and provisioning allies and millions of US troops.
Mobilization provided opportunities for women and minorities to improve their
socioeconomic positions for the war’s duration, while also leading to debates over
racial segregation.
 Men and women migrated from rural areas to cities in order to work in
defense industries.
o Many people, particularly African Americans in the South, relocated to
urban areas and military bases where jobs were plentiful.
 Mobilization for women: women shifted the nature of their employment
and income increased. Some went to war, served in the military. Women who
stayed at home and took care of kids went out to work in factories, wartime
jobs.
o Workforce shortages that led women to perform jobs were previously
reserved for men.
Migration to the US from Mexico and elsewhere in the Western Hemisphere
increased, in spite of contradictory government policies toward Mexican
immigration.

7.13 WW2: MILITARY

Americans viewed WW2 as a fight for the survival of freedom and democracy
against fascist and militarist ideologies. This perspective was later reinforced by
revelations about Japanese wartime atrocities, Nazi concentration camps, and the
Holocaust.
  Franklin Roosevelt’s “Four Freedoms” speech (1941): the freedom of
speech, worship, from want, and from fear, symbolized America's war aims
and gave hope in the following years because they knew they were fighting
for freedom.
Military service provided opportunities for women and minorities to improve their
socioeconomic positions for the war’s duration, while also leading to debates over
racial segregation.
 Executive Order 8802 (1941): prohibited employment discrimination in
defense industries and federal agencies on the basis of race, color, national
origin, or religion.
 Executive Order 9066 (1942): authorized forced relocation and internment
of Japanese Americans in US concentration (internment) camps in response
to the Pearl Harbor attack.
 Korematsu v. US (1944): the Supreme Court held that the wartime
internment of American citizens of Japanese descent was constitutional.
The US and its allies achieved military victory through Allied cooperation,
technological and scientific advances, the contributions of servicemen and women,
and campaigns such as Pacific “island-hopping” and the D-Day invasion. The use of
atomic bombs hastened the end of the war and sparked debates about the morality
of using atomic weapons.
 The US and its allies won the war in part because they had sufficient military
supplies.
o The number of women in manufacturing increased to produce a
sufficient number of supplies and equipment to give the Allied forces
an advantage in the war.
 Manhattan Project (1942): a research and development project that
produced the first atomic bombs during WW2, led by the US with the support
of the UK and Canada.
 Pacific island-hopping: a military strategy employed by the Allies against
Japan during WW2, in which they skipped over heavily fortified islands in
order to seize lightly defended locations that could support the next advance.
 D-Day Invasion (1944): a military success that opened Europe to the Allies
and a German surrender less than a year later.
 Hiroshima and Nagasaki (1945): first instances of atomic bombs used
against humans, killing tens of thousands of people, obliterating the cities,
and contributing to the end of WW2.

7.14 POSTWAR DIPLOMACY

The war-ravaged condition of Asia and Europe, and the dominant US role in the
Allied victory and postwar peace settlements, allowed the US to emerge from the
war as the most powerful nation on earth.
 The US began to take its place as a global superpower and plays a more
assertive role in the negotiation of peace following WW2 and the
establishment of international organizations to secure peace such as the
United Nations.
 Yalta agreements (1945): made between the US, the Soviet Union, and
Great Britain; the US assumed a leading role.
o Established the United Nations.
o Divided Germany into four occupation zones.
o Hold free elections in the countries of Eastern Europe liberated from
Nazi control.
 PERIOD 8
1945: The end of World War II
1980: The election of 1980 (Ronald Reagan vs. Jimmy Carter, with Reagan winning)

8.2 THE COLD WAR FROM 1945-1980

US policymakers engaged in a Cold War with the authoritarian Soviet Union, seeking
to limit the growth of Communist military power and ideological influence, create a
free-market global economy, and build an international security system.
 The Cold War (1946-1991): a period of tension between the Soviet Union
and its satellite states (the Eastern Bloc), and the US with its allies (the
Western Bloc).
o George F. Kennan's (US diplomat) "Long Telegram" (1946):
beginning of the Cold War; he sent an 8,000-word telegram to the
Department of State from Moscow calling for a US foreign policy of
containment of Soviet expansionism.
o Collapse of the USSR (1991): end of the Cold War.
o "Cold War": no large-scale fighting directly between the two sides,
though they each supported major regional conflicts (proxy wars).
 Causes of the Cold War:
o Ideologies: communism v. democratic capitalism.
o Yalta Conference (1945): promised that Eastern and Central
European countries would hold free elections (not under direct control
of the winning Allies including the US and Soviet); but Stalin broke the
promise and held troops in those countries,
creating communist satellite states.
o Dividing Germany and Berlin into 4
occupation zones (British, French,
Soviet Union, US): Soviets made their
section into a communist state, trying to
keep Germany weak, posing less threat to
them; western powers tried to help
Germany economically because they saw it
as one of the keys to a stable Central Europe.

