DESIGN OF STEEL STRUCTURES

CE403

Course Instructor : Dr. Nithin V.L

Loads
● The forces from various sources that act on a structure are called loads.
● The loads acting directly on the structure are called direct actions; examples
being dead loads, live loads, wind loads and snow loads. The intensity of direct
actions is prescribed in the loading standards/codes.
● Loads may also be caused because of actions such as deformations, due to
temperature, settlement, etc. and are known as indirect actions. Effects because
of indirect actions need calculations based on specifications by the codes.
● Loads may also be classified as
○ Permanent Actions - e.g., Dead Loads (self-weight) and Permanent Imposed Loads due to weight
of the construction materials, machinery etc. which do not change with time.
○ Variable Actions - e.g., Live Loads, Moving Loads on bridges (imposed loads), Snow and Wind
loads (environmental loads), Temperature effects and Storage Loading that are not fixed.
○ Accidental Actions - e.g., Earthquakes, Fire, Blast, Explosion, Impact, and action caused by
Foundation Deformation, as a result of change in soil structure with time, which are due to special
causes.
Loads (Contd.)
● Various terms used in regard to loads used in IS 800:2007 are listed below :
○ Working Load The maximum load that a structure or component can support or resist
during normal operation without exceeding its allowable stresses or deformations
(WSD).
○ Service Load The load that a structure is expected to support under normal usage is
termed service load. This is the load that structure or component will be subjected to in
its daily use.
○ Nominal Load The best estimate of the actual load that a member may be called to
support is called nominal load. For design purposes, the nominal loads are the service
loads and should be accounted for according to the applicable code/specifications.
○ Characteristic Load These are the values which statistically have only a small
probability (usually taken as 5%) of being exceeded during the life of the structure. It
may be noted that the basis of selection of the probability is to some extent arbitrary.
Loads (Contd.)
○ Design Load It is the product of characteristic load and partial safety factor (Limit
State Design). Different partial safety factors can be applied depending on the degree
of uncertainty of a particular type of action.
○ Notional Load Structures are subjected to forces because of geometric imperfections
and require rigorous second order analysis. To simplify the analysis process, codes
recommend use of notional loads to account for the secondary effects. The notional
loads therefore may be defined as the horizontal forces added to the structure to
account for the effects of geometric imperfections. These are taken as a part of the
gravity loads as specified by the relevant code of practice.
Loads (Contd.)
● A structure should be designed to safely withstand all loads likely to act on it.
● For designing a structure, expected loads are to be known. The estimation of
these loads can be done on the basis of experience of designer and performance
of the structure, which is a time-taking process.
● To facilitate the designers, standards/codes publish load estimates. For the
purpose of designing any member or a structure, the following loads (actions)
and their effects should be taken into account, where applicable.
○ Dead loads; IS: 875 (Part I)
○ Live loads; IS: 875 (Part II/IV)
○ Wind loads; IS: 875 (Part III)
○ Earthquake loads; IS: 1893
○ Erection loads;
○ Accidental loads such as those due to blast; and
○ Secondary effects due to contraction or expansion resulting from temperature changes, differential
settlement of the structure as a whole or of its components, eccentric connections, rigidity of joints
differing from design specifications.
Limit States
● Limit states are the states beyond which the structure no longer satisfies the
specified performance requirements.

● Therefore, all the relevant limit states should be considered in design, but usually,
it is considered appropriate to design on the basis of strength and stability at the
ultimate loads and then checking for deflection under service loads.

● The limiting conditions are grouped under two headings :

○ Limit States of Strength
○ Limit States of Serviceability
Limit States of Strength
● Limit states of strength are those associated with failures (or imminent failure),
under the action of probable and most unfavorable combination of factored loads,
which may endanger the safety of life and property.
● Limit state of strength, also called ultimate limit state, includes :
○ Loss of equilibrium of the structure as a whole or any of its parts or components.
○ Loss of stability of the structure (including the effect of sway, where appropriate, and
overturning) or any of its parts including supports and foundations.
○ Failure by excessive deformation/formation of mechanism, general yielding, rupture of
the structure or any of its parts or components, or buckling.
○ Fracture due to fatigue which occurs due to repeated fluctuation of loading. Fatigue
cracking can initiate and propagate in the stress concentration areas of the structure.
○ Brittle fracture which occurs below a certain temperature when the ultimate tensile
strength of steel diminishes sharply.
● When the ultimate limit state is reached, the whole structure or any of its part
collapses, making the structure unfit for use.
Limit States of Serviceability
● This limit state is related to the criteria governing normal use of structure.
● Partial safety factor for load of value equal to unity should be used for all loads to
check the adequacy of the structure under serviceability limit states, unless
specified otherwise.
● The serviceability limit states include the following :
○ Deformation and deflections, which may adversely affect the appearance or
effective use of the structure, or may cause improper functioning of
equipment or services, or may cause damages to finishes and non-structural
members.
○ Vibrations in the structure or any of its components causing discomfort to
people, damages to the structure, or its contents which may limit its
functional effectiveness.
○ Repairable damage due to fatigue
○ Corrosion and Durability
○ Ponding of structures
Limit States of Serviceability (Contd.)

As per Cl.5.6.1 of IS 800:2007

Pg.No.31
Probabilistic Basis of Limit State Design
● For a designer, the safety of structure is of prime importance. Safety margins in
the form of factor of safety in working stress design approach and load factors in
plastic design approach are used to ensure safety against the risk of failure.
● The structures designed based on these design philosophies were safe but
lacked scientific justifications regarding the provision of safety margins.
● The main parameters in analysis and design (Loads, Material properties, Section
dimensions, etc.) are random variables. The statistical variation of these design
parameters is usually ignored in conventional practice.
● Magnitude and frequency relationship for both load and strength must be
considered to avoid unrealistic results.
● Any realistic, rational and qualitative representation of safety must be based on
statistical and probabilistic analysis.
● Partial safety factors specified by IS: 800–2007 for the limit state design are
based on probabilistic concepts with some approximations.
Probabilistic Basis of Limit State Design (Contd.)
● The variation of these design parameters
can be usually characterized by some
known probability distribution (Normal,
Gamma, Log-Normal, Beta, etc.).
● The design parameters can be realistically
described by defining statistical
parameters, such as mean (σ) and
standard deviation (μ).
● There are two models :
○ Strength Design Model
○ Serviceability Design Model
Strength Design Model
● Q - R.V representing load effects
● S - R.V representing structure strength
● Load curve (Q) is broad, reflecting the
variability of loading on a building structure.
● Strength curve (S) is narrower due to
greater degree of control over its strength.
● The curves will be such there will be some
overlap present.
● The overlap (shaded area) represents the
probability of failure (pf) of the structure.
● As overlap increases, the probability of failure increases. Thus the structure and
its elements should be designed so that the overlap of the two curves is small.
● Assuming Q & S to vary independently and to have
normal distributions, probability of failure is given by :
Serviceability Design Model
● The serviceability limit state refers to
parameters such as deflection, corrosion,
vibration, etc.
● Let us consider a serviceability parameter Δ
representing deflection. Failure is considered
to occur when the specified limit (maximum
allowable limit of serviceability) Δall is
exceeded. Accordingly, in this case, the
probability of failure pf may be obtained as
follows :

where fΔ(Δ) denotes the pdf of Δ. The probability of failure can be restricted to a
target value, by suitably selecting the safety margin in the design.
Design Criteria for Limit State Method
● A structure should be so proportioned that the probability of its failure is the least.
● For ensuring the design objectives, the structure is designed based on
characteristic values for material strengths and applied loads, which take into
account the variations in the material strengths and the loads.
● The design values are derived, from the characteristic values through the use of
partial safety factors.
● The design criterion in LSM is expressed as

Design Action (Qd) ≤ Design Strength (Sd)

∑𝛾fQck ≤ Su / 𝛾m
Qck - Characteristic Load
Su - Ultimate Strength
𝛾f - Partial safety factor for loads
𝛾m - Partial safety factor for materials
Partial Safety Factors
● The computation of reliability based safety index is a tedious process and requires
lot of efforts. For designers, it is very difficult to use probabilistic method and data.

● IS 800:2007 presents a simple solution by specifying a deterministic approach with

the help of reliability based partial safety factors.
● These factors have been derived to produce designs that provide the required
degree of safety and economy in consistent with target reliability.
● Lesser the value of partial safety factor, more confidence we have on the value of
the parameter (lesser is the variability).

● In limit states design, the limit state of strength employs separate factors for
loading 𝛾f and strength 𝛾m as an attempt to cater for the different amounts of
variability associated with these.
Partial Safety Factors (Contd.)
● Partial safety factor for load 𝛾f considers variability of loading and allows for the
○ Possibility of unfavourable deviation of the load from the characteristic value
○ Possibility of inaccurate assessment of the load,
○ Uncertainty in the assessment of the effects of the load, and
○ Uncertainty in the assessment of the limit states being considered.
● A factor of unity or greater is applied to the loads. However, for some loading
cases the factor may be less than unity due to a reduced possibility of the
combined loads.
● While considering the load combinations, it is customary to specify different partial
safety factors, each of which reflects the degree of confidence in the particular
contributing effect.
● For more deterministic loads, e.g. dead loads, etc., are assigned lower factors
while highly variable loads e.g. wind, earthquake, or live loads are given higher
factors.
Partial Safety Factors (Contd.)
● To estimate the ultimate strength of a structure accurately, a designer must take
into account the uncertainties in material strength, dimensions and workmanship.
● The factor used to account for these uncertainties is called partial safety factor for
material 𝛾m and its application reduces the ultimate strength.
● A factor of unity or less is applied to the resistances of the material.
● Partial safety factor for material 𝛾m takes account of the following :
○ Possibility of unfavourable deviation of material strength from the characteristic value.
Material strength may initially vary appreciably from its assumed value and may further vary
with time due to creep, corrosion and fatigue.
○ Methods of analysis are often subject to appreciable error.
○ Possibility of unfavourable variation of member sizes.
○ Possibility of unfavourable reduction in member strength due to fabrication and tolerances.
This includes reckless handling of steel shapes in shop, forcing of members in position to line
up the bolt holes, etc.
○ Uncertainty in the calculation of strength of the members.
○ Mode of failure (ductile/brittle).
 Partial Safety Factors (Contd.)

Partial Safety Factors for

Loads, 𝛾f

Table 4, Pg.29 in IS 800:2007

 Partial Safety Factors (Contd.)

Partial Safety Factors for Materials, 𝛾m

Table 5, Pg.30 in
IS 800:2007