chapter

11 Complex Inheritance and

Human Heredity
section ●
2 Complex Patterns of Inheritance

Before You Read -!). )DEA

Complex inheritance of traits
Cats can look different from one another because of does not follow the inheritance
differences in their coats. On the lines below, describe patterns described by Mendel.
differences you have seen in the coats of cats. Then read the What You’ll Learn
section to learn more about complex inheritance patterns. ■ the difference between
sex-linked and sex-limited
inheritance
■ how environment can
influence a trait

Read to Learn
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Highlight each question

Incomplete Dominance head. Then highlight the answer
Not all traits follow Mendel’s rules. Some traits are not to the question.
dominant or recessive. Sometimes, the heterozygous organism
has a mixed phenotype. Incomplete dominance occurs when
the heterozygous phenotype is an intermediate phenotype
between the two homozygous phenotypes.
An example of incomplete dominance occurs in snapdragon
flowers. Red-flowered snapdragons (CR CR) can be crossed with
white-flowered snapdragons (CW CW) to produce offspring
with pink flowers (CR CW). When heterozygous F1 generation
snapdragon plants (CR CW) self-fertilize, the offspring have a
1:2:1 ratio of red, pink, and white flowers.

Codominance
1. Define What is
In Mendel’s experiments with pea plants, heterozygous codominance?
pea plants expressed only the dominant allele. Codominance
occurs when a heterozygous organism expresses both alleles.
Sickle-cell anemia is an example of codominance. People who
are heterozygous for the sickle-cell trait have both normal and
sickle-shaped cells.

Reading Essentials Chapter 11 Complex Inheritance and Human Heredity 119

 What happens in sickle-cell disease?
Sickle-cell disease is common in people of African descent.
Sickle-cell disease affects red blood cells and their ability to
transport oxygen. Changes in the protein in red blood cells
cause those red blood cells to change from a normal disc
shape to a sickle or C shape.
Sickle-cell disease is a codominant trait. People who are
2. Describe What effect
does sickle-cell disease heterozygous for the trait make both normal and sickle-shaped
have on red blood cells? cells. The normal cells compensate for the sickle-shaped cells.
How does sickle-cell disease relate to malaria?
Sickle-cell disease is found in areas of Africa where malaria
occurs. Scientists have discovered that people who are
heterozygous for the sickle-cell trait are resistant to malaria.
Because the sickle-cell gene helps people resist malaria, they
are more likely to pass the sickle-cell trait on to their offspring.

Multiple Alleles
So far you have learned about traits that result from a gene
with two alleles. Some traits are controlled by a gene that has
multiple alleles. Blood groups in humans is an example of a
multiple allele trait.
How are blood types produced?

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There are four blood types in people: A, AB, B, or O.
The four types result from the interaction of three different
alleles, as shown below. The allele IA produces blood type A.
IB produces blood type B. The allele i is recessive and produces
blood type O. Type O is the absence of AB alleles. People
with one IA and one IB allele have blood type AB. Blood
types are examples of multiple alleles and codominance.
Rh factors are also in blood. One factor is inherited
from each parent. Rh factors are either positive or negative
(Rh⫹ or Rh⫺); the Rh⫹ is dominant.

Picture This Genotypes Resulting Phenotypes

3. Evaluate What IA IA Type A
phenotype results from a IA i Type A
genotype of IBi? IB IB Type B
IB i Type B
IA IB Type AB
ii Type O

120 Chapter 11 Complex Inheritance and Human Heredity Reading Essentials

 What genes control coat color in rabbits?
The fur color of rabbits is another trait controlled by
multiple alleles. In rabbits, four alleles control coat color: C,
cch, ch, and c. The alleles are dominant in varying degrees. The
hierarchy can be written as C > cch > ch > c.
Allele C is dominant to all other alleles and results in a dark 4. Evaluate What allele is
gray coat color. Allele cch is dominant to ch, and ch is dominant dominant over cch?
to c. Allele c is recessive and results in an albino when the a. ch
b. c
genotype is homozygous recessive.
c. C
Multiple alleles increase the possible number of genotypes
and phenotypes. Two alleles have three possible genotypes
and two possible phenotypes. Four alleles have ten possible
genotypes and can have five or more phenotypes.

Epistasis
Epistasis (ih PIHS tuh sus) occurs when one gene hides the
effects of another gene. Coat color in Labrador retrievers is a
trait controlled by epistasis. Labrador coats vary from yellow
to black. Two different genes control coat color. The
dominant allele E determines whether the coat will have dark
pigment. A dog with genotype ee will not have any pigment.
The dominant allele B determines how dark the pigment will
be. If the genotype is EEbb or Eebb the coat will be chocolate.
Copyright © Glencoe/McGraw-Hill, a division of The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc.

If the genotype is eebb, eeBb, or eeBB the coat will be yellow

because the e allele hides the effects of the dominant B allele.

Sex Determination
Each cell in your body contains 23 pairs of chromosomes.
One pair, the sex chromosomes, determines gender. The other
22 pairs of chromosomes are called autosomes.
There are two types of sex chromosomes—X and Y.
A person’s gender is determined by the sex chromosomes
present in the egg and sperm cell. Females inherit two X
chromosomes. Males inherit one X and one Y chromosome.
5. Identify A person has
Dosage Compensation 22 pairs of autosomes and
two X chromosomes. What
In humans, the X chromosome carries genes needed by is the person’s gender?
males and females. The Y chromosome mainly carries genes
needed to develop male characteristics. Because females have
two X chromosomes and males have only one, body cells
randomly turn off one of the X chromosomes. This is called
dosage compensation or X-inactivation.

Reading Essentials Chapter 11 Complex Inheritance and Human Heredity 121

 How is coat color determined in calico cats?
The coat color of calico cats is controlled by the random
inactivation of X chromosomes. Orange patches are formed
when an X chromosome carrying the allele for black coat
color is turned off. Black patches are formed when an
X chromosome carrying the allele for orange coat color
is turned off.
What are Barr bodies?
Canadian scientist Murray Barr first observed inactivated
X chromosomes, now known as Barr bodies. Barr bodies
appear as dark objects in the cell nuclei of female mammals.

Sex-Linked Traits
6. Draw Conclusions Traits controlled by genes on the X chromosome are called
Why is a recessive sex-linked sex-linked traits or X-linked traits. Males who have only one
trait less likely to occur in X chromosome are affected more than females by recessive
females than in males?
sex-linked traits. Females would not likely express a recessive
sex-linked trait because one X chromosome will mask the
effect of the recessive trait on the other X chromosome.
How is red-green color blindness inherited?
The trait for red-green color blindness is a recessive
sex-linked trait. People who are color blind cannot see the

Copyright © Glencoe/McGraw-Hill, a division of The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc.

colors red and green. About 8 percent of males in the United
States are red-green color blind. Examine the Punnett square
below to see how red-green color blindness is inherited.

Picture This 8" 9

7. Predict Circle the
genotype that represents 8" 8 "8 " 8 "9
8 "  .ORMAL
a color-blind person.
8 B  2ED GREEN COLOR BLIND
9  9 CHROMOSOME

8B 8 "8 B 8 B9

How is hemophilia inherited?

Normally, when a person is cut, the bleeding stops quickly.
Hemophilia is a recessive sex-linked disorder that slows blood
clotting. Hemophilia is more common in males. Until the
discovery of clotting factors in the twentieth century, most
men with hemophilia died at an early age. Safe methods of
treating the disorder now allow for a normal life span.

122 Chapter 11 Complex Inheritance and Human Heredity Reading Essentials

 Polygenic Traits
So far you have learned about traits that are controlled
by one gene with different alleles. Polygenic traits develop
from the interaction of multiple pairs of genes. Many traits in
humans are polygenic, including skin color, height, eye color,
and fingerprint pattern.
8. List an example of a
Environmental Influences polygenic trait.
The environment influences many traits. Factors such as
sunlight, temperature, and water can affect an organism’s
phenotype. For example, the gene that codes for the
production of color pigment in Siamese cats functions only
under cooler conditions. Cooler parts of the cat’s body, such
as the ears, nose, feet, and tail, are darker. The warmer parts of
the body, where pigment production is inhibited, are lighter.
Environmental factors also include an organism’s actions.
Heart disease can be inherited, but diet and exercise also
strongly influence the disease. An organism’s actions are
considered part of the environment because they do not come
from genes.

Twin Studies
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Scientists can learn about inheritance patterns by

studying twins. Twin studies often reveal how genes and the
environment affect phenotype.
Identical twins have identical genes. If a trait is inherited,
both identical twins will have the trait. Scientists presume
that traits that are different in identical twins are strongly
influenced by the environment. The percentage of identical
twins who both have the same trait is called a concordance
rate, as shown in the graph below. The higher the concordance
rate, the stronger the genetic influence.
#ONCORDANCE 2ATES Picture This
 9. Evaluate Circle the trait
#ONCORDANCE

 that shows the strongest

 genetic influence.



!LCOHOLISM !LCOHOLISM !LZHEIMERS "LOOD $EPRESSION 2EADING
IN FEMALES IN MALES DISEASE TYPES DISABILITY
4RAITS
)DENTICAL TWINS &RATERNAL TWINS

Reading Essentials Chapter 11 Complex Inheritance and Human Heredity 123