As postwar tensions dissolved the wartime alliance between Western democracies

and the Soviet Union, the US developed a foreign policy based on collective
security, international aid, and economic institutions that bolstered 支撑 non-
Communist nations.
 International Monetary Fund (IMF) (1945): international organization
consisting of nearly 200 countries working to “foster global monetary
cooperation, secure financial stability, facilitate international trade, promote
 high employment and sustainable economic growth, and reduce poverty
around the world.”
o Bolstered non-Communist nations by providing financial assistance to
member countries in need which helped stabilize economies and
prevent financial instability.
 United Nations (1945): organization tasked to maintain international peace
and security, develop friendly relations among nations, achieve international
co-operation and be a center for harmonizing the actions of nations.
o Successor of the failed League of Nations.
 Containment Policy (1946-1991) 抑制: in George Kennan’s telegram, he
stated that communism needed to be contained and isolated, or else it would
spread to neighboring countries and weaken the power and influence of
Western Powers.
 Truman Doctrine (1947): the US would help any nation resist communism
in order to prevent its spread; advocating containment of communism.
o Demonstrated that the US would not return to isolationism after WW2,
but rather take an active role in world affairs.
o Cause: Soviet pressure on Turkey and Greece to accommodate soviet
goals led Truman to take a tougher stance and rely on the nation’s
military and economic muscle rather than diplomacy in dealing with
the Soviets.
 Marshall Plan (1947): sought to provide over $13 billion in economic
assistance to help rebuild Western European economies and to prevent the
spread of Communism.
o If nations had a healthy economy, they would likely opt for democracy
rather than Communism.
 Iron Curtain (1947-1991): a metaphor for the extreme political and
ideological division that separated Western Europe from the Soviet Union.
o East side: countries connected to or influenced by the Soviet Union;
west side: countries that were NATO members or connected to or
influenced by the US; or nominally neutral.
 The Berlin Blockade and Berlin Airlift (1948-1949):
o Berlin Blockade: Soviet Union blocked all
road and rail travel to and from West Berlin
located within the Soviet zone of occupation in
Germany; goods could not be transported as a
result, and people ran out of food in just 36
days and were running low on basic goods and
medical supplies.
 Cause: The western powers kept west
Berlin alive with the hope of democracy (surrounded by Soviet
occupation), but Stalin wanted Germany to remain weak and
blocked their entry into west Berlin.
 Goal: absorb west Berlin into the Soviet occupation.
 o Berlin Airlift: as a response to the blockade, the US and British
planes flew food and supplies into West Berlin for 327 days to keep
millions of German citizens from starving and freezing to death.
 Demonstrated that the US would resist any further attempts to
spread Communism.
 Result: the successful air lift led to the lifting of the blockade,
preventing Soviets from taking over West Berlin.
 North Atlantic Treaty Organization (NATO) (1949): military alliance
between 29 North American and European countries providing protection
against the Soviet Union.
 Warsaw Pact: alliance formed by the Soviet Union with communist nations
in Eastern Europe.
 These actions led to the debate of whether to use direct or indirect tactics to
challenge the influence of the Soviet Union.
Concerned by expansionist Communist ideology and Soviet repression, the US
sought to contain communism through a variety of measures, including major
military engagements in Korea.
 Korean War (1950-1953): war between North Korea (with the support of
China and the Soviet Union) and South Korea (with the support of the UN,
with the principal support from the US); proxy war between the US and the
Soviet Union.
o Background: Korea (Japanese colony) was divided along the 38 th
parallel after Japan’s defeat in WW2 with the Soviet Union occupying
the north and the US occupying the south.
o Conflict: North Korea launched a surprise attack on South Korea,
seeking to reunify the country under communist rule. The US and UN
responded by sending troops to support South Korea and to prevent
the spread of communism.
o Result: ended with an armistice agreement that established a
demilitarized zone along the 38th parallel again.
The Cold War fluctuated between periods of direct and indirect military
confrontation and periods of mutual coexistence (or détente).
 U-2 incident (1960): a US U-2 spy plane was shot down by the Soviet Air
Defense Forces while performing photographic aerial reconnaissance deep
into Soviet territory.
o Effect: led to a significant deterioration in relations, raised questions
about the efficacy of US foreign policy and the use of military force to
achieve its objectives.
 Bay of Pigs Invasion (1961): a failed US military invasion of Cuba
undertaken by a CIA sponsored paramilitary group.
o Goal: eliminate Cuba’s leader Fidel Castro for his brutal displays of
power and insistence on communism.
 o Result: the US gravely underestimated the power in Cuba and the
invading force was defeated within three days by the Cuban
Revolutionary Armed Forces, under the direct command of Castro.
o Effect: the failed invasion proceeded to openly proclaim Cuba’s
intention to adopt socialism and pursue closer ties with the Soviet
Union.
 Cuban Missile Crisis (1962): a 13-day confrontation between the US and
the Soviet Union sparked by the deployment of Soviet nuclear missiles to
Cuba, which threatened the security of the US.
o Cause: the US deployed nuclear missiles in Italy and Turkey, which
were weak spots of the Soviet Union, so deploying missile in these
places was threatening to the Soviet Union; same goes with Cuba.
o Process: Cuba reached a secret agreement with the Soviet Union to
construct missile sites in Cuba; US spy planes discovered the missiles;
after tense negotiation, crisis was finally resolved when the Soviet
Union agreed to remove the missiles from Cuba in exchange for a US
promise not to invade Cuba and a secret agreement to remove US
missiles from Turkey.
o The confrontation is often considered the closest the Cold War came to
escalating into a full-scale nuclear war.
 White House “hotline” with USSR (1963): a system that allowed the
leaders of the two superpowers to communicate in times of crisis or
emergency quickly and directly.
o Before the hotline, communication between the two countries was
often slow with the risk of miscommunication leading to catastrophic
consequences (in the missile crisis, US almost ignored Soviet’s
messages).
o Importance: signaled a willingness on the part of the US and the
USSR to engage in constructive dialogue and to find peaceful solutions
to international problems.
 Détente (1968-1980): a period of easing tensions between the Soviet
Union and the US.
o Cause: after two superpowers agreed to install a direct hotline,
reducing the chances of future crises escalating into an all-out war,
détente was presented as an applied extension of that thinking.
 Strategic Arms Limitation Treaty (SALT) (1969): negotiations between
the US and Soviet Union led to the signing of the SALT I and SALT II treaties,
which limited the number and type of nuclear weapons each side could
possess.
 Nixon’s visit to China (1972): marked the first time a US president had
visited China.
o Effect: the visit helped to improve US-China relations and created a
counterbalance to Soviet influence in Asia.
o Importance: demonstrated the US's willingness to engage in
diplomacy with adversaries and promoted détente as a means of
 reducing tensions and promoting cooperation between countries with
different political systems.
 Helsinki Accords (1975): a series of agreements signed by 35 countries,
including the two superpowers; recognized the borders of Europe and to
respect basic human rights and fundamental freedoms (freedom of thought,
religion, movement).
o Importance: represented a commitment by both the US and the
Soviet Union to reduce tensions and work together towards common
goals.
 Ronald Reagan’s 1980 Election Campaign: he was critical of détente in
which he believed that the accommodation and negotiation only allowed
Soviet to expand their influence in the world. He referred to the Soviet Union
as the "evil empire" and advocated for a stronger military posture to contain
Soviet expansionism.

8.3 THE RED SCARE

Americans debated policies and methods designed to expose suspected
communists within the US even as both parties supported the broader strategy of
containing communism.
 Red Scare: a period of intense domestic anti-Communist hysteria and
suspicion in the US.
o 1st Red Scare: occurred after WW1 and was fueled by a fear of
Bolsheviks (socialists), who were seen as a threat to American values
and institutions.
 Palmer Raids (1919): a series of government-led raids and
arrests of suspected anarchists and communists (many
immigrants / foreign-born), many of whom were held without
trial or access to legal representation.
o 2nd Red Scare (late 1940s-1950s): occurred during the Cold War
and was characterized by a fear of Communist infiltration in American
government and society.
o Reflected efforts done by the federal government to ensure domestic
security.
 House Un-American Activities Committee (HUAC) (1938)
investigation of Hollywood (1947): investigated individuals and
organizations suspected of having Communist ties or sympathies.
o The committee's anti-communist investigations are often compared
with those of Joseph McCarthy, a prominent figure in the anti-
Communist movement.
 Hollywood Ten (1947): 10 screenwriters and directors blacklisted by the
Hollywood film industry for refusing to answer questions about their alleged
Communist affiliations before HUAC.
 o Effect: contributed to fear and suspicion in Hollywood, with many
individuals being denied employment or other opportunities based on
their political beliefs.
 Trial of Alger Hiss (1950): a former high-ranking official in the US
government, was accused of being a Communist spy. The case was
investigated by the HUAC and FBI.
o Hiss was accused of passing classified government documents to
Soviet agents; but he denied the allegations.
o He was found guilty of perjury for lying under oath about his alleged
Communist connections and sentenced to 5 years in prison.
 McCarthyism (1950s): the period of intense anti-Communist suspicion and
persecution in the US led by Senator Joseph McCarthy.
o Individuals suspected of being Communists or Communist
sympathizers were investigated, blacklisted, and often denied
employment or social opportunities.
o Created "witch hunt" atmosphere in which many innocent people were
falsely accused and persecuted.
 Execution of Julius and Ethel Rosenberg (1953): they were accused of
spying for the Soviet Union and passing atomic secrets to Soviet agents
during the early years of the Cold War.
o They maintained their innocence throughout their trial and appeals,
claiming to be falsely accused and that the evidence against them was
fabricated. But they were ultimately convicted of espionage 间谍行为 and
sentenced to death.

8.4 THE ECONOMY AFTER 1945

A burgeoning 迅速发展的 private sector, federal spending, the baby boom, and
technological developments helped spur economic growth.
 G.I. Bill of Rights (1944): provided WW2 veterans with funds for college
education, unemployment insurance, and housing.
o Impact: create a new middle class as veterans were able to obtain
higher education and job training that allowed them to secure better-
paying jobs and improve their economic prospects.
o Spurred postwar economic growth by creating a demand for housing,
consumer goods, and education.
 Baby boom (1946-1964): a period marked by a significant increase in the
birth rate.
o Cause: the high number of veterans returning home after WW2;
strong post-war American economy; the Congress passing the G.I. Bill
of Rights to encourage home ownership and higher levels of education.
 Cold War defense spending: US government's investment in defense
created jobs and stimulated innovation, leading to the growth of a number of
industries.
 o Ex: the development of computers and microchips that were used in
military applications also led to the growth of the technology industry,
which continues to be a major contributor to the American economy.
 NASA: its investment in research created new technologies that had both
military and civilian applications, leading to the growth of the aerospace
industry and other high-tech industries.
 The space race (1955-1975): competition between the two superpowers to
achieve superior spaceflight capability; US won when Neil Armstrong stepped
onto the Moon in 1969.
o Effect: created demand for a range of products and services, including
satellite communications, navigation systems, and advanced materials,
which stimulated innovation and growth in a variety of fields.
 Growth of the aerospace industry: created jobs and supporting growth in
a range of related industries.
o Aerospace firms employed thousands of workers and supported a
network of suppliers, vendors, and other businesses, helping to drive
economic growth.

8.5 CULTURE AFTER 1945

Mass culture became increasingly homogeneous in the postwar years, inspiring
challenges to conformity by artists, intellectuals, and rebellious youth.
 Mass culture: following WW2, American society experienced the growth of
mass culture and the rise of consumerism.
o As more Americans gained access to new forms of media (e.g.,
television, radio), they became exposed to a shared set of cultural
values, norms, and ideals, leading to an increasing homogenization of
culture.
 Some artists, intellectuals, and youth rejected conformity and sought to
challenge traditional norms and values through their work and lifestyle
choices.
o Ex: Beat Generation: rejected mainstream society and celebrated
nonconformity and individualism.
As higher education opportunities and new technologies rapidly expanded,
increasing social mobility encouraged the migration of the middle class to the
suburbs and of many Americans to the South and West. The Sun Belt region
emerged as a significant political and economic force.
 Cause of migration of the middle class to the suburbs:
o Homes were affordable and met the demand for housing, which had
been in short supply prior to and during the war.
 New construction techniques (systematization of the building
process) lowered home prices.
 Subsidy of low-interest and G.I. Bill provided veterans’ families
opportunities to purchase their own homes in suburbs.
  Experience of deprivation and economic hardship during the
Great Depression and WW2 encouraged many families to see
new suburban communities as a bulwark of security and stability
against these potential threats.
 Many new suburban housing developments explicitly barred African
Americans and members of other minority groups from purchasing homes in
them, thereby extending the promise of suburban home ownership only to
White families.
 Sun belt region: southern and southwestern states that rose as a result of
changing social and economic conditions in the postwar era, which
encouraged greater mobility and migration.
o People needed to have an automobile to travel to work and have
access to basic goods and services due to the design of these
communities.

8.6 EARLY STEPS IN THE CIVIL RIGHTS MOVEMENT (1940S AND

1950S)
 Civil Rights Movement (1954-1968): aimed to abolish institutional racial
segregation, discrimination, and disenfranchisement 剥夺公民选举权 throughout the
US.
o Urged stronger federal action to compel states to enforce civil rights
protections.
Seeking to fulfill Reconstruction-era promises, civil rights activists and political
leaders achieved some legal and political successes in ending segregation, although
progress toward equality was slow.
 Civil Rights activists and political leaders cited the failures of the government,
particularly following the end of Reconstruction and the enactment of Jim
Crow laws, to ensure legal equality by seeking an end to segregation.
 Rosa Parks (1955): an African American woman who refused to give up her
seat on a Montgomery, Alabama bus to a white person.
o Impact: her arrest and subsequent trial became a major symbol of the
Civil Rights Movement.
 Montgomery Bus Boycott (1955-56): response to Rosa Park’s incident;
Martin Luther King Jr. proposed a citywide boycott against racial segregation
on the public transportation system where African Americans stopped using
the system and would walk or get rides instead.
o The boycott continued for 381 days and was very effective.
o Result: in 1956, a federal court ruled that the laws in place to keep
buses segregated were unconstitutional.
 Southern Christian Leadership Conference (1957): a civil rights
organization founded by Martin Luther King Jr. during the aftermath of the
Montgomery Bus Boycott.
 o Goal: sought the fulfillment of the Reconstruction promises
(amendments).
o Approached based on the principles of nonviolent direct action and
civil disobedience.
o Nonviolent direct action: method of protest involving using peaceful
means (e.g., sit-ins, boycotts, strikes, marches) to achieve a social
change; without resorting to violence or physical confrontation.
The three branches of the federal government used measures including
desegregation of the armed services and Brown v. Board of Education to promote
greater racial equality.
 Legislative Branch: passed important laws prohibiting discrimination (Civil
Rights Act of 1964, Voting Rights Act of 1965, Fair Housing Act of 1968).
 Executive Branch: enforced those laws (Truman, Eisenhower, Johnson).
 Judicial Branch: interpreted the Constitution and ensured that civil rights
laws were upheld (Brown v. Board of Education).

 Executive Order 9981 (1948): issued by President Truman which

desegregated the armed forces.
o The order stated that “there shall be equality of treatment and
opportunity for all persons in the armed services without regard to
race, color, religion, or national origin.”
 Brown v. Board of Education of Topeka (1954): a landmark Supreme
Court case in which the justices ruled unanimously that racial segregation of
children in public schools was unconstitutional, and “separate-but-equal”
education is not equal at all.
o The Court ordered only that the states end segregation “… at all
deliberate speed” and in public schools only.
 This allowed states to take a very slow and gradual approach to
desegregation. This vagueness in the ruling led to some states
resisting desegregation efforts and dragging their feet on
implementing the decision.
 Also allowed schools that are not public to continue racial
segregation.
 Little Rock Nine (1957): 9 African American students were prevented from
entering the Little Rock Central High School in Arkansas, despite the ruling in
Brown v. Board of Education.
o President Eisenhower intervened and sent federal troops to enforce the
court's ruling that the students were able to attend classes.
o Impact: sparked national attention and prompted further activism and
protests throughout the country.
 Signing of Civil Rights Act of 1964 & Voting Rights Act of 1965:
signed by President Lyndon B. Johnson, which were significant pieces of
legislation that provided legal protections for African Americans and helped
to dismantle discriminatory practices.
 o Johnson had been a strong supporter of civil rights throughout his
presidency.
Continuing white resistance slowed efforts at desegregation, sparking social and
political unrest across the nation. Debates among civil rights activists over the
efficacy of nonviolence increased after 1965.
 Movements rose in response to the ongoing resistance to desegregation and
the slow pace of progress in the civil rights movement. They represented a
growing frustration with nonviolent protest and a desire to take a more
assertive approach to achieving racial justice.
 Watts Riot (1965): resistance from white people who were not willing to
accept greater racial equality to efforts of desegregating American society.
o A confrontation between police and a black motorist quickly escalated
into a large-scale riot that lasted for several days.
o Importance: highlighted the deep racial tensions that continued to
simmer just beneath the surface of American society.
 Black Power (1966): a political movement that called for the establishment
of Black-owned businesses and institutions, and greater representation in
politics; criticized nonviolence and integrationist strategies of the civil rights
movement, arguing that they were too passive and failed to address the root
causes of racial inequality.
o Stokely Carmichael: a prominent leader of the Student Nonviolent
Coordinating Committee (SNCC), argued that blacks needed to rely on
their own resources and build their own political and economic power
to achieve true equality and liberation, rather than relying solely on
the goodwill of white people or the federal government.
o Impact: inspired a new generation of Black activists and organizations
and influenced other social movements.
 Malcolm X and the Nation of Islam (1952-1964): broken away from the
Nation of Islam and was advocating for a more militant approach to black
liberation. His message resonated with many young black people who were
frustrated by the slow pace of progress in the civil rights movement.
o Malcolm X vs. MLK: prominent Civil Rights Movement leaders who
had different approaches to achieving racial equality. King advocated
for nonviolent protest, integration, and civil disobedience as a means
of exposing injustice.; Malcolm X believed in black nationalism, self-
defense, and the use of force if necessary.
 Black Panther Party (1966): committed to challenging white supremacy
through direct action and community organizing; called for an end to police
brutality, better housing and education, and greater economic opportunities
for black people.

8.7 AMERICA AS A WORLD POWER

Cold War competition extended to Latin America, where the US supported non-
Communist regimes that had varying levels of commitment to democracy.
 The US government supported various authoritarian regimes in order to
contain the spread of Communism. This led to a legacy of political violence
and instability in many Latin American countries that is still felt today.
o The US supported non-Communist regimes in Latin America (e.g.,
Nicaragua, Cuba, Guatemala, Paraguay, Chile, Bolivia, Argentina, El
Salvador), often regardless of their commitment to democracy.
(World Revolution) Postwar decolonization and the emergence of powerful
nationalist movements in Asia, Africa, and the Middle East led both sides in the Cold
War to seek allies among new nations, many of which remained non-aligned.
 Decolonization: the US stance towards decolonization is contradictory.
o The US initially supported decolonization efforts (self-determination),
particularly in the aftermath of WW2 when many European colonial
powers were weakened as it believed that the decolonization of
territories would lead to greater stability and security.
o But the US was wary of the possibility that decolonization could lead to
political instability and the rise of communist regimes in newly
independent nations.
 Non-Aligned Movement (1961): made up of states that didn’t align
themselves with either the US or the Soviet Union.
o Goal: promote cooperation and neutrality among member states, as
well as to resist neocolonialism and imperialism.

8.8 THE VIETNAM WAR

Concerned by expansionist Communist ideology and Soviet repression, the US
sought to contain communism through a variety of measures, including major
military engagements in Vietnam.
 Vietnam War (1955-1975): fought between North Vietnam (supported by
Soviet Union, China, communist allies) and South Vietnam (US, South Korea,
Philippines, Australia, Thailand, anti-communist allies).
o Cause: North Vietnam being communist caused fear in the US
government that a victory of North Vietnam would cause communism
to continue to spread throughout Asia.
o Result: South Vietnam lost; Vietnam became a communist state.
 Gulf of Tonkin incident (1964): the US claimed that North Vietnamese
forces had attacked two American naval destroyers in the Gulf of Tonkin, off
the coast of Vietnam.
 Gulf of Tonkin Resolution (1964): passed by Congress in response to the
Gulf of Tonkin incident, which gave President Johnson authorization, without a
formal declaration of war by Congress, for the use of conventional military
force in Southeast Asia.
 o Authorized the President to do whatever is necessary in order to assist
"any member or protocol state of the Southeast Asia Collective
Defense Treaty".
 Operation Rolling Thunder (1965-1968): a gradual and sustained aerial
bombardment campaign conducted by the US and South Vietnam against
North Vietnam.
o Importance: represented a significant increase in military action
compared to previous US actions in the region.
 Tet Offensive (1968): a surprise attack launched by North Vietnamese
forces against South Vietnam and its allies; but was a
military failure for the North Vietnamese, as they suffered
heavy losses.
o Effect: demonstrated that the war was far from
over, and it led to increased anti-war protests and
calls for a withdrawal of American troops from
Vietnam.
 Ho Chi Minh Trail: a network of roads and trails used by
the North Vietnamese government to transport troops,
weapons, and supplies to South Vietnam.
o The trail ran through Laos and Cambodia, allowing
the North Vietnamese to avoid US bombing raids on
North Vietnam.
o Effect: sustained the war effort and contributed to
its ultimate victory.
Cold War policies led to public debates over the power of the federal government
and acceptable means for pursuing international and domestic goals while
protecting civil liberties.
 Nixon’s “Vietnamization” policy (1969-1972): gradual withdrawal of US
troops from Vietnam without eliminating communism or uniting Vietnam and
shifted responsibility for the war to the South Vietnamese government.
o Cause: response to decreasing public support for the Vietnam War.
o Goal: end the war while avoiding an outright American military defeat.
o Effect: was controversial and ultimately failed to bring a quick end to
the war.
 Bombing of Cambodia (1969-1970): a covert US bombing campaign
authorized by Nixon and conducted in eastern Cambodia targeting the bases
and supply routes of the Viet Cong and North Vietnamese forces.
o Effect: was controversial as it led to the deaths of thousands of
Cambodian civilians and helped to destabilize the country.
Although anticommunist foreign policy faced little domestic opposition in previous
years, the Vietnam War inspired sizable and passionate antiwar protests that
became more numerous as the war escalated, and sometimes led to violence.
  Pentagon Papers: revealed that the US had expanded its war with the
bombing of Cambodia and Laos, coastal raids on North Vietnam, and Marine
Corps attacks, none of which had been reported by the American media.
 Anti-Vietnam War Movement (1964): organized opposition to US
involvement in the Vietnam War on various college campuses in the US.
 The Kent State Shootings (1970): shootings of unarmed college students
by the Ohio National Guard at Kent State University in Ohio during a mass
protest against the bombing of Cambodia.
o Effect: many universities and colleges across the country closed as a
result of student protests and concerns over campus safety.
Americans debated the merits of a large nuclear arsenal, the military-industrial
complex, and the appropriate power of the executive branch in conducting foreign
and military policy.
 War Powers Act (1973): federal law that requires the President to consult
with Congress before committing troops to foreign conflicts and to report to
Congress within 48 hours of such action; limits the President's ability to
deploy troops for extended periods without congressional approval.
o Importance: check on executive power represented a significant shift
in the balance of power between the executive and legislative
branches.
 Reflected congressional concerns about presidential war-making
powers and the need for greater transparency and
accountability in foreign policy decisions.

8.9 THE GREAT SOCIETY

Despite an overall affluence in postwar America, advocates raised concerns about
the prevalence and persistence of poverty as a national problem.
 Kerner Commission (1968): established by President Lyndon B. Johnson to
investigate the causes of the urban riots (high levels of unemployment
among urban African Americans) that had taken place in several cities across
the US.
o Cause: movement of many families to the suburbs led to the
emergence of two separated societies; many African American families
continued to move into cities.
o Conclusion: primary cause of the riots was not solely due to individual
acts of violence, but the result of systemic racial discrimination and
poverty.
o Result: little action was taken by the government to address these
issues, which further deepened divisions within American society.
Liberalism, based on anticommunism abroad and a firm belief in the efficacy of
government power to achieve social goals at home, reached a high point of political
influence by the mid-1960s.
  Liberalism: emphasized the importance of government intervention in
promoting social welfare and advancing civil rights, while also espousing anti-
communism in foreign policy.
o Effect: expansion of federal government power (e.g., New Deal, the
Great Society, the Civil Rights Act of 1964).
Liberal ideas found expression in Lyndon Johnson’s Great Society, which attempted
to use federal legislation and programs to end racial discrimination, eliminate
poverty, and address other social issues.
 Great Society (1960s): a set of domestic policies and programs introduced
by President Johnson, which aimed to reduce poverty, improve access to
healthcare and education, and promote civil rights and social justice.
o Included several significant legislative acts, such as the Civil Rights Act
of 1964, the Voting Rights Act of 1965, and the Medicare and Medicaid
programs.
o Cause: Johnson believed that the government had a responsibility to
provide for the well-being of all citizens, and that it could use its power
and resources to achieve this goal.
 Civil Rights Act of 1964: ended segregation in public places and banned
employment discrimination on the basis of race, color, religion, sex or
national origin.
 Voting Rights Act of 1965: prohibits racial discrimination in voting.
o The 15th amendment even though allowed blacks to vote, they were
still hindered by poll taxes (taxes to pay in order to vote; they had no
money), literacy tests (test to prove you’re smart), and Ku Klux Klan
(organization that practiced discrimination through violence).
Immigrants from around the world sought access to the political, social, and
economic opportunities in the US, especially after the passage of new immigration
laws in 1965.
 Immigration and Nationality Act (1965): abolished the national origins
quota system (1920s) which heavily restricted immigration particularly from
Asia and Africa and established a limit on the number of immigrants from the
Western Hemisphere.
o Goal: promote family reunification and attract skilled workers from
other countries by establishing a system of preferences based on
family relationships and job skills.
o Effect: increased immigration from Asia, Latin America, and Africa.

