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 CONTENTS

 Page
Introduction V

1 Learning Unit 1: Life and Living 1

1.1 The Scientific Method 1
1.2 Atoms, Molecules and Life 6
1.3 Cell Structure and Function 11
1.4 Tissues, Organs and Systems 16
1.5 Energy in Cells 27

2 Learning Unit 2: Diversity of Life 31

2.1 Plant and Animal biodiversity 31
2.2 Plant physiology 37
2.3 Evolution and Fossils 40
References 44

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 INTRODUCTION

The overall teaching policy of the University of South Africa makes provision
for an outcomes-based, learning-centred, active flexi-learning environment.
This implies that learners are expected to participate actively in the learning
activities. The significance of this course is that it develops knowledge, skills
and attitudes which can empower the teacher to teach Natural Sciences in
Grades 7-9 in line with the Curriculum and Assessment Policy Statement for
Natural Sciences. For maximum benefit, this learning guide must be used
together with the Curriculum and Assessment Policy Statement for Natural
Sciences. A number of links to freely available online videos are also provided.

The contents of this learning guide were adapted and compiled from the
Open Source lecture materials provided for the above textbook.

While much content is provided, a constructivist approach to learning is

followed in this course. The learner should participate in all learning activities
as indicated in the tutorial letters that accompany this study guide. To complete
the process of learning, the learner needs to put in a daily individual study effort.
This requires reading the relevant parts in the study guide, making summaries,
drawing mind-maps and doing relevant activities to become familiar with new
concepts and relationships between concepts. Furthermore, it is important
that the learner should enter into conversations with the lecturer and fellow
learners in order to learn by communicating his understanding.

It is compulsory for learners to do all learning activities and assignments

reflected in this study guide.

Purpose statement
The module focuses on the development of pedagogical content knowledge
and skills related to the Knowledge Strand “Life and Living” as part of the Senior
Phase in Natural Science Education. It specifically deals with how to teach and
assess the Curriculum and Assessment Policy Statement (CAPS) more effectively
by using an appropriate range of strategies and technologies to enhance learner
engagement in diverse contexts. This focus will add value to both Bachelor’s
in Education (B.Ed.) and Advanced Certificate in Teaching (ACT) graduates
whose previous studies will have focused much more on the development of
the teachers’ subject content knowledge in cognate disciplinary fields. The
module will require learners to mediate their subject content knowledge with
the focus on “Life and Living”. The module is one of the core modules of the
Advanced Diploma in Education in Natural Science Education.

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Learning Unit
1 1

1 Life and Living

1.1 THE SCIENTIFIC METHOD

AFTER HAVING STUDIED THIS UNIT, YOU SHOULD BE ABLE TO:

• Discuss with confidence the process of the Scientific method/Scientific Process

and clarify what is meant by the science process skills,
• Identify each step that is followed in the Scientific method,
• Explain each step that is followed in the Scientific method through which knowledge
is developed, and,
• Apply the Scientific method in different scenarios.

1 Ac tivit y 1.1
Have you ever wondered how traditional healers discover their medicines?
And how about western medical doctors? How do they discover their
medicines?

Do a bit of research and write a two-page report on how traditional healers

and western medical doctors discover their medicines. Pay particular
attention to the PROCESS they follow in order to discover new medicines.

Use the following links as a guide:

– https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=BVfI1wat2y8
– https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=Z_yiUf3f92s
– https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=nVQU1EmoWoU

In its purpose to understand the universe, science often follows a specific

method called the Scientific Method or Scientific Process. When conducting
research, scientists use the scientific method to collect measurable, empirical
evidence in an experiment related to a hypothesis (often in the form of an if/
then statement), the results aiming to support or contradict a theory.

This method follows a number of steps through which knowledge is developed.

The steps of the scientific method include:

• Making an observation or observations.
• Asking questions about the observations and gather information.
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• Forming a hypothesis, that is, a tentative description of what’s been observed,

and make predictions based on that hypothesis.
• Testing the hypothesis and predictions in an experiment that can be
reproduced.
• Analysing the data and draw conclusions; accept or reject the hypothesis
or modify the hypothesis if necessary.
• Reproducing the experiment until there are no discrepancies between
observations and theory. Replication of methods and results is an important
step in the scientific method. The reproducibility of published experiments
is the foundation of science. No reproducibility – no science.

Figure 1.1 is an illustration of these steps in a specific sequence.

FIGURE 1.1
Scientific method sequence

a. Observation
In Figure 1.1, the first step of the scientific process is making an observation. This
means, before scientists can do any form of scientific investigation, they must
be stimulated by something they observed.The observations lead to questions:
what is this, how does it work, why does it work the way it does? This may
necessitate further observations to be made.

Let us use a practical example to illustrate what this means. Let us say you have
your own horticulture business growing potatoes. You notice (Observation)
that some potatoes plants produce more and bigger potatoes than others and
you wonder why. Because of this personal experience, financial loss and
interest in the problem, you decide to learn more about what makes tubers
like potatoes grow. You decide to read up on topics that you believe could
provide answers to your question. You also visit other people’s gardens and
discuss gardening practices with fellow horticulturists.

The purpose of this stage in a scientific method is to help you state the problem
in a single question as per your observation for instance: Does earthing up
of potatoes using a heap of soil affect the size and quantity of the potatoes
growing in the soil?
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b. Hypothesis
Scientists may have an idea or ‘educated’ but untested response to the question.
For example, in the above example a scientist may predict that adequate
earthing with soil results in bigger and more potatoes per plant. This ‘educated
guess’ is called an hypothesis. The questions are then asked in a form that
suggests a possible explanation (hypothesis) for the observations. Scientists try
to come up with all possible explanations and pit them against each other’s
as alternative hypotheses. Using the available knowledge and understanding
of the related phenomena, the scientist makes a best guess at which of the
alternative hypotheses is most likely to be correct.

With reference to the potato example, the following hypothesis maybe stated:

Earthed potatoes grow bigger and more potatoes per plant than potatoes
on a flat soil surface.

This hypothesis is based on the readings, observations and discussions.

From step 1 where you found that:

• Potato stem need to be earthed by a heap of soil so that more potatoes may
grow along the stem and grow in size since there will be enough depth to
expand in.
• Growing Potatoes have to be covered from the sun otherwise they become
exposed to sunlight they will produce toxins and become inedible.

c. Experiment
Thereafter the researcher will do the actual investigation where he/she tests
the hypothesis experimentally. The experiment is the most important step of
the scientific method. It’s the logical process that lets scientists learn about
the world.

Experiments are designed in such a way that one or more hypotheses are tested.
This means that the experiment is geared specifically towards rejecting one’s
favoured hypothesis: it is directly testing if that hypothesis is wrong. If the
results are positive, the favoured hypothesis is not rejected, but the alternative
hypotheses may be rejected. If the results are negative, the favoured hypothesis
is rejected and one or more of the alternative hypotheses are accepted and
further directly tested.

Often, two experiments are conducted at the same time. In one experiment,
all the variables are kept constant except one, while the other experiment is
called the control experiment, and in that experiment, that variable is left
unaltered. The results of the two experiments are compared to each other
using statistical methods to determine if the tested variable (the one not kept
constant) indeed has an effect on the outcome.

It must be noted that in any experiment, there are things or factors which may be
manipulated by the researcher to see what will happen on other factors. These
factors are called variables. For example, the researcher in the above example
may alter the amount of soil around the stem. This means, one variable (e.g.
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amount of soil) may affect another variable (i.e. size and amount of potatoes).
The variable which is deliberately manipulated by the researcher is called
an independent variable. The variable that is affected by another variable is
called a dependent variable. A controlled variable is the factor that must be
controlled or kept constant so that it does not interfere with the experiment
like the amount of light in this case.

d. Conclusion
The final step in the scientific method is to draw a conclusion from the results
of the experiment. The conclusion is a summary of the results of the experiment
and a statement of how those results match up to your hypothesis. You have
two options for your conclusions. Based on your results, you can either reject
the hypothesis, or you can state that your results support the hypothesis. This is
an important point. You cannot prove the hypothesis with a single experiment,
because there is a chance that you have made an error somewhere along the
line or that other factors affected the results.

Remember that sometimes the hypothesis cannot be accepted i.e. when

the hypothesis does not provide the answer to the problem. This does not
mean that the experiment was a waste of time. It merely indicates that you
have eliminated a possible cause or link in connection with the problem you
are researching and that you need to do more research, formulate a new
hypothesis and prediction and set up a different experiment based on the
new hypothesis and prediction.
If the original hypothesis didn’t match up with the final results of your
experiment, try to explain what might have been wrong with your original
hypothesis. What information did you not have originally that caused you
to be wrong in your prediction? What are the reasons that the hypothesis
and experimental results didn’t match up?

As more and more studies are done and the hypothesis gets stronger and
stronger (as all possible alternatives get rejected), it grows in its predictive power
and it may also grow in its ability to explain a broader range of phenomena.
Once a hypothesis reaches the stage at which it is supported with large amounts
of evidence after repeated testing, it becomes a theory.

A theory is a body of interconnected concepts most strongly supported by

scientific reasoning and experimental evidence. It is a scientific term that is
used to denote the scientific concepts that have stood the test of time and are
best supported by experimental evidence. The strongest theories are those that
are supported by a wide variety of kinds of evidence. Theory of evolution is
one of the best supported theories of all science not only because it is backed
up by mountains of evidence (and no evidence against it), but also because
the evidence comes from many different areas of science: palaeontology
(fossils), biogeography, ecology, mathematical modeling, population and
quantitative genetics, comparative genomics, medicine, agricultural breeding,
study of animal behaviour, comparative anatomy, comparative physiology
and comparative embryology.

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A famous example of the scientific method in action was back in 1854:

There was an outbreak of cholera in Soho in London in 1854. It was not known
how cholera spread, or that it was due to dirty water. A doctor named John
Snow used a scientific method to try and stop the cholera. He plotted all the
cholera outbreaks on the map of London. He then made some observations
and proposed a hypothesis, which he then tested.

First observation: He noticed that most of the cholera outbreaks were near a
water pump in Broadwick Street; he also observed that cholera affected the
digestive tract (victims’ of diarrhoea and died).

Second observation: He interviewed the people who lived on the street

(collected data) and discovered that all the cholera victims had drunk from
the pump. He also discovered that visitors to Broadwick Street who had drunk
from the pump died. People nearby who drank beer instead of water did not
get cholera. He then blocked off the pump by removing the handle

INDIGENOUS KNOWLEDGE SYSTEMS (IKS)

Indigenous knowledge systems (IKS) comprises knowledge developed within
indigenous societies (Govender, 2012 & Masoga, 2005), independent of,
and prior to, the advent of the modern scientific knowledge system (MSKS).
Examples of IKS such as Ayurveda from India and Acupuncture from China
are well known. IK covers diverse areas of importance for society, spanning
issues concerned with the quality of life–from agriculture and water to health.

According to the World Health Organisation, a large majority of the African

population make use of traditional medicines for health, social-cultural and
economic reasons. In Africa, up to 80% of the population uses traditional
medicine for primary healthcare.

In South Africa specifically, studies have shown traditional medicine to play

an important role in the management of certain ailments, while at the same
time the sale of traditional and indigenous products has beneficial effects on
poverty reduction and employment creation (Galloway-McLean, 2017). It is
also recognised that indigenous knowledge systems are a resource that provides
a firm foundation for sustainable and environmentally sound approaches to
agriculture, in particular, and natural resource management in general.

IKS IN THE EDUCATION CONTEXT

The inclusion of IKS in a formal education setting was explored during the
survey and the majority of people agreed that IKS should be included at
various educational levels. Just more than half (53%) of respondents agreed
that children do learn to respect IKS practices at school. The majority of
respondents wanted: the department of education to include IKS in the school
curriculum (76%); traditional healers to receive formal qualifications for their
skills (65%); indigenous skills to be offered at vocational training institutes
(73%); and universities to offer degrees in IKS (69%).

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When asked about traditional agriculture and traditional and medicinal plants,
seven in ten people agreed (71%) that traditional agriculture plays an important
role in providing livelihoods for South Africans, two-thirds (67%) agreed that
traditional agriculture plays an important role in reducing poverty and 74%
agreed that traditional medicinal plants can lead to great medical discoveries.

(1) Please watch the video linked below published by North West University
(NWU). It is a short documentary on Indigenous Knowledge System.
https://youtu.be/hrA3_MpsA2Q

(2) Please watch video linked below published by the SABC, it highlights the
Indigenous Knowledge System Expo.
https://youtu.be/fUq1UpP9HHk

(3) Please watch video linked below published by TEDx Talk, Bothlale Tema
speaks on Indigenous Knowledge Systems.
https://youtu.be/uKbMujjk1WU

1.2 ATOMS, MOLECULES AND LIFE

AFTER HAVING STUDIED THIS UNIT, YOU SHOULD BE ABLE TO:

• Explain what atoms are,

• Identify the parts of atoms and their characteristics,
• Explain how atoms join together to form molecules using typical examples of
molecules like water molecules,
• Identify the different type of bonds between atoms as they form molecules, and,
• Discuss with confidence the water molecules structure and its importance in life.

2 Ac tivit y 1. 2.1
South Africa is one of the world’s leading producers of gold, diamond and
platinum. But what is gold? What is diamond? What is platinum? What
makes these different from one another? On these questions and then
answer the following questions:

(a) What is matter?

(b) What is matter made up of?
(c) What is the difference between an atom and a molecule?
(d) What is a periodic table?
(e) What is the difference between Oxygen, Carbon and Hydrogen?
(f) Why is gold heavier than Oxygen?
(g) What is life?
Having answered the above question, now let us explore the related
concepts below.

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Life is a complex system, which needs a lot of support on earth in order to

prevail. Current scientific evidence shows that earth is the only planet in our
solar system capable of supporting life as we know it. This implies that there
is something unique about earth, the question is what is that?

a. Matter
Before discussing the complexity of life in detail, let us first consider matter.
Matter refers to any physical substance that occupies space and has a mass.
But then, what is matter made up of?

• Atoms
Matter is made up of atoms. An atom is the basic building blocks of matter.
Atoms can join together to form molecules, which in turn form most of the
objects found in the universe.

FIGURE 2.1
A basic structure of an atom

As you can see in figure 2.1 above, atoms are composed of particles called
protons, electrons and neutrons (Fig 2.1). Protons have a positive electrical
charge while electrons carry a negative electrical charge. Neutrons on the
other hand have no electrical charge, which means, they are neutral. Protons
and neutrons tend to cluster together in the central part of the atom, called the
nucleus, and the electrons ‘orbit’ the nucleus on electron shells also known as
orbitals. A particular atom will have the same number of protons and electrons
and most atoms have at least as many neutrons as protons.

Electrons have a mass and therefore are regarded as particles of matter.

Furthermore, when subjected to energy, electrons will absorb some of that
energy and become energised or “excited”. Consequently, electrons are also
regarded as units of energy. Since electrons spend 90% of their time on electron
shells, when they are excited they tend to move from one electron shell to
another, away from the nucleus. If they lose energy, electrons will move from
one electron shell to another towards the nucleus.

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An atom of Hydrogen is composed of one proton, one electron and no neutrons.

An atom of Helium is made up of two protons, two neutrons and two electrons.
Carbon is composed of six protons, six neutrons and six electrons. Heavier
chemical elements, such as iron, lead and uranium, contain even larger numbers
of protons, neutrons and electrons. A chemical element is a pure chemical
substance made up of only one type of atom, which has a specific atomic
number. Common elements include carbon, oxygen, hydrogen and nitrogen.

• Molecules
Atoms have an atomic number and an atomic mass. The atomic number is
the number of protons that an atom has. Each element has a unique atomic
number, which means each atom has a unique number of protons. The atomic
mass or atomic weight is the number of protons and neutrons in an atom.
Atoms of an element that have differing numbers of neutrons (but a constant
atomic number) are termed isotopes.

For example, Hydrogen has three isotopes, all three have 1 proton each (see
Figure 2.2) below. In Figure 3, protons are shown with a letter ‘p’. However,
hydrogen can have zero neutrons (neutrons are shown with the letter ‘n’), one
neutron or two neutrons.

FIGURE 2.2
Isotopes of hydrogen

Another example Carbon has two isotopes, namely, carbon-12 and carbon-14.
Both of these have 6 protons. Carbon-12 however has 6 neutrons while
Carbon-14 has 8.

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1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18
H He

2,1
Li Be B C N O F Ne

1,0 1,5 2,0 2,5 3,0 3,5 4,0

Na Mg Al Si P S Cl Ar

0,9 1,2 1,5 1,8 2,1 2,5 3,0

K Ca Sc Ti V Cr Mn Fe Co Ni Cu Zn Ga Ge As Se Br Kr

0,8 1,0 1,3 1,5 1,6 1,6 1,5 1,8 1,8 1,8 1,9 1,6 1,6 1,8 2,0 2,4 2,8
Rb Sr Y Zr Nb Mo Tc Ru Rh Pd Ag Cd In Sn Sb Te I Xe

0,8 1,0 1,2 1,4 1,6 1,8 1,9 2,2 2,2 2,2 1,9 1,7 1,7 1,8 1,9 2,1 2,5
Cs Ba La Hf Ta W Re Os Ir Pt Au Hg Tl Pb Bi Po At Rn

0,7 0,9 1,1 1,3 1,5 1,7 1,9 2,2 2,2 2,2 2,4 1,9 1,8 1,8 1,9 2,0 2,2

FIGURE 2.3
The periodic table of elements

The periodic table as shown in Figure 2.3 above displays chemical elements,
organized on the basis of their properties. Elements of the periodic table
are presented in increasing atomic number. Each row on the periodic table
is referred to as a group, while each column is known as a period. Periods
and groups consist of elements with similar properties. These elements are
then given a specific name to describe them, such as the halogens and the
noble gases. The periodic table can therefore be used to describe and predict
chemical behaviour of elements.

Atoms that are found in biological systems tend to gain or lose their outer
electrons to achieve a Noble Gas outer electron shell configuration of two or
eight electrons. When atoms gain or lose electrons they form chemical bonds.
A chemical bond is an attraction between atoms that allows the formation of
chemical substances that contain two or more atoms. For example, water is
formed by the interaction between two atoms of hydrogen and one of oxygen
(as shown in Figure 2.4). Likewise, carbon dioxide is a result of an interaction
between one carbon atom and two oxygen atoms. Electrons must either gain
or lose energy for a chemical bond to be formed.

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FIGURE 2.4
A water molecule

There are at least three types of bonds as listed below:

• A hydrogen bond is a partially electrostatic attraction between

a hydrogen (H) which is bound to a more electronegative atom such
as nitrogen (N), oxygen(O), or fluorine (F), and another adjacent atom
bearing a lone pair of electrons.
• Ionic bonds are formed by passing an electron from one atom to another.
This means one partner becomes positive, the other negative, and they attract
one another. For example, Na+ (sodium) + Cl– (chlorine) becomes NaCl
(sodium chloride). Positively or negatively charged atoms are called ions.
• Covalent bonds are bonds between two atoms that share electrons in their
outer electron shell. For instance, a Hydrogen atom can share its electron
with another H atom, forming H2 gas. Covalent bonds produce either non-
polar or polar molecules. In a non-polar molecule, atoms equally share
electrons that spend equal time around each atom, producing a non-polar
covalent bond.

• Compounds
When two or more elements are joined together through chemical bonds,
they become a compound. For example, a water molecule which is made up
of an oxygen element and two hydrogen elements is a compound.

There are two types of compounds that are found in nature, namely,
organic compounds and inorganic compounds. Organic compounds have
a carbon element and usually occur from materials that were once alive.
Inorganic compounds on the other hand do not have a carbon element and are
not derived from living material. Compared, organic compounds are usually
large non-polar molecules that do not dissolve readily in water.

In some cases, variable proportions of molecules and atoms come together

to form mixtures. Mixtures are therefore heterogeneous forms of matter.
Compounds on the other hand are homogeneous forms of matter with their
constituent elements (atoms and/or ions) always present in fixed proportions.

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• pH
The amount of each element in a mixture or element can be measured. For
example, the amount (or concentration) of the hydrogen ion (H+) is measured
using pH. The pH therefore is a measure of the hydrogen ion concentration.
The pH scale ranges from 0 to 14 where 7 is neutral. If the pH value of a
solution (i.e. a mixture) is below 7, that solution is regarded as acidic. If the
pH is above 7, the solution is basic or alkaline.

• From atoms to the universe

Everything that is regarded as matter and has atoms, such as, a tree, a computer,
the air we breathe, the planet and the distant stars are all made up atoms which
are joined together to form molecules and compounds with different atoms.
Therefore, the entire universe can be regarded as a system where things and
events occur in consistent patterns that can be scientifically studied. The
word system has a technical meaning, namely, it is the portion of the physical
universe chosen for analysis. Everything outside the system is known as the
environment, which in analysis is ignored except for its effects on the system.
Therefore, since scientists have not been able to determine the environment
beyond our universe system, there is no agreement between scientists whether
the universe is an open as well as a closed system.

3 Ac tivit y 1. 2. 2
Based on what you have read above, define the following terms:

(1) Atom
(2) Chemical bond
(3) Compound
(4) Covalent bond
(5) Element
(6) Hydrogen bond
(7) Inorganic compound
(8) Ionic bond
(9) Matter
(10) Organic compound
(11) Periodic table
(12) pH

1.3 CELL STRUCTURE AND FUNCTION

AFTER HAVING STUDIED THIS UNIT, YOU SHOULD BE ABLE TO:

• Describe the types of cells,

• State and explain the differences between the types of cells,
• State the functions of each of the cell organelles, and,
• Justify why the cell is the basic unit of life.
• Describe the structure of the cell membrane,

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• Relate the structure to function of each part of the membrane,

• State the functions of the cell membrane, and
• State and explain the transport mechanisms across the cell membrane.

4 Ac tivit y 1. 3.1
In the previous section we read about atoms, molecules and compounds
which are the building blocks of matter. In this section we deal with cells,
which are the building blocks of living things. Cells of plants are different
from cells of animals with respect to some organelles. Before reading the
following section, try and answer the following questions.

(1) Draw a table of comparison and elaborate on the differences and

similarities between the plant and the animal cell
(2) Relate the structure to the function of each organelle
(3) The environment plays an important role on cells (and therefore on
organisms as well). In order to enhance the understanding of this role;
consider the following.
(4) One of the most feared warfare around the world is nuclear warfare,
which is fought using the famous weapons of mass destruction.
Similarly, in 2011 Japan suffered an earthquake and Tsunami that
threatened its citizens through nuclear radiation. However, what
exactly does nuclear radiation do?
(5) If a cell’s DNA is mutated by radiation, will such a mutation be passed
on to subsequent generations?

A cell is the basic unit of life. All living things are made up of one or more cells.
Cells vary in structure, size and shape depending on the organism. There are
two types of cells, namely prokaryotic and eukaryotic cells. Cells are a site for
many functions (called metabolism) that are necessary to keep the body alive.

a. Prokaryotic cells
Prokaryotic cells (e.g. Figure 3.1) have no nucleus. A nucleus is the organelle
that contains the cell’s genetic material and is surrounded by a membrane.
Prokaryotes are almost always single-celled microscopic organisms like bacteria.
Their DNA is found in a single circular chromosome. A chromosome is a
thread-like structure of genetic materials found in the nucleus of most living
cells. Prokaryotes usually have an outer cell wall.

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FIGURE 3.1
Prokaryotic cell

b. The Eukaryotic cell

Eukaryotic cells include plant cells and animal cells (see Figure 3.2). These
cells have a nucleus and may be single celled or multicellular. They contain
their DNA inside the nucleus, have linear chromosomes, contain organelles,
are larger cells than prokaryotes. Metabolic processes are regulated by various
proteins called enzymes which have specific functions in the cell. These
functions include for example, extraction of energy from nutrients and synthesis
of proteins. This is made possible by the structural components of the cell
called organelles. Organelles include:

• Nucleus, which contains DNA.

• Mitochondria, which is responsible for the extraction of energy from
carbohydrates.
• Endoplasmic reticulum, which is the site for the synthesis of proteins and
lipids.
• Cell membrane, which acts as a gatekeeper, regulating the passage of
molecules into and out of the cell.

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FIGURE 3.2
Eukaryotic cell: Animal and Plant cells

c. The cell membrane

A cell membrane is the outer semipermeable membrane surrounding the
cytoplasm of a cell. Semipermeable means the membrane allows certain
substances to pass through it but not others, The cell membrane is responsible
for:

• Defining the cell’s border.

• Controlling what moves into and out of the cell.
• Regulating and facilitating communication between cells.

The cell membrane consists of a phospholipid bilayer, membrane proteins,

and short carbohydrates. A phospholipid bilayer refers to the two layers of
phosphates and lipids that make up the membrane.

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FIGURE 3.3
Fluid mosaic model

The fluid mosaic model describes the structure of the cell membrane. A mosaic
of proteins and phospholipids, almost all of which can move fluidly around
the membrane.

Transport mechanisms across the membrane:

Cells take in many materials, including water, oxygen, and organic molecules,
and discard wastes such as carbon dioxide. Transport occurs through the
following processes:

• Diffusion – the spread of molecules or particles from a region of high

concentration to a region of low concentration.
• Facilitated diffusion – is the diffusion of molecules through specific
transmembrane proteins.
• Active transport–the movement of ions or molecules across a cell membrane
into a region of higher concentration, assisted by enzymes and requiring
energy.
• Endocytosis–the taking in of matter by a living cell by invagination of its
membrane to form a vacuole.
• Exocytosis–a process by which the contents of a cell vacuole are released to
the exterior through fusion of the vacuole membrane with the cell membrane.

5 Ac tivit y 1. 3. 2
Return to Activity 1.3.1 and answer the questions based on your reading
of the above section.

Also, answer the following questions:

(a) Differentiate between diffusion and facilitated diffusion.

(b) What is the difference between endocytosis and exocytosis?

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1.4 TISSUES, ORGANS AND SYSTEMS

HUMAN BODY SYSTEMS

AFTER HAVING STUDIED THIS UNIT, YOU SHOULD BE ABLE TO:

• Describe the relationship between cells, tissues, organs and organ systems
• Define the different types of tissues
• Describe the different organ systems

6 Ac tivit y 1.4.1
In the current section we explore in detail characteristics of humans which
are part of chordates.

There are many careers related to the human body and health. Do a little
bit of research to determine the different careers related to human body
health and the specific areas of function that each one deals with. For
example, Cardiologists deal with the heart, Neurologists deal with neurons
and the central nervous system etc. Now write down a list of different
health care practitioners and scientists that deal with human health and
indicate their area of specialization.

Earlier we learnt about cells. Cells give rise to tissues and tissues give rise to
organs. Tissues are groups of cells that work together to do a job in the body.
They are a group of cells having the same origin, structure and function. The
cells look the same or almost the same. The work the cells in a tissue do is
the same or almost the same.

The four main kinds of tissues are:

• Connective tissue
This is the tissue that connects, supports, binds, or separates other tissues
or organs, typically having relatively few cells embedded in an amorphous
matrix, often with collagen or other fibres, and including cartilaginous, fatty,
and elastic tissues.

• Muscle tissue
Muscle tissue varies with function and location in the body. In mammals,
the three types are, skeletal or striated muscle; smooth or non-striated
muscle; and cardiac muscle, which is sometimes known as semi-
striated. Smooth and cardiac muscle contracts involuntarily, without
conscious intervention.

• Nerve tissue
Nervous tissue or nerve tissue is the main tissue component of the two parts
of the nervous system; the brain and spinal cord of the central nervous system
(CNS), and the branching peripheral nerves of the peripheral nervous system
(PNS), which regulates and controls bodily functions and activity.
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• Epithelial tissue
Epithelial tissues line the outer surfaces of organs and blood vessels
throughout the body, as well as the inner surfaces of cavities in many internal
organs. An example is the epidermis, the outermost layer of the skin. There
are three principal shapes of epithelial cell, namely, squamous, columnar,
and cuboidal.

Organs are made up of more than one kind of tissue. The heart is an organ.
It is made up of different tissues. It has muscle tissue called myocardium.
It has connective tissue on the inside (endocardium), and on the outside
(pericardium). The heart has valves that make sure the blood goes the right
way through the heart. So, the heart is an organ made from several tissues.

The body systems work together to keep an organism alive. Each of these
systems is made up of organs with specific functions. The structure of these
organs and the cells of which they are made make them well suited to their
function. An important function of the body systems is to supply the cells with
energy and nutrients, and to remove wastes that are produced. From early
times, the study of anatomy has added to knowledge about the human body.

a. Blood Circulation and Respiration

Remember earlier we learnt about cellular respiration. We said cells use oxygen
and energy to break down glucose and release water, carbon dioxide and
more energy! In humans, the circulatory system and the respiratory system
are responsible for the transportation of water, oxygen and nutrients such as
glucose to the cells.

The circulatory and respiratory systems work together to provide cells with
oxygen which is essential for cellular respiration. This process involves the
breaking down of glucose so that energy is released in a form that cells can
then use. As can be seen in the cellular respiration equation below, carbon
dioxide is produced as a waste product. The carbon dioxide then needs to be
removed from the cells or it would cause damage or death to them.

When one breathes in, a mixture of gases is actually taken in (of which about 21
per cent is oxygen) from the air. The air moves down the trachea (or windpipe),
then down into one of two narrower tubes called bronchi (bronchus), then into
smaller branching tubes called bronchioles which end in tiny air sacs called
alveoli (alveolus) in which gaseous exchange will take place. In an alveolus,
oxygen diffuses into the blood and carbon dioxide diffuses out of the blood.

The circulatory system is responsible for transporting oxygen and nutrients

to the body’s cells, and wastes such as carbon dioxide away from them. This
involves blood cells that are transported in the blood vessels and heart. The
three major types of blood vessels are arteries, which transport blood from
the heart, capillaries, in which materials are exchanged with cells, and veins,
which transport blood back to the heart.

Oxygenated blood travels from the lungs via the pulmonary vein to the left
atrium of the heart (see Figure 7.1 below). From here, it travels to the left
ventricle where it is pumped under high pressure to the body through a large
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artery called the aorta. The arteries transport the oxygenated blood to smaller
vessels called arterioles and finally to capillaries through which oxygen finally
diffuses into body cells for use in cellular respiration as shown below.

FIGURE 7.1
Illustration of the path of oxygen for, the lungs to body cells

When oxygen has diffused into the cell and the waste product of cellular
respiration, carbon dioxide, has diffused out of the cell into the capillary, the
blood in the capillary is referred to as deoxygenated blood. This waste-carrying
blood is transported via capillaries to venules (small veins) to large veins called
vena cava, then to the right atrium of the heart. From here it travels to the
right ventricle where it is pumped to the lungs through the pulmonary artery,
so called because it is associated with the lungs. The pulmonary artery is the
only artery that does not contain oxygenated blood.

b. Nutrition, Digestion, Excretion

Nutrients are substances needed for energy, cell functioning and for the body’s
growth and repair. The five main groups of nutrients that the body needs to
stay alive are:

• carbohydrates
• proteins
• lipids
• vitamins
• minerals

All of the above-mentioned nutrients except minerals are called organic

nutrients because they contain carbon, hydrogen and oxygen. Carbohydrates
and lipids are nutrients that provide an immediate source of energy and a
back-up supply. While proteins can supply some energy, their key role is as
bodybuilding compounds.

They provide the raw materials required for cell growth and the repair of
damaged and worn-out tissues. They are also involved in many other activities
in the body; important chemicals such as enzymes and hormones are made
of protein. Although vitamins have no energy value, they are needed in small
amounts to keep the body healthy and to speed up a variety of chemical
reactions in the body.

Food is ingested, digested and then egested. The whole process of digestion
starts with taking food into the mouth. Enzymes (such as amylases) in the saliva

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are secreted by the salivary glands begin the process of chemical digestion
of some of the carbohydrates. The teeth physically break down the food in
a process called mechanical digestion, then the tongue rolls the food into a
slimy, slippery ball-shape called a bolus. The bolus is then pushed through
the esophagus by muscular contractions known as peristalsis. From here it is
transported to the stomach for temporary storage and further digestion. Once
the food gets from the stomach to the small intestine, more enzymes (including
amylases, proteases and lipases) turn it into molecules that can be absorbed
into the body. The absorption of these nutrient molecules occurs through finger-
shaped villi in the small intestine. Villi are shaped like fingers to maximize
surface area to increase the efficiency of nutrients being absorbed into the
surrounding capillaries. Once absorbed into the capillaries (of the circulatory
system) these nutrients are transported to cells in the body need them.

The undigested food moves from the small intestine to the colon of the large
intestine. It is here that water and any other required essential nutrients
still remaining in the food mass may be absorbed into the body. Vitamin D
manufactured by bacteria living within this part of the digestive system is also
absorbed. Any undigested food, such as the cellulose cell walls of plants (which
we refer to as fibre) also accumulate here and add bulk to the undigested food
mass. The rectum is the final part of the large intestine and it is where faeces
is stored before being excreted through the anus as waste.

Liver
The liver is an extremely important organ with many key roles. One of these
is the production of bile which is transported to the gall bladder via the bile
ducts to be stored until it is needed. Bile is transported from the gall bladder
to the small intestine where it is involved in the mechanical digestion of lipids
such as fats and oils.

Pancreas
Enzymes such as lipases, amylases and proteases (which break down lipids,
carbohydrates and proteins respectively) are made by the pancreas and secreted
into the small intestine to chemically digest these components of food material.

c. Excretory systems
Excretion is any process that gets rid of unwanted products or waste from the
body. The main organs involved in human excretion are the skin, lungs, liver
and kidneys. The skin excretes salts and water as sweat and the lungs excrete
carbon dioxide (produced by cellular respiration) when breathing out. The
liver is involved in breaking down toxins for excretion and the kidneys are
involved in excreting the unused waste products of chemical reactions (e.g.
urea) and any other chemicals that may be in excess (including water) so that
a balance within our blood is maintained.

The Liver as an excretory organ

The liver removes fats and oils from the blood and modifies them before they
are sent to the body’s fat deposits for storage. It also help get rid of excess
protein, which can form toxic compounds dangerous to the body. The liver
converts these waste products of protein reactions into urea, which travels

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in the blood to the kidneys for excretion. It also changes other dangerous or
poisonous substances so that they are no longer harmful to the body. The liver
is an organ that one cannot live without.

Kidneys
Kidneys (see Figure 7.2) filter the blood, removing wastes. They also controls
the retention or excretion of ions and water.

FIGURE 7.2
An illustration of kidneys and the nephron

Cells constantly release wastes, such as co2, & urea, as they perform their
metabolic functions. The waste products are released into the blood stream &
they circulate around the body. Accumulation of waste products in the body
can poison it and can lead to death.
The excretory system, which consists of the kidneys and tubules:
• gets rid of waste products from the blood stream
• controls the retention & excretion of irons & water

The entire blood supply moves through the kidneys 16 time per day About
1.4 liters of urine is produced in every day.

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The functional unit of the kidney is the nephron. Our kidneys contain about
one million nephrons. Fluids enters the nephron through a cup-shaped structure
called the bowman’s capsule. The bowman’s capsule contains a mass of
capillaries called glomerulus. The rest of the nephron consists of a long-
folded tube comprising the proximal convoluted tubule, loop of Henle, distal
convoluted tubule and the collecting duct. The entire nephron is covered by
a network of capillaries. What enters the nephron is similar to blood plasma,
and what exits it is urine via the ureter to the bladder for temporary storage
until it is released.

Lungs as excretory organs

Did you know that your body is more sensitive to changes in levels of carbon
dioxide than oxygen? If there is too much carbon dioxide in your body, it
dissolves in the liquid part of blood and forms an acid. The resulting acidic
blood can affect the functioning of your body. Through the alveolus gaseous
exchange explained in 2.9.1, the carbon dioxide is eliminated from the body
and exhaled.

d. The Immune Response

The immune system consists of two parts:

• Innate immunity—nonspecific—works against a wide variety of pathogens

• Acquired immunity—specific—cells recognize certain very specific features
of pathogens

The immune systems consists of many tissues and organs, including:

Bone marrow—produces all immune cells (“white” blood cells), Thymus,

Lymphatic system, Spleen and skin as shown in Figure 7.3 below.

FIGURE 7.3
An illustration of the body parts that produce immune cells

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The innate immune system relies on:

• The skin (tough outer layer, shedding of cells, acidic secretions from hair
follicles)
• Saliva, tears, sweat, milk
• Mucous membranes
• Response from innate immune cells and
• Inflammatory response which occurs when damaged tissues release
histamines, which increase blood flow to the site, cause capillaries to leak,
and attract innate immune cells.

Acquired Immunity:
Immunity obtained either from the development of antibodies in response to
exposure to an antigen, as from vaccination or an attack of an infectious disease,
or from the transmission of antibodies, as from mother to foetus through the
placenta or the injection of antiserum.

Each cell in the acquired immune system has receptors which respond to a
single antigen on a specific pathogen.

Antigens are parts of a foreign proteins.

The acquired immune response is much slower than the innate immune
response. It takes about 3 to 5 days to reach full force. It also stores a memory
of the attacked pathogens. The memory allows subsequent responses to the
same pathogen to be faster & more aggressive.

There are two types of acquired immune cells (T cells and B cells)

(1) B cells target pathogens in bodily fluids.

(2) T cells target pathogens that are inside the body cells.

B cells:
B cells divide making several clones which release antibodies. Antibodies
circulate around the body and bind to specific antigens on specific pathogens.
The binding either prevents the pathogen from functioning or it may cause
pathogens to clump together. The clumping together of pathogens makes it
easier for other immune cells to attack & destroy the pathogens. Some of the
cloned B-cells remain in the body and become memory cells for a long time
to protect it from similar infections/attacks in the future.

T cells:
Some proteins of pathogens are displayed on its surface (cell membrane).
When a pathogen infects a cell, a type of T cell called helper T cells bind to
the antigens of the displayed pathogen proteins.
This binding makes the helper T-cell to divide and produce clones (copies).
The helper T-cell clones stimulate and initiate a variety of immune activities,
such as:
Production of B cells & killer T cells clones which destroy the pathogens
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Binding of Helper T cells to infected body cells and kill them.

Production of suppressor T cells (by T cells) which stop the production of
B-cells and killer T-cells after an infection.

Diseases of the immune system

• The cells of the immune system can easily distinguish body cells from
foreign (pathogen) cells.
• In certain cases, however, the immune system fails to identify the body
cells and attacks them as foreign cells.
• This situation leads to conditions called auto-immune disease.
(1) Type I diabetes –destruction of insulin producing cells
(2) Multiple sclerosis – destruction of myelin sheath around neurones
(3) AIDS – the destruction of immune cells (especially T cells) by a virus
(HIV)
– The destruction of T cells leads to a weakened immune system
which cannot fight off infections.

e. The Endocrine and CNS

Within the body, the nervous and endocrine systems play key roles in the
coordination and control of the body systems. These systems also work
together to keep the cells functioning, and they also provide a balanced internal
environment that is essential to their survival

The endocrine system plays an important role in homeostasis (The control

of body materials to maintain a stable internal body environment) because
hormones regulate the activity of body cells. Hormones are produced in one
place in the body, released into the bloodstream and received by target cells
elsewhere. The release of hormones into the blood is controlled by a stimulus.
For example, the stimulus either causes an increase or a decrease in the amount
of hormone secreted.

Endocrine organs include:

• Hypothalamus
• Anterior and posterior pituitary glands
• Thyroid
• Parathyroid
• Adrenal glands
• Pancreas
• Ovaries
• Testes
• Pineal gland

The nervous system is responsible for collecting information from the body’s
internal and external environments & for controlling body activities.

The nervous system has two main parts namely; the central nervous system
and the peripheral nervous system.
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(1) The central nervous system include the brain and the spinal cord
• It receives information from different parts of the body, processes it, and
sends out instructions on how to respond to the information received.
(2) The peripheral nervous system consists of all the nerves in the body.
• Carry information from the sense organs around the body & sends it
to the central nervous system & carries instructions from the central
nervous system to body parts that require the information for action.
Two cell types play an important role in transmission of information/impulses:

• Neurons—receive and transmit messages as electrical impulses

• Glial cells—support, protect, and insulate neurons

A typical neuron consists of extensions called dendrites, a cell body, and an

axon. The dendrites receive information from other neurons or cells (see Figure
7.4). The axon transmits information.

FIGURE 7.4
A neuron

Depending on the origin and destination of their messages, neurons are divided
into three categories:

• Sensory neurons carry messages from the senses to the central nervous
system.
• Interneurons, found only in the central nervous system, connect neurons
to each other.
• Motor neurons carry messages from the central nervous system to the rest
of the body.

There are two types of motor neurons:

Somatic nervous system: controls voluntary actions
Autonomic nervous system: controls involuntary muscles and other internal
organs

NB: The brain has a very important role in the control and coordination of
other body systems. It is also involved in coordinating both the nervous system
and the endocrine system. The brain needs to be ‘fed’ and ‘watered’. Other
body systems work together to provide cells in the brain with what they need
and what they don’t.
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f. The reproductive system

The reproductive system consist of the Female and the Male reproductive
system (see Figure 7.5).

The female reproductive system

• The female reproductive system consists of: ovaries, oviducts (fallopian
tubes), uterus, cervix, vagina .
• Ovaries contain follicles in which eggs develop.
• Once every month, a follicle matures, raptures & releases an egg in a
process called ovulation.
• Following ovulation, the egg travels down the oviduct towards the uterus.
• Fertilization takes place in the oviduct.
• At the point of fertilization, the egg is in the middle of meiosis II.
• Meiosis is only completed after fertilization.
• The fertilized egg continues its way to the uterus
• If the egg is not fertilized, it degenerates on its arrival into the uterus & it
is expelled to the outside during menstruation.

The male reproductive system

• The male reproductive system consists of testis, penis, vas deferens,
epididymis and urethra.
• Sperms are made in the testis which are located in the scrotum.
• The scrotums hang outside the body to keep them at a temperature which
is lower than that of the body for efficient sperm production.
• Sperms produced in the testis move to the epididymis where they complete
development and become mobile.
• A sperm has a head which contains DNA, mitochondria, enzymes for
penetrating the egg and a tail for swimming.
• During sexual intercourse, sperms travel along the vas deferens & are
ejaculated from the urethra in a fluid called semen.
• Semen contains fluids from the seminal vesicle & prostate gland.
• The fluid nourishes & protects the sperm from the harsh acidic environment
of the vagina.
• There are normally about half a billion sperms in each ejaculate.

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FIGURE 7.5
The male and female reproductive systems

g. Sexual reproduction
• Sexual reproduction begins with the production of gametes (eggs & sperms)
during meiosis.
• At fertilisation, an egg & a sperm join to form a diploid cell which later
divides to form an embryo.
• Eggs are produced in the female reproductive organs called ovaries
• Egg cells are large with lots of stored nutrients
• Sperms are produced in the male reproductive organs called testis
• Sperm cells are small & mobile
• Development begins with the fertilisation of an egg by a sperm.
• An egg travelling along the oviduct is surrounded by a thin layer called
zona pellucida.
• Once released into the vagina, sperms swim into the uterus and up to the
oviducts to the egg
• When sperm reach the zona pellucida, enzymes produced from the sperms’
head eat away through the zona pellucida layer
• When the sperm reaches the egg’s cell membrane, the membranes of the
egg & and the sperm fuse to form one cell, the zygote–a process called
fertilization.

h. Development
• Once a sperm has fused with the egg, the zona pellucida becomes
impenetrable to other sperms.
• When several sperms fertilize an egg, conception does not take place.
• After fertilisation the cell begins to divide by mitosis.
• By the time implantation takes place in the uterus – 6 days after fertilisation
– the developing cell has become a ball of cells with a cavity – blastocyst
• Part of the blastocyst develops into the embryo, while the rest develop into
structures that nourish the embryo.
• The embryo is surrounded by a fluid filled membrane called the amnion

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26
 • The placenta provides oxygen & nutrients to the embryo & carries away
wastes
• The maternal & embryonic blood are never in direct contact, but come
close enough to allow the exchange of nutrients, wastes & oxygen
• The placenta also produces the sex hormones oestrogens and progesterone
• These hormones prevent menstruation during pregnancy & maintain the
uterus in a nurturing condition

By the end of the first trimester – first three months, all the parts of the embryo
have developed.

1.5 ENERGY IN CELLS

AFTER HAVING STUDIED THIS UNIT, YOU SHOULD BE ABLE TO:

• Describe the biological processes that require energy,

• Describe the process of photosynthesis,
• Describe the process of cellular respiration, and,
• Explain the interdependence between the two processes.

7 Ac tivit y 1. 5.1
In the previous section we dealt with the structure of the cell. In the current
section we will deal with how cells generate energy.

Before we start. You may be aware that South Africa is currently exploring
various ways of generating alternative fuels. This is because coal-based
energy has proven to be harmful to the environment. Coal is used to
produce electricity in various mines in South Africa. By definition, coal is
dark brown rock which is made up of highly energized carbonized plant
matter. But why does coal have energy? Do a bit of research to determine:

(a) Why does coal have energy?

(b) How do plants generate energy?
(c) How is food converted to energy?
Having done he above, proceed to read the section below to get a better
understanding of how cells generate energy.

At any moment, countless chemical reactions are occurring in cells. These

reactions sustain life by enabling cells to carry out essential functions as
building macromolecules, transporting molecules across membranes and
dividing. The important question in all this is: What determines exactly which
chemical reactions occur? In cells, usable energy is found in molecules called
Adenosine Triphosphate (also called as ATP). ATP is the energy currency of the
cell. In the ATP reaction as shown in Figure 4.1 below, one phosphate group
is removed, leaving ADP (also known as Adenosine Diphosphate). Removing
the phosphate group releases energy. This released energy is then used by the
cell to perform various cellular functions. Cells also use some of this energy
to make more ATP.
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FIGURE 4.1
The process where ATP is converted to ATP to release energy

ADP is eventually turned back into ATP through the addition of a phosphate
group during cellular respiration.

1.5.1 Photosynthesis
Photosynthesis is defined as the process by which green plants and some
other organisms use energy from the sun to synthesize energy rich glucose
from carbon dioxide and water. Scientifically we say photosynthesis is the
process where organisms use radiant energy from the sun to combine carbon
dioxide and water to produce energy rich glucose and oxygen as shown in
Figure 4.2 below.

FIGURE 4.2
Showing the chemical process of photosynthesis
Photosynthesis takes place in the organelle called the chloroplast. It occurs in
two stages: the light-dependent reactions and the light-independent reactions.

Light-dependent reaction
• Light-dependent: converts radiant energy into chemical energy; produces
ATP molecules to be used to fuel light-independent reaction Energy lost
along electron transport chain
• Lost energy used to recharge ATP from ADP
• NADPH produced from e- transport chain
• Stores energy until transfer to stroma
• Plays important role in light-independent reaction
• Total byproducts: ATP, NADP, O2
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Light-independent reaction
• Light-independent: uses ATP produced to make simple sugars.
• Does not require light
• Calvin Cycle
• Occurs in stroma of chloroplast
• Requires CO2
• Uses ATP and NADPH as fuel to run
• Makes glucose sugar from CO2 and Hydrogen

1.5.2 Cellular Respiration

Cellular respiration is defined as the process by which organisms extract
chemical energy from glucose. Scientifically we say cellular respiration is
the process where organisms break down glucose in the presence of oxygen
in order to release energy, carbon dioxide and water. Cellular respiration is
opposite of photosynthesis as shown in Figure 4.3 below.

FIGURE 4.3
Demonstrating the cellular respiration and photosynthesis.

Photosynthesis takes place in the organelle called the mitochondria. It occurs

in three stages: glycolysis, Krebs’s cycle and Electron transport chain.

Glucose

Krebs Electron
Cycle transport

Fermentation Alcohol or
(without oxygen) Lactic acid

FIGURE 4.4
Cellular respiration

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a. Glycolysis
The word glycolysis means the spiting of glucose.

Glycolysis:
• Is a ten-step process that occurs in the cytoplasm
• Converts each molecule of glucose to two molecules of pyruvic acid (a
3-carbon molecule)
• an anaerobic process - proceeds whether or not O2 is present ; O2 is
not required
• Produces 2 ATP per glucose molecule
• Produces of 2 NADH per glucose (NADH is nicotine adenine dinucleotide,
a co-enzyme that serves as a carrier for H+ ions liberated as glucose is
oxidized).
b. Krebs Cycle
• occurs in the inner mitochondrial matrix
• the acetyl group detaches from the co-enzyme A and enters the reaction
cycle
• an aerobic process; will proceed only in the presence of O2
• net yield of 2 ATP per glucose molecule (per 2 acetyl CoA)
• net yield of 6 NADH and 2 FADH2 (FAD serves the same purpose as NAD)
• in this stage of cellular respiration, the oxidation of glucose to CO2 is completed

c. Electron Transport Chain

• consists of a series of enzymes on the inner mitochondrial membrane
• electrons are released from NADH and from FADH2 and as they are passed
along the series of enzymes, they give up energy which is used to fuel a process
called chemiosmosis by which H+ions are actively transported across the
inner mitochondrial membrane into the outer mitochondrial compartment.
The H+ ions then flow back through special pores in the membrane, a
process that is thought to drive the process of ATP synthesis.
• net yield of 34 ATP per glucose molecule
• 6 H2O are formed when the electrons unite with O2* at the end of electron
transport chain. [* Note: This is the function of oxygen in living organisms!]

At this stage you may be wondering why photosynthesis and cellular respiration
and its processes are important. They are important because, both of them
ensure that cells have energy. Without photosynthesis, there would be no energy
rich glucose. Without cellular respiration, the energy in glucose would not
be released for use. Cellular respiration provides energy for living organisms.
So, cellular respiration is important because it provides the energy for living
organisms to perform all of the other necessary functions to maintain life.

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Learning Unit
2 2

2 Diversity of Life

2.1 PLANT AND ANIMAL BIODIVERSITY

AFTER HAVING STUDIED THIS UNIT, YOU SHOULD BE ABLE TO:

– Classify Living Things into the Three Domains of Life: Bacteria Archaea and Eukarya
– Describe the characteristics of:
• Protists
• Plants - Mosses, Ferns, Seed Plants
• Fungi
• Animals: Sponges, Cnidarians, Flatworms, Roundworms, Arthropods Mollusks,
Annelids, Echinoderms, Chordates

8 Ac tivit y 2.1.1
In the previous section we read about cells, which and energy. We said a
cell is the basic unit of life. In the current section we explore life in detail.
Specifically, we look at how diverse life is.

DID YOU KNOW:

South Africa has more species of wild animals than Europe and Asia
put together! This is because South Africa’s climate produces conducive
conditions for diversity of life to thrive. But how many different species
does South Africa actually have; and why is this important?

Do a bit of research about Biodiversity in South Africa. Use the following

links as your resources:

– http://www.exploresouthafrica.net/geography/biodiversity.htm
– https://www.brandsouthafrica.com/tourism-south-africa/geography/
biodiversity
– http://orcafoundation.com/wp-content/uploads/2011/10/Can-
Biodiversity-Play-a-Role-in-the-Future-of-South-Africa.pdf

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The word “biodiversity” refers to the variety of plant and animal life in the
world or in a particular habitat. High levels of biodiversity, as is the case in
South Africa, are considered to be important and desirable.

Generally, animals and plants are taken into consideration as living organisms.
However, these are not the only living organisms. There are many others,
including Bacteria, Fungi (e.g. mushrooms and bread mould) and protists (such
as amoeba and algae). Some of these organisms are unicellular (which means
they are made up of only one cell) yet some are multicellular (meaning they
are made up of many cells).

Biologists classify organisms into a hierarchy of groups and subgroups on the

basis of similarities and differences in their structure and behavior. One of the
most general distinctions among organisms is between plants, which get their
energy directly from sunlight, and animals, which consume the energy-rich
foods initially synthesized by plants.

Multicellular organisms, such as animals and plants, have a great variety of

body plans, with different overall structures and arrangements of internal parts
to perform the basic operations of making or finding food, deriving energy and
materials from it, synthesizing new materials, and reproducing. When scientists
classify organisms, they consider details of anatomy to be more relevant than
behavior or general appearance. For example, because of such features as
milk-producing glands and brain structure, whales and bats are classified as
being more nearly alike than are whales and fish or bats and birds. At different
degrees of relatedness, dogs are classified with fish as having backbones, with
cows as having hair, and with cats as being meat eaters.

For sexually reproducing organisms, a species comprises all organisms that can
mate with one another to produce fertile offspring. The definition of species
is not precise, however; at the boundaries it may be difficult to decide on the
exact classification of a particular organism. Indeed, classification systems
are not part of nature. Rather, they are frameworks created by biologists for
describing the vast diversity of organisms, suggesting relationships among
living things, and framing research questions.

The variety of the earth’s life forms is apparent not only from the study of
anatomical and behavioral similarities and differences among organisms but
also from the study of similarities and differences among their molecules. The
most complex molecules built up in living organisms are chains of smaller
molecules. The various kinds of small molecules are much the same in all life
forms, but the specific sequences of components that make up the very complex
molecules are characteristic of a given species.

Living things can be classified into three domains of life, namely, Bacteria,
Archaea and Eukarya. Each of these is discussed below.

a. Domain Prokarya: Monera kingdom (bacteria)

Domain Prokarya includes all prokaryotes (see Section 3 above). These
organisms are unicellular and have no true nucleus. They include bacteria.
Some bacteria are autotrophs which means they can photosynthesize. Others
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are heterotrophs which means they cannot photosynthesize. Most bacteria are
single celled, but others live in clusters called colonies. Bacteria reproduce
asexually by dividing, but most occasionally exchange some genetic material.
Bacteria vary in shape, and some have flagella for locomotion.

Important functions of bacteria from a human’s point of view:

• They break down organic matter, releasing carbon for photosynthesis.
• They help make nitrogen available to living things.
• Some produce vitamins in the bodies of humans.
• Some prevent harmful bacteria from infecting our bodies.
• Some are essential for making cheese, yogurt, and some drugs.

b. Domain Archaea
Archaea are not bacteria. They are a distinct domain of prokaryotic organisms.
Similar to bacteria in size and simplicity but different in molecular organization.

Some archaea are “extremophiles” that thrive in harsh, salty, or very hot
environments. Others are chemoautotrophs that make food using chemical
energy from molecules such as hydrogen sulfide.

Archaea were initially classified as bacteria, receiving the name archaebacteria,

but this classification is outdated. Archaeal cells have unique properties
separating them from the other two domains of life, Bacteria and Eukarya.
The Archaea are further divided into multiple recognized phyla. Classification
is difficult because the majority have not been isolated in the laboratory and
have only been detected by analysis of their nucleic acids in samples from
their environment.

c. Domain Eukarya
Eukarya are eukaryotes which have a true nucleus (see Section 3). Eukarya is
divided into four kingdoms:
• Protista
• Fungi
• Plantae
• Animalia

a. Kingdom Protista
Protista are eukaryotic organisms that have cells with nuclei but are not
an animal, plant or fungus. Protista do not form a natural group, or colony
They are composed of organisms which are unicellular or unicellular-colonial
and which form no tissues. They may reproduce through asexual or sexual
means, be autotrophs or heterotrophs.

Protista are diverse. They include organisms such as:

• Seaweeds
• Diatoms
• Amoebas
• Disease-causing organisms such as Plasmodium, which causes malaria
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FIGURE 5.1
An amoeba

b. Kingdom Fungi
Fungi are more closely related to animals than to plants. They are heterotrophs.
Fungi may be single celled or multicellular and may reproduce sexually or
asexually. They include moulds, yeasts, mildew rusts and mushrooms. Fungi
are structurally, are divided into 2 groups

• Unicellular e.g. yeast

• Multicellular e.g. mushrooms

You may wonder, how are fungi important. They are important because:

• Many fungi are decomposers which means they play a crucial role in
terrestrial ecosystems; they decompose dead organic matter and make
nutrients available for plant.
• They convert organic compounds to obtain energy and produce various
by-products e.g. yeast cells convert sugar into CO2 and alcohol during
fermentation.
• Mushrooms are food sources for many animals.
• Some are used in biotechnology in the clean-up of chemicals such oil.
• They form symbiotic relationship with plants.

NB: Some are pathogenic causing diseases such as candidiasis (thrush) and
athletes’ foot.

c. Kingdom Plantae
Plants are autotrophic, multicellular, terrestrial eukaryotes that obtain energy
through photosynthesis. Over time, plants have adapted which allows them
to thrive in the terrestrial world. Plant adaptations include:

• Roots
• Leaves
• Vascular system

Plant reproduction occurs through alternation of generations.

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The plant life cycle alternates between a haploid stage (gametophyte) and a
diploid stage (sporophyte). Haploid means the nucleus of the cells has a single
set of unpaired chromosomes. Diploid means the nucleus of the cell has two
sets of paired chromosomes. The details vary by type of plant. The details of
this life cycle vary among the three major groups of plants, i.e.:

• Mosses
• Ferns
• Seed plants

(i) Mosses (Bryophytes)

Mosses are small, seedless plants with no vascular system. Every part of the
moss has to absorb water directly via diffusion.

(ii) Ferns (Pteridophytes)

Ferns are seedless plants with feathery leaves. Most live in moist, shady habitats.

Unlike mosses, ferns have a vascular system for transporting water and nutrients.
Ferns are similar to mosses in that their sperm swim through the environment
to fertilize eggs.

(iii) Seed Plants

Seed plants have two key features that make them successful in many habitats:

• Pollen—immature male gametophytes that can be transported to female

gametophytes by wind or animals
• Seeds—embryonic plants that are encased in a tough outer coating with a
food supply. Flowering plants surround their seeds with a fruit.
The two major types of seed plants are flowering plants (angiosperms) and
conifers (gymnosperms).

d. Kingdom Animalia
Animals are multicellular, heterotrophic eukaryotes that obtain nutrients by
eating other organisms.

Most reproduce sexually and are diploid during most of their life cycle. The
gametes (also called sex cells, i.e. sperm and egg) are the haploid stage of the
life cycle. The kingdom is further divided into smaller evolutionary groups as
shown in Figure 5.2 below:

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FIGURE 5.2
Showing the different divisions of the Kingdom Animalia

(i) Phylum: Porifera (sponges)

Sponges have the following characteristics:
• They are strictly aquatic animals.
• They have no organs.
• They are sessile and sedentary animals.
• They feed by filtering food from the water.
• Sponges are bisexual and fertilization is internal.

(ii) Phylum: Cnidaria

Cnidaria have the following characteristics:
• They are mostly aquatic, marine animals.
• Their bodies have two openings known as the polyp and the medusa.
• Most of them are carnivorous and others are filter feeders
• They reproduce sexually and asexually.
• Some have stinging cells, e.g. jelly fish.

(iii) Phylum: Platyhelminthes

Platyhelminthes are also known as flatworms. They have the following
characteristics:
• They have to anus.
• They have a mouth and protonephridia excretory organs instead of an anus.
• They reproduce sexually, and they are hermaphroditic.
• They are parasitic to a range of animals such as dogs, pigs including humans.
Cause Schistosomiasis.

(iv) Phylum: Annelida

Annelids have the following characteristics:
• They have segmented bodies.
• They have hair-like structures called chitae.
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• They have a closed circulatory system.

• They feed on a wide range of material found in their environment.
• Their mode of reproduction is sexual or asexual.
(v) Phylum: Arthropoda
Arthropods have the following characteristics:
• They have an exoskeleton made up of chitin.
• They can feed on anything they can kill or have an appetite for.
• Sexual dimorphism is observed in this phylum. They have different sexes.
(vi) Phylum: Chordata
Chordates have the following characteristics:
• They generally reproduce sexually.
• They can be carnivores, herbivores and omnivores
• Early chordates were filter feeders.
• All chordates have, at some point in their life history: A brain and spinal
cord, A notochord that supports the back, Gill slits, A tail
• Some of these features are not apparent in adults. Human embryos do go
through a tailed stage.
• The major group consists of vertebrates.

2.2 PLANT PHYSIOLOGY

AFTER HAVING STUDIED THIS UNIT, YOU SHOULD BE ABLE TO:

• Define vascular and non-vascular plants

• Describe the function of vascular tissues
• Describe the life cycle of plants

9 Ac tivit y 2. 2.1
In the previous section we explored biodiversity in general. In the current
section we take a closer look at the structure of plants, also known as
plant physiology
Did you know that Africa has one of the highest numbers of different plant
species? However, most people know very little about plants. This is partly
because the school curriculum does not pay much attention to plants.
• Study the natural and Life Sciences CAPS documents and explore the
extent to which plants are discussed.
• Read the article by Dr Amelia L Abrie about plants in the CAPS curriculum.
The article can be found at https://www.sajs.co.za/article/view/4146
Plant physiology is the science which is connected to the material and energy
exchange, growth and development, as well as movement of plant. Taiz
and Zeiger (2010) consider plant physiology as the study of plant function,
encompassing the dynamic processes of growth, metabolism and reproduction
in living plants.
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2.2.1 Water and Nutrients

Water plays a crucial role in the life of plant. It is the most abundant constituents
of most organisms. Water typically accounts for more than 70 percent by
weight of non-woody plant parts. Processes like Photosynthesