5 Complex Patterns of Inheritance
WHAT YOU’LL LEARN BEFORE YOU READ
• the difference between sex- Cats can look different from one another because of differences in
linked and sex-limited their coats. On the lines below, describe differences you have seen
inheritance
in the coats of cats. Then read the lesson to learn more about
• how environment can complex inheritance patterns.
influence a trait
FOCUS ⊲ READ TO LEARN
Highlight each question head.
Then highlight the answer Incomplete Dominance
to the question. Not all traits follow Mendel’s rules. Some traits are not
dominant or recessive. Sometimes, the heterozygous organism
has a mixed phenotype. Incomplete dominance occurs when
the heterozygous phenotype is an intermediate phenotype
between the two homozygous phenotypes.
An example of incomplete dominance occurs in snapdragon
flowers. Red-flowered snapdragons (CR CR) can be crossed with
white-flowered snapdragons (CW CW) to produce offspring
with pink flowers (CR CW). When heterozygous F1 generation
snapdragon plants (CR CW) self-fertilize, the offspring have a 1:2:1
ratio of red, pink, and white flowers.
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THINK IT OVER Codominance
1. Define What is In Mendel’s experiments with pea plants, heterozygous pea
codominance? plants expressed only the dominant allele. Codominance occurs
when a heterozygous organism expresses both alleles. Sickle-cell
anemia is an example of codominance. People who are
heterozygous for the sickle-cell trait have both normal and sickle-
shaped cells.
Reading Essentials • Introduction to Genetics and Patterns of Inheritance
126
What happens in sickle-cell disease?
Sickle-cell disease is common in people of African descent.
Sickle-cell disease affects red blood cells and their ability to
transport oxygen. Changes in the protein in red blood cells cause
those red blood cells to change from a normal disc shape to a
sickle or C shape. THINK IT OVER
Sickle-cell disease is a codominant trait. People who are 2. Describe What effect does
heterozygous for the trait make both normal and sickle-shaped sickle-cell disease have on
red blood cells?
cells. The normal cells compensate for the sickle-shaped cells.
How does sickle-cell disease relate to malaria?
Sickle-cell disease is found in areas of Africa where malaria
occurs. Scientists have discovered that people who are
heterozygous for the sickle-cell trait are resistant to malaria.
Because the sickle-cell gene helps people resist malaria, they are
more likely to pass the sickle-cell trait on to their offspring.
Get It?
3. Explain how the genetic
Multiple Alleles traits carried on multiple
So far you have learned about traits that result from a gene with alleles can lead to a wide
range of characteristics in
two alleles. Some traits are controlled by a gene that has multiple humans.
alleles. Blood groups in humans is an example of a multiple
allele trait.
How are blood types produced?
There are four blood types in people: A, AB, B, or O.
The four types result from the interaction of three different
alleles, as shown below. The allele IA produces blood type A.
IB produces blood type B. The allele i is recessive and produces
blood type O. Type O is the absence of AB alleles. People with
one IA and one IB allele have blood type AB. Blood types are
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examples of multiple alleles and codominance.
Rh factors are also in blood. One factor is inherited from each
parent. Rh factors are either positive or negative (Rh+ or Rh−); the
Rh+ is dominant.
Genotypes Resulting Phenotypes TAKE A LOOK
4. Evaluate What phenotype
IAIA Type A
IAi Type A results from a genotype
IBIB Type B of IBi?
IBi Type B
IAIB Type AB
ii Type O
Reading Essentials • Introduction to Genetics and Patterns of Inheritance
127
What genes control coat color in rabbits?
The fur color of rabbits is another trait controlled by multiple
alleles. In rabbits, four alleles control coat color: C, cch, ch, and c.
THINK IT OVER The alleles are dominant in varying degrees. The hierarchy can
5. Evaluate What allele is be written as C > cch > ch > c.
dominant over cch?
Allele C is dominant to all other alleles and results in a dark
a. ch
gray coat color. Allele cch is dominant to ch, and ch is dominant
b. c
to c. Allele c is recessive and results in an albino when the
c. C
genotype is homozygous recessive.
Multiple alleles increase the possible number of genotypes and
phenotypes. Two alleles have three possible genotypes and two
possible phenotypes. Four alleles have ten possible genotypes and
can have five or more phenotypes.
Epistasis
Epistasis (ih PIHS tuh sus) occurs when one allele hides the
effects of another allele. Coat color in Labrador retrievers is a trait
controlled by epistasis. Labrador coats vary from yellow to black.
Two different genes control coat color. The dominant allele E
determines whether the coat will have dark pigment. A dog with
genotype ee will not have any pigment. The dominant allele B
determines how dark the pigment will be. If the genotype is EEbb
or Eebb the coat will be chocolate. If the genotype is eebb, eeBb,
or eeBB the coat will be yellow because the e allele hides the
effects of the dominant B allele.
THINK IT OVER
6. Identify A person has 22 Dosage Compensation
pairs of autosomes and two There are two types of sex chromosomes—X and Y. A person’s
X chromosomes. What is
gender is determined by the sex chromosomes present in the egg
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the person’s gender?
and sperm cell. Females inherit two X chromosomes. Males
inherit one X and one Y chromosome.
In humans, the X chromosome carries genes needed by males
and females. The Y chromosome mainly carries genes needed
to develop male characteristics. Does this mean that females get a
double dose of the X chromosome? No, because in females, one
of the X chromosomes in every body cell stops working. This is
called dosage compensation or X-inactivation.
Reading Essentials • Introduction to Genetics and Patterns of Inheritance
128
How is coat color determined in calico cats? Get It?
The coat color of calico cats is controlled by the random 7. Summarize dosage
compensation and its
inactivation of X chromosomes. Orange patches are formed effects.
when an X chromosome carrying the allele for black coat color
is turned off. Black patches are formed when an X chromosome
carrying the allele for orange coat color is turned off.
What are Barr bodies?
Canadian scientist Murray Barr first observed inactivated
X chromosomes, now known as Barr bodies. Barr bodies appear
as dark objects in the cell nuclei of female mammals.
Sex-Linked Traits
Traits controlled by genes on the X chromosome are called
sex-linked traits or X-linked traits. Males have only one
X chromosome, so they are affected more than females by THINK IT OVER
recessive sex-linked traits. Females are less likely to express 8. Draw Conclusions Why is
a recessive sex-linked trait
a recessive sex-linked trait because one X chromosome may mask less likely to occur in
the effect of the recessive trait on the other X chromosome. females than in males?
How is red-green color blindness inherited?
The trait for red-green color blindness is a recessive
sex-linked trait. People who are color blind cannot see the colors
red and green. About 8 percent of males
XB = in Normal
the United States are
red-green color blind. Examine the Punnett square below
X = Red-green
b to see
color blind
how red-green color blindness is inherited.
Y = Y chromosome
XB Y
XB = XB XBXB X BY TAKE A LOOK
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Normal
Xb = Red-green color blind 9. Predict Circle the genotype
Y = Y chromosome that represents a color-blind
person.
XB Y Xb XBXb X bY
XB XBXB X BY
How is hemophilia inherited?
Normally, when a person is cut, the bleeding stops quickly.
Hemophilia
Xb XisBX
a recessive
b
Xbsex-linked
Y disorder that slows blood
clotting. Hemophilia is more common in males. Until the
discovery of clotting factors in the twentieth century, most men
with hemophilia died at an early age. Safe methods of treating the
disorder now allow for a normal life span.
Reading Essentials • Introduction to Genetics and Patterns of Inheritance
129
Polygenic Traits
So far you have learned about traits that are controlled by one
gene with different alleles. Polygenic traits develop from the
interaction of multiple pairs of genes. Many traits in humans are
polygenic, including skin color, height, eye color, and fingerprint
THINK IT OVER pattern.
10. List an example of a
polygenic trait.
Environmental Influences
The environment influences many traits. Factors such
as sunlight, temperature, and water can affect an organism’s
phenotype. For example, the gene that codes for the production
of color pigment in Siamese cats functions only under cooler
conditions. Cooler parts of the cat’s body, such as the ears, nose,
feet, and tail, are darker. The warmer parts of the body, where
pigment production is inhibited, are lighter.
Environmental factors also include an organism’s actions.
Heart disease can be inherited, but diet and exercise also strongly
influence the disease. An organism’s actions are considered part
of the environment because they do not come from genes.
Twin Studies
Scientists can learn about inheritance patterns by studying
twins. Twin studies often reveal how genes and the environment
affect phenotype.
Identical twins have identical genes. If a trait is inherited, both
identical twins will have the trait. Scientists presume that traits
that are different in identical twins are strongly influenced by the
environment. The percentage of identical twins who both have
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the same trait is called a concordance rate, as shown in the graph
below. The higher the concordance rate, the stronger the genetic
influence.
TAKE A LOOK
11. Evaluate Circle the trait Concordance Rates
that shows the strongest Identical twins Fraternal twins
genetic influence. 100%
Concordance
80%
60%
40%
20%
0%
Alcoholism Alcoholism Alzheimer’s Blood Depression Reading
in females in males disease types disability
Traits
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130