8.10 AFRICAN AMERICAN CIVIL RIGHTS MOVEMENT (1960S)

During and after WW2, civil rights activists and leaders, most notably Martin Luther
King Jr., combatted racial discrimination utilizing a variety of strategies including
legal challenges, direct action, and nonviolent protest tactics.
 Freedom Riders (1961): civil rights activists who rode interstate buses into
the segregated Southern US to challenge and protest against federal laws
that banned segregation on public transportation and in interstate travel
facilities.
o Effect: they faced violent attacks and arrests, which drew national
attention to their cause and helped to pressure the federal government
to enforce civil rights laws.
o Importance: demonstrated power of nonviolent direct action in
effecting social change.
 Greensboro Sit-In 静坐抗议 (1963): a nonviolent protest against racial
segregation in public places, particularly lunch counters in the South, which
were off-limits to African Americans.
o 4 African American college students sat down at a lunch counter in
Greensboro, North Carolina, and politely asked for service. When they
were denied, they remained seated, sparking a series of similar
protests across the South and raising attention to these injustices.
 Martin Luther King’s March on Washington for Jobs and Freedom
(1963): a political demonstration 政治抗议, in which the march drew an
estimated 250,000 people, making it one of the largest political rallies for
human rights in US history.
o Impact: catalyst for the Civil Rights Act of 1964 and the Voting Rights
Act of 1965, which were key pieces of legislation in advancing civil
rights for African Americans.
 Martin Luther King’s “I Have a Dream” Speech (1963): a speech given
during the March on Washington for Jobs and Freedom.
o He called for an end to racial segregation and discrimination and
emphasized the importance of achieving equality and justice for all
Americans, regardless of race.
o Importance: the speech is widely regarded as one of the most
significant and powerful speeches in US history and helped to
galvanize support for the Civil Rights Movement.
 Bayard Rustin: a key organizer and strategist in the Civil Rights Movement,
yet his contributions have often been overlooked due to his identity as a gay
man.
o Chief organizer March on Washington for Jobs and Freedom.
o A champion of labor rights, LGBT rights, and international human
rights.
 Selma March and Bloody Sunday (1965): civil rights activists organized a
march to protest voting rights discrimination against African Americans; but
were then attacked by state troopers.
o Impact: the violent confrontation, which was captured on national
television, sparked national outrage.
 President Johnson passed the Voting Rights Act of 1965, which
aimed to remove barriers that prevented African Americans from
voting.
8.11 THE CIVIL RIGHTS MOVEMENT EXPANDS
A series of Supreme Court decisions expanded civil rights and individual liberties.
 Tinker v. Des Moines (1968): Supreme Court case that addressed the
issue of student free speech rights in public schools.
o Cause: in 1965, a group of Iowa students planned to wear black
armbands to school as a peaceful protest against the Vietnam War; the
school district then prohibited the wearing of armbands; the students
were subsequently suspended.
o Result: Supreme Court ruled that students have the right to express
themselves in public schools, as long as their speech does not disrupt
the educational process.
 Roe v. Wade (1972): Supreme Court ruled that Texas prohibiting abortion
rights was unconstitutional, and that a woman's right to an abortion fell
within the right to privacy protected by the 14 th Amendment (ensured civil
rights).
Latino, American Indian, and Asian American movements continued to demand
social and economic equality and a redress of past injustices.
 Latino (Chicano) Movement (1960s-1970s): civil rights movement that
sought social and economic justice for Mexican Americans and other
Hispanic/Latino people living in the US.
o Emphasized cultural pride and advocated for improved educational
opportunities, voting rights, and an end to discrimination in housing
and employment.
o Cause: immigration from Mexico generally increased after WW2 and
resulted in the development of Mexican American political activism and
influence.
o Cesar Chavez and the United Farm Workers (1962): key players
in the Chicano Movement, fighting for the rights of farmworkers and
demanding better pay, working conditions, and labor protections
through boycotts, strikes, and other forms of nonviolent protest.
 Result: achieved significant gains for farmworkers and
increased public awareness about their conditions.
 American Indian Movement (AIM) (1960s-1970s): sought social and
economic justice and promote NA sovereignty, cultural revitalization, and to
address issues such as poverty, unemployment, and inadequate housing.
o Indians of All Tribes and the Occupation of Alcatraz (1969): a
pivotal moment for the AIM. The Indians of All Tribes occupied the
Alcatraz Island in San Francisco Bay and demanded that it be returned
to Native American control, lasting for 19 months.
 Effect: helped to draw national attention to Native American
issues and the need for greater recognition of tribal sovereignty.
  Asian American Movement (1960s-1970s): sought to address issues of
discrimination and inequality faced by Asian Americans, including
employment discrimination, inadequate representation in government, and
anti-Asian sentiment.
o Effect: helped to increase awareness of Asian American issues and to
promote greater political engagement and representation for Asian
Americans.
Feminist and gay and lesbian activists mobilized behind claims for legal, economic,
and social equality.
Feminist activists and activism:
 Opponents: Feminism threatens the traditional family unit, which is at the
core of the social order. Conservatives focused on family values and
advocated for traditional social structures and gender roles for women,
particularly those of wife and homemaker.
 Second Wave of feminism (1960s-1980s): aimed to increase equality for
women by gaining more than just enfranchisement.
o Whereas 1st wave feminism focused mainly on suffrage and
overturning legal obstacles to gender equality (e.g., voting rights and
property rights), second-wave feminism broadened the debate to
include a wider range of issues: reproductive rights, the workplace,
sexuality, and family.
o Impact: led to the establishment of new laws and policies that
advanced women's rights, as well as changes in cultural attitudes
toward gender roles and expectations.
 Title IX (1972): a federal civil rights law that was passed as part of the
Education Amendments of 1972, prohibiting sex discrimination in any
educational program or activity that receives federal funding.
 Roe v. Wade (1973)
Gay and lesbian activists and activism:
 Gay Liberation Movement (1960s): a social and political movement that
urged lesbians and gay men to engage in radical direct action, and to counter
societal shame with gay pride.
 Coming Out: process of revealing one's sexual orientation or gender identity
to others, becoming an important aspect of LGBTQ+ activism.
o Seen as a way to reduce the stigma and discrimination that LGBTQ+
people face, and to increase understanding and acceptance of the
community.
 Gay Pride Parades (1970s): a way to celebrate LGBTQ+ identities and to
assert a sense of pride and belonging. These parades were an important
symbol of LGBTQ+ visibility and a celebration of the community.
 Stonewall Riots (1969): series of protests that took place in response to a
police raid on the Stonewall Inn, a gay bar in New York City; considered to be
 the birth of the modern gay rights movement and were a catalyst for
increased activism and organizing.
 Harvey Milk (elected in 1977): the first openly gay man elected to public
office in the US.
o Milk’s election to the San Francisco Board of Supervisors was a
significant milestone for LGBTQ+ activism and helped to further the
cause of equal rights for the community.
 Emergence of HIV (1980s): during the early period of the outbreak of HIV,
the epidemic of HIV was commonly linked to gay men.
o Students have organized LGBT groups, often called Gay-Straight
Alliances (GSAs).
o Same-sex marriage was effectively legalized in the US in 2015.
o A renewed conservative movement spawned a new anti-gay
movement.
Feminists who participated in the counterculture of the 1960s rejected many of the
social, economic, and political values of their parents’ generation, introduced
greater informality into US culture, and advocated changes in sexual norms.
 Sexual revolution (1960s-1970s): feminists sought to challenge the status
quo and advocate for greater freedom and gender equality in society, such as
promoting access to contraception and reproductive rights.
o Characterized by an increased openness and acceptance of sexual
activity outside of marriage.
 Introduction of birth control pill (1960): a significant development that
helped to fuel the sexual revolution.
o For the first time, women had control over their reproductive choices
and could engage in sexual activity without fear of unwanted
pregnancy.
o Impact: challenged traditional views on sexuality and gender roles.

8.12 YOUTH CULTURE OF THE 1960S

Young people who participated in the counterculture of the 1960s rejected many of
the social, economic, and political values of their parents’ generation, introduced
greater informality into US culture, and advocated changes in sexual norms.
Some groups on the left also rejected liberal policies, arguing that political leaders
did too little to transform the racial and economic status quo at home and pursued
immoral policies abroad.
 Counterculture Movement (1960s): a youth-led movement that rejected
the mainstream values and norms of the time, such as materialism,
consumerism, and conformity.
o Emphasized personal freedom, individual expression, and
experimentation with new forms of music, art, fashion, and lifestyle.
 o It challenged traditional authority figures, such as parents, teachers,
and government officials, and promoted a more communal and
egalitarian way of life.
o Involved in anti-war protests (e.g., Vietnam War).
 They viewed these wars as immoral and unjust. They criticized
the government's use of military force to impose American
power abroad, and they advocated for non-violent resistance
and civil disobedience as a means of effecting social and
political change.

8.13 THE ENVIRONMENT AND NATURAL RESOURCES (1968-1980)

Ideological, military, and economic concerns shaped US involvement in the Middle
East, with several oil crises in the region eventually sparking attempts at creating a
national energy policy.
 Energy Crisis of the 1970s: a period of fuel shortages and skyrocketing
prices lasting a decade.
o Cause: an oil embargo 贸易禁运 imposed by the Organization of Arab
Petroleum Exporting Countries (OAPEC) led to fuel shortages and sky-
high prices; exacerbated by declining domestic oil production,
increased demand for energy, and rising inflation.
o Effect: led to inflation, high unemployment, and reduced economic
growth; but also contributed to a shift towards energy conservation
and the development of alternative energy sources.
 Local, state and national leaders called for measures to
conserve energy, asking gas stations to close on Sundays and
homeowners to refrain from putting up holiday lights on their
houses.
Environmental problems and accidents led to a growing environmental movement
that aimed to use legislative and public efforts to combat pollution and protect
natural resources. The federal government established new environmental
programs and regulations.
 Increased power production and consumption resulting in increased pollution
levels across the US contributed to the emergence of the modern
environmental movement and passage of federal laws to combat
environmental problems caused by power generation.
 Rachel Carson’s Silent Spring and the Birth of the Modern
Environmental Movement (1962): a book that focused on the negative
environmental impact of the widespread use of pesticides.
o Impact: helped spur the creation of the Environmental Protection
Agency (EPA) and the passage of environmental laws; increased public
awareness of the need for conservation and preservation of natural
resources.
  Laws and initiatives were established and represented a significant expansion
of federal power to regulate and protect the environment. They also reflected
a growing recognition of the importance of environmental issues in American
politics and society.
o Environmental Protection Act of 1970: created the EPA to oversee
federal environmental regulations and enforcement.
o Clean Air Act of 1970: established national air quality standards and
authorized the EPA to regulate emissions from industrial sources and
automobiles.
o Clean Water Act of 1972: established national water quality
standards and authorized the EPA to regulate and monitor water
pollution from point sources (such as factories) and non-point sources
(such as runoff from agricultural land).
o Endangered Species Act of 1973: provided for the protection and
conservation of threatened and endangered species and their habitats.
o Earth Day (1970): raise awareness about environmental issues and
promote environmental activism.

8.14 SOCIETY IN TRANSITION

In the 1960s, conservatives challenged liberal laws and court decisions and
perceived moral and cultural decline, seeking to limit the role of the federal
government.
Public confidence and trust in government’s ability to solve social and economic
problems declined in the 1970s in the wake of economic challenges, political
scandals, and foreign policy crises.
 There was a decline in the public's faith in the government's ability to
address social and economic problems, such as inflation, rising
unemployment, and energy shortages.
 Vietnam War further eroded public confidence in the government's foreign
policy decisions.
The 1970s saw growing clashes between conservatives and liberals over social and
cultural issues, the power of the federal government, race, and movements for
greater individual rights.
 Social and cultural issues: Conservatives often saw feminist movement,
the gay rights movement, and environmental movement as a threat to
traditional values and attempted to resist them; liberals supported them as
movements for greater individual rights and freedoms.
 Power of the federal government: Conservatives tended to favor a
smaller government with less intervention in people's lives; liberals supported
a more active federal government that could address social and economic
problems.
Liberalism influenced postwar politics and court decisions, but it came under
increasing attack from a resurgent conservative movement.
 Ronald Reagan’s Speech “A Time for Choosing” (1964): Reagan
articulated his conservative views on limited government, individual freedom,
and anticommunism. The speech helped to establish Reagan as a rising star
within the Republican Party.
 Ronald Reagan on Socialized Medicine (1964): Reagan spoke out
against the idea of socialized medicine, arguing that it would lead to
government control of medical care and a loss of individual freedom. He
warned that such a system would be a slippery slope towards socialism and
called for the preservation of the private sector in healthcare.
 Ronald Reagan vs. the Hippies (1964): Reagan criticized the
counterculture movement, arguing that the “hippies” represented a threat to
traditional American values and institutions. He accused the movement of
promoting drugs, promiscuity, and anti-American sentiment, and called for a
return to conservative values of hard work, responsibility, and patriotism.
 PERIOD 9
1980: the election of 1980 (Reagan v. Carter, with Reagan winning)
2015: the presidency of Barack Obama

9.2 REAGAN CONSERVATISM

LIBERAL IDEOLOGIES CONSERVATIVE IDEOLOGIES
 Government should play a significant  Want limited government in
role in improving people’s lives by society by reducing taxes
creating social programs to help the to increase economic
poor, unemployed, elderly; laws to growth.
protect the rights of women and  Limit government
minorities; maintain Great Society. regulation of industry.
 Government regulation of industry.  Increased defense spending
 Cooperate with international to create powerful national
organizations, e.g., UN, and insist on defense to fight
human rights in foreign policy. communism.
 Avoid future conflicts with Vietnams.  Acted aggressively
 Detente with USSR. overseas.
 Promote affirmative action:  Referred to the USSR as
eliminate discrimination measures to “evil empire”.
achieve equal rights for all groups  Warned about dangers of
(gender, ethnicity, religion, race) often abandoning traditional
in employment and education. values and tried to
 Supported equal rights movement. maintain “family values”.
 Supported conservation of energy.  Limited federal
 Supported Roe v. Wade (abortion government’s role in Civil
rights). Rights Movement.
 Stressed finding new
sources of oil.
 Anti-abortion.
Ronald Reagan’s victory in the presidential election of 1980 represented an
important milestone, allowing conservatives to enact significant tax cuts and
continue the deregulation of many industries.
 Tax cuts: designed to stimulate economic growth and encourage
investment; Reagan reduced the top marginal tax rate from 70% to 28%.
o Effect: tax cuts as part of the Republican right’s appeal led voters to
withdraw support from the Democratic Party and ultimately the victory
of conservatives.
 Deregulation of industries (1970s): many industries, including banking,
telecommunications, and transportation, were deregulated; companies had
more freedom to operate and compete with fewer government restrictions
and oversight.
Airline Deregulation:
  Airline Deregulation Act (1978): signed into law by President Jimmy
Carter signed into law which deregulated the airline industry, and Reagan
continued this policy.
 Pros:
o Lower fares: airlines were able to offer lower fares to consumers due
to increased competition, making air travel more accessible and
affordable.
o More choices for consumers: increase in the number of airlines and
routes available gave consumers more choices for their travel needs.
o Increased efficiency: airlines were forced to operate more efficiently
and profitably in order to survive in a competitive market.
o Increased innovation: new airlines and business models such as
budget airlines and regional carriers emerged.
 Cons:
o Safety concerns: airlines were given more freedom to cut costs and
operate with fewer regulations.
o Job losses: airlines were forced to cut costs in order to compete, so
they had to cut jobs.
o Service reductions: airlines focused on profitable routes and reduced
service to less profitable destinations.
o Consolidation: larger airlines bought up smaller airlines and reduced
competition in some markets.
Conservatives argued that liberal programs were counterproductive in fighting
poverty and stimulating economic growth. Some of their efforts to reduce the size
and scope of government met with inertia and liberal opposition, as many programs
remained popular with voters.
 Conservatives’ stance: liberal programs such as high taxes, excessive
regulation, and large-scale social welfare programs stifle economic growth
and discourage people from working hard.
o They sought to reduce the size and scope of government by cutting
spending on social welfare programs, reducing taxes, and deregulating
industries, which encourages private-sector investment and job
creation.
 Liberals’ stance: conservative policies are harmful and that social welfare
programs are necessary to help vulnerable people in society.
o Eliminating these programs will leave many people without the support
they need to survive, and tax cuts and deregulation will primarily
benefit wealthy individuals and corporations rather than average
citizens.
Policy debates continued over free-trade agreements, the scope of the government
social safety net, and calls to reform the US financial system.
 North American Free Trade Agreement (NAFTA) (1994): trilateral trade
agreement signed by the US, Canada, and Mexico, which eliminated tariffs on
 goods traded between the 3 countries, encouraged investment, and
established dispute-resolution mechanisms.
o Goal: promote trade and economic growth by creating a more open
and integrated market between the three countries.
o Positive Impact: increased trade and investment between the US,
Canada, and Mexico, which led to the creation of jobs and economic
growth in all 3 countries; lower prices for consumers; provided a
framework for resolving disputes between the 3 countries.
o Negative Impact: US manufacturing industries were hurt by
increased competition from Mexico, which led to job losses and
economic dislocation in some communities; environmental and labor
standard related concerns rose as some industries moved production
to Mexico to take advantage of lower wages and weaker regulations.
 Debate over free trade agreements: North American Free Trade
Agreement (NAFTA) and the Trans-Pacific Partnership (TPP).
o Supporters (conservatives): these agreements help to promote
economic growth and create jobs by increasing trade and lowering
barriers to trade between countries.
o Opponents (liberalists): these agreements lead to the outsourcing
of jobs and hurt American workers by allowing companies to move jobs
overseas.
 Scope of the government social safety net (protect families from the
impact of economic shocks, natural disasters, and other crises):
o Conservatives: the government should play a more limited role and
that individuals should be responsible for their own well-being.
o Liberalists: the government should provide a comprehensive social
safety net to protect vulnerable populations and ensure that everyone
has access to basic necessities like healthcare and housing.
 Reform of US financial system:
o Cause: the 2008 financial crisis highlighted the need for reforms to
prevent future crises and ensure that the financial system is stable and
secure.
o Conservatives: the government should take a more hands-off
approach and allow the free market to regulate itself.
o Liberalists: the government should impose stricter regulations on the
financial industry to prevent the risky behavior and limit the potential
for financial collapse.
Conservative beliefs regarding the need for traditional social values and a reduced
role for government advanced in US politics after 1980.
 Conservatives sought to promote a smaller, less intrusive 侵入的 government
that emphasized traditional social values; it would create a more prosperous
and cohesive society, with a greater emphasis on personal responsibility and
self-reliance.
  Limit role of government: government’s role should be limited to protect
individual rights and providing basic services, such as national defense,
infrastructure, and law enforcement.
o Prevent the government from becoming too powerful and infringing
upon those rights; limit the government's role in other areas allows
efficient allocation of resources towards basic services.
 Traditional social values: beliefs that emphasize individual freedom,
personal responsibility, and limited government intervention in society.
o Strong national defense: a strong military and a proactive 主动的
foreign policy (defeat communism around the world).
o Free-market economics: emphasized tax cuts, deregulation, and
private sector growth as the keys to economic growth and prosperity.
o Traditional family values: emphasized the importance of the family
unit, including the promotion of marriage, parental responsibility, and
the protection of children from harmful influences.
o Religious values: importance of religious faith (Christian) and the
role of religion in shaping society.
o Patriotism: importance of American exceptionalism and the need for
citizens to be proud of their country and its values.
Intense political and cultural debates continued over issues such as immigration
policy, diversity, gender roles, and family structures.
 Immigration policy: debated border security, refugee resettlement, and
undocumented immigration.
o Supporters: stricter immigration policies are necessary to protect
national security and control the country’s borders.
o Opponents: such policies are discriminatory and hurtful to
immigrants.
 Diversity: affirmative action, multiculturalism, and representation in politics
and media.
o Supporters: it is necessary to promote equal opportunities and
challenge systemic inequalities.
 Democratic party lost White voters with protection of minority
rights, leading to the victory of the Republican Party
(conservatives).
o Opponents: undermine 危害 the unity and cohesion of American
society; lead to reverse discrimination, where underqualified
individuals were given opportunities solely based on their race, gender
etc.
 Gender roles and family structures: marriage equality, reproductive
rights, and workplace discrimination.
o Supporters (of progressive policies): it is necessary to promote
gender equality and address gender-based discrimination.
o Opponents: these policies undermine traditional family values and
social norms.
9.3 END OF THE COLD WAR (1991)
The Reagan administration promoted an interventionist foreign policy that
continued in later administrations, even after the end of the Cold War.
Reagan asserted US opposition to communism through speeches, diplomatic efforts,
limited military interventions, and a build-up of nuclear and conventional weapons.
 Ronald Reagan (1981-1989 presidency): staunch opponent of
communism and believed that the Soviet Union posed a significant threat to
national security, pursued a policy of containment.
o Contributed to the eventual collapse of the Soviet Union and the end of
the Cold War.
 Speeches: Reagan criticizing the Soviet Union and communism helped to
rally public support for his policies and to communicate the US position to the
world.
o Called the Soviet Union “evil empire”.
 Diplomatic efforts: engaged in negotiations with Soviet leaders but
remained firm in his commitment to opposing communism and defending
American interests.
 Military interventions: Reagan authorized military support to anti-
communist groups in countries like Afghanistan and Nicaragua; but were
controversial and drew criticism.
o Strategic Defense Initiative (SDI): aimed to develop a system to
intercept and destroy incoming missiles; served as a credible deterrent
against Soviet aggression and prepared US to defend itself if
necessary.
Increased US military spending, Reagan’s diplomatic initiatives, and political
changes and economic problems in Eastern Europe and the Soviet Union were all
important in ending the Cold War.
 Increased US military spending (1980s): the Reagan administration
launched a massive military buildup, including the development of new
weapons systems and the deployment 部署 of US forces around the world.
o This buildup put significant pressure on the Soviet economy, which was
already struggling to keep up with the US in the arms race; spending a
large percentage of its GDP on defense put a strain on its economy and
ultimately contributed to its collapse.
 Reagan’s diplomatic initiatives: he pursued a policy of “peace through
strength”: both military buildup and diplomatic outreach; he engaged in
direct talks with Soviet leaders and proposed a series of arms control
agreements, including the Intermediate-Range Nuclear Forces (INF) Treaty.
o Impact: reduced tensions between the US and the Soviet Union and
paved the way for further cooperation in the future.
 Political changes & economic problems in Eastern Europe & Soviet
Union: a wave of pro-democracy protests and revolutions swept across,
 leading to the fall of communist regimes in countries (Poland, Hungary,
Czechoslovakia); weakened the Soviet Union’s grip on its satellite states and
signaled a growing desire for democratic reform and openness.
o The Soviet economy faced shortages of consumer goods, high inflation,
and declining industrial output, putting further pressure on the Soviet
leadership and contributed to the eventual collapse of the Soviet
Union.
The end of the Cold War led to new diplomatic relationships but also new US
military and peacekeeping interventions, as well as continued debates over the
appropriate use of American power in the world.
 New diplomatic relationships between the US & former Soviet bloc
countries: established new trade partnerships, promoted democracy and
human rights, and increased cooperation on issues such as nuclear
disarmament and counterterrorism.
o Impact: brought new challenges and conflicts, particularly in regions
such as the Middle East and Eastern Europe.
 US new military and peacekeeping interventions: military interventions
in Iraq, Somalia, former Yugoslavia, and peacekeeping missions in Bosnia and
Kosovo.
o Goal: promote stability and democracy in these regions.
o Impact: sparked debates over the appropriate use of American power
and the extent to which the US should be involved in international
conflicts.
 Continued debates over the appropriate use of American power in
the world: some argued that the US should take a more isolationist
approach and focus on domestic issues, while others argued that the US had
a responsibility to promote democracy and human rights around the world.
o Shaped US foreign policy and played a role in shaping public opinion
on issues such as military interventions and the use of force.

9.4 A CHANGING ECONOMY

Economic productivity increased as improvements in digital communications
enabled increased American participation in worldwide economic opportunities.
 Globalization: process by which technological, economic, political, and
cultural exchanges make the world a more interconnected and
interdependent place.
 Outsourcing: with the rise of digital communications, companies could
easily communicate with and manage their outsourced workers, even at
different parts of the world, which allowed companies to take advantage of
lower labor costs in other countries, which in turn increased their economic
productivity and competitiveness.
 o Companies could outsource everything from customer service to
manufacturing and assembly and US’s many traditional manufacturing
jobs moved overseas.
o Impact: enabled increased American participation in worldwide
economic opportunities.
 Internet: contributed to globalization and global communication by
connecting people all over the globe, e.g., the World Wide Web links billions
of people, providing innumerable opportunities for the exchange of goods,
services, cultural products, knowledge, and ideas.
Technological innovations in computing, digital mobile technology, and the internet
transformed daily life, increased access to information, and led to new social
behaviors and networks.
 Wikipedia (2001), IPOD (2001), Facebook (2004), YouTube (2005), Wikileaks
(2010).
Employment increased in service sectors and decreased in manufacturing, and
union membership declined.
 Increased employment in service sectors: service sectors such as
healthcare and education grew, causing a shift from traditional
manufacturing jobs to service sector jobs.
o Service sector jobs could not be easily automated and required more
human interaction.
o Ex: baby boomer generation aging caused increased demand for
healthcare; more knowledge-based economy led to increased demand
for education.
 Decreased employment in manufacturing: caused by companies moving
production to lower-cost countries, leading to job losses in traditional
manufacturing industries like steel, automotive, and textiles.
 Decline in union membership: attributed to changes in labor laws,
globalization, and the shift away from manufacturing jobs. With fewer
unionized workers, wages and benefits for workers in some industries have
decreased.
o Service jobs tend to be less unionized than manufacturing jobs, in part
because they are often more fragmented and less centralized. This
made it more difficult for unions to organize workers and negotiate
with employers.
Real wages stagnated for the working and middle class amid growing economic
inequality. 由于经济不平等加剧，工人和中产阶级的实际工资停滞不前

 Despite increases in productivity and economic growth, real wages for the
working class and the middle class didn’t increase significantly; economic
inequality also grew, with the wealthiest individuals and corporations seeing
a larger share of the economic gains.
9.5 MIGRATION AND IMMIGRATION IN THE 1990S & 2000S
After 1980, the political, economic, and cultural influences of the American South
and West continued to increase as population shifted to those areas.
 Population growth in the American South and West (Sunbelt Region)
(after 1980): attributed to availability of job opportunities, lower costs of
living, and favorable climate.
 Political: increasingly important in national elections; the Republican Party
has had a strong base of support in the South and parts of the West, while
the Democratic Party has been dominant in urban areas in these regions.
o Elections of Sunbelt presidents: LB Johnson, Nixon, Carter, Reagan,
George W. Bush, Clinton, and George H.W. Bush.
 Economics: became centers of industry and innovation, with many
companies relocating to these regions to take advantage of lower costs and
favorable business climates.
o Impact: job growth and economic development.
 Cultural: exerted a significant influence on American culture, such as in
music, food, and fashion.
International migration from Latin America and Asia increased dramatically. The
new immigrants affected US culture in many ways and supplied the economy with
an important labor force.
 Impact: the languages, customs, and traditions they brought helped to
enrich and diversify the cultural landscape of the country, e.g., the popularity
of foods such as sushi and tacos can be traced back to the influence of Asian
and Latin American immigrants.
o Supply the US economy with a much-needed source of labor: many
worked in industries such as agriculture, construction, and hospitality,
where they performed low-wage and physically demanding jobs.
o Challenge: people expressed concerns about competition for jobs,
strains on social services, and the impact of cultural differences on
social cohesion.

9.6 CHALLENGES OF THE 21ST CENTURY

In the wake of attacks on the World Trade Center and the Pentagon in 2001 (911),
the US launched military efforts against terrorism and lengthy, controversial
conflicts in Afghanistan and Iraq.
 The US government, under President George W. Bush, declared a “War on
Terror” and pursued military actions against groups and individuals it
believed were responsible for the attacks.
o Reflects the continuation of interventionist foreign policies following
the Cold War.
  Invasion of Afghanistan (2001): the US led a coalition of forces in a
military invasion of Afghanistan as a response to the 911 attack with the goal
of overthrowing the Taliban government and destroying Al-Qaeda (who
attacked).
 Invasion of Iraq (2003): sparked widespread debate and criticism.
o The US government claimed that the invasion was necessary to
remove weapons of mass destruction (WMDs) held by the Iraqi
government and promote democracy and stability in the region; but no
WMDs were ultimately found; the conflict in Iraq continued for many
years, resulting in significant human and economic costs.
The war on terrorism sought to improve security within the US but also raised
questions about the protection of civil liberties and human rights.
 War on Terror: launched after the 911 attack, aimed at improving security
and protecting American citizens from terrorism; included increased
surveillance, stricter immigration policies, and the creation of new laws and
agencies to combat terrorism.
 War on Terror raised significant questions about the protection of civil
liberties and human rights:
o Privacy and surveillance: collection of personal data by the
government, law enforcement agencies, and intelligence services
raised concerns about privacy violations and the potential for abuse of
power.
o Racial and religious profiling: increased scrutiny 监视 of Muslim and
Arab communities, with some individuals being subjected to racial and
religious profiling raised concerns about discrimination and
infringement of civil liberties.
o Torture and detainment: use of controversial interrogation
techniques such as waterboarding and the detention of individuals
without trial raised concerns about the protection of human rights and
the rule of law.
o Use of military force in countries such as Afghanistan and Iraq led to
significant loss of life and raised questions about the legality and
morality of the conflicts.
Conflicts in the Middle East and concerns about climate change led to debates over
US dependence on fossil fuels and the impact of economic consumption on the
environment.
 The US dependence on fossil fuels makes the country vulnerable to changes
in global oil prices and supply disruptions due to geopolitical conflicts; climate
change concerns also rose as the burning of fossil fuels can contribute to
greenhouse gas emissions and global warming.
 Debate: some argue that the US should reduce reliance on fossil fuels and
transition to cleaner, renewable sources of energy to mitigate the impact of
climate change; others argue that fossil fuels are still necessary for meeting
the country’s energy needs and supporting economic growth.
 Actions made by the US: invested in renewable energy and implemented
regulations to reduce greenhouse gas emissions.