Reaction Central with Faisal: IBDP Edition
Structure 1. Models of the particulate nature of matter
Topic: Structure 1.1 — The Particulate Nature of Matter: An Introduction Lesson 1
Structure 1.1—Introduction to the particulate nature of matter
1. Distinguish between the properties of elements, compounds and mixtures
Property Element Compound Mixture
A pure substance A combination of two
A pure substance made made of two or more or more substances
Definition
of one type of atom elements chemically not chemically
combined combined
Fixed ratio of different Variable ratio of
Composition Only one kind of atom
atoms components
Can be separated by
Can be broken down
Cannot be broken down physical methods
Separation by chemical methods
by chemical methods (e.g., filtration,
(e.g., electrolysis)
distillation)
Different from the Retains the properties
Properties Unique to each element
elements that form it of its components
No chemical bond
Atoms are chemically
between atoms of the No chemical bonding
Bonding bonded (ionic or
same kind (in between components
covalent)
monoatomic elements)
Melting/Boiling Fixed (for pure Varies, depending on
Fixed
Point elements) composition
Water (H₂O), Carbon
Oxygen (O₂), Iron (Fe), Air, seawater, salad,
Example dioxide (CO₂), Sodium
Helium (He) sand and salt mixture
chloride (NaCl)
2. Separation Techniques
a) Solvation (Dissolution)
• Definition: Process where solute particles are surrounded by solvent molecules to form a
solution.
• Use: Helps dissolve solid substances (like salt or sugar) in a solvent (usually water).
• Example: Salt dissolving in water.
b) Filtration
• Definition: Separates insoluble solids from liquids.
• How it works: A filter paper allows liquid to pass but traps the solid.
• Example: Sand from water.
c) Recrystallization
• Definition: it’s a separation technique that is used to purify solids by dissolving them in
hot solvent and cooling to form crystals.
• Steps:
1. Dissolve the impure solid in a hot solvent.
2. Cool the solution slowly.
3. Pure crystals form; impurities stay in solution.
• Example: Purifying salt or sugar.
d) . Evaporation
• Definition: removing a liquid from a solution, leaving behind the solute.
• Example: Getting salt from salt water by heating.
e) Distillation
It is a separation technique used to separate liquids (or a liquid from a dissolved solid) based
on their different boiling points. It involves heating a mixture, evaporating one component, and
then condensing the vapor back into liquid form.
How it Works:
1. The mixture is heated.
2. The component with the lowest boiling point evaporates first.
3. The vapor is directed into a condenser (cooling tube) where it turns back into liquid.
4. The distillate (collected liquid) is stored separately.
Types of Distillation:
1. Simple Distillation
• Used when: Separating a liquid from a non-volatile solute (like salt), or two liquids with
very different boiling points (difference > 25–30°C).
• Example:
o Separating pure water from salty water.
o Separating alcohol (bp ~78°C) from water (bp 100°C).
2. Fractional Distillation
• Used when: Separating a mixture of liquids with closer boiling points.
• Example: Petroleum refining to obtain different fuels (gasoline, diesel, kerosene).
Key Feature:
• A fractionating column is used between the flask and condenser. This allows better
separation by creating a temperature gradient. Vapors repeatedly condense and re-
evaporate in the column until only the lowest-boiling-point vapor reaches the top
Simple distillation Fractional distillation
f) Paper Chromatography
Paper chromatography is a method used to separate and identify mixtures of colored
substances, such as inks, dyes, or food colorings.
It works based on differences in solubility of a solute in different solvents and its attraction of
substances to the paper.
How does it work?
In this technique, a small spot of the mixture is placed near the bottom of a strip of
chromatography paper, which is then suspended in a suitable solvent. As the solvent moves up
the paper by capillary action, it carries the components of the mixture with it. Substances that
are more soluble in the solvent travel further, while those that are less soluble or more strongly
attracted to the paper stay closer to the starting point. The result is a pattern of separated
spots, each representing a different component.
Rf value (retention factor): It is the ratio of the distance travelled by the solute and the distance
travelled by the solvent in the chromatogram (paper).
Higher Rf value indicates greater solubility of a solute in the given solvent.
Greater difference between the Rf values of different solutes indicates better separations.
Homogeneous and Heterogenous Mixtures
Property Homogeneous Mixture Heterogeneous Mixture
A mixture with uniform A mixture with non-uniform
Definition
composition throughout composition
Looks the same throughout Different parts can be seen (multiple
Appearance
(single phase) phases)
Particle distribution Evenly distributed Unevenly distributed
Separation of Difficult to distinguish or Components can often be separated
components separate by sight by physical methods
Salt water, air, vinegar, alloy Salad, sand in water, oil and water,
Examples
(like brass) cereal in milk
Questions
A. Knowledge and Understanding Questions (Short Answer / MCQ)
1. State the main difference between an element and a compound.
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2. Identify the type of mixture (homogeneous or heterogeneous):
a) Air:_______________________________ b) Sand and water:__________________________________
3. Define the term “solvation.”
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4. Explain which separation technique is most suitable for obtaining pure water from saltwater?
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5. Write the formula for calculating the Rf value in chromatography.
6. What type of bonding is present in compounds?
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7. Which type of distillation is appropriate for separating a mixture of ethanol and water, and
why?
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B. Reasoning and Explanation Questions
1. Explain why the boiling point of a mixture varies while that of a pure substance remains
constant.
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2. Describe how fractional distillation achieves better separation of liquid components than
simple distillation.
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3. Why does a substance with a higher Rf value travel further in paper chromatography?
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4. Recrystallization is used to purify solids. Explain how impurities are removed during this
process.
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5. Compare and contrast filtration and evaporation in terms of their effectiveness in recovering
solids from mixtures.
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C. Higher-Level Thinking / Application
1. A student separates ink from a pen using paper chromatography and obtains overlapping
spots. What could be the reasons for poor separation, and how can the process be improved?
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2. A student suggests using evaporation to obtain drinking water from seawater. Evaluate the
practicality and effectiveness of this method compared to distillation.
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D. Thinking Questions encouraging cross-linking from subject guide
1. What factors are considered in choosing a method to separate the components of a
mixture?
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2. How can the products of a reaction be purified?
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3. How do intermolecular forces influence the type of mixture that forms between two
substances?
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4. Why are alloys generally considered to be mixtures, even though they often contain metallic
bonding?
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Past Paper Questions
HL P1BTZA
1. A student was given a mixture to separate and collect the individual components. The
mixture contained sand, SiO₂(s), sodium chloride, NaCl(s), and iron filings, Fe(s).
(a) Suggest a set of experimental steps required to obtain pure samples of each component of
the mixture. [4]
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2. The following thin-layer chromatogram was obtained from a mixture of naphthalene, C10H8,
and naphthol, C10H8O. A polar silica was used as the stationary phase, and a non-polar hexane
as the mobile phase.
What are the position and retardation factor (R) of naphthalene?
A. y and 0.50 B. y and 0.58 C. x and 0.80 D. x and 0.83
Additional Questions
1. Endomorphin-2 is a peptide with the amino acid sequence shown.
Tyr–Pro–Phe–Phe–NH2
Each amino acid is represented by a three-letter abbreviation.
Tyr = tyrosine Pro = proline Phe = phenylalanine
The student analyses the resulting mixture by paper chromatography
Figure 3 shows the apparatus used for the paper chromatography
Filter Paper
There is a piece of the apparatus missing from Figure 3. This omission will result in an
inaccurate chromatogram.
a) Identify the missing piece of the apparatus. State and explain why this piece of the apparatus
is needed.
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b) State why the amino acids separate in this technique
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When the solvent has risen up the paper, the student removes the paper from the beaker and
sprays it with a developing agent.
c) Name a suitable developing agent and state why the developing agent is needed.
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d) Determine the Rf value for Tyr
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2. A student reacts phenol with nitric acid and sulfuric acid at 100 °C to form impure crystals of
an organic compound, C. The student purifies the crystals by recrystallisation. Describe how the
student could recrystallise the impure crystals to obtain a pure sample of C.
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3. A student set up the following apparatus to separate the components of a liquid mixture by
distillation. The setup is shown below:
The mixture consists of two miscible liquids with different boiling points.
a) Identify the process being carried out in the apparatus.
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b) Name the parts labeled S, T, and U in the diagram.
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T _______________________________________
U ______________________________________
c) Explain the purpose of:
i. The thermometer in this setup.
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ii. The condenser.
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d) One of the liquids in the mixture boils at 78 °C and the other at 100 °C.
i. Which liquid will be collected first? Justify your answer.
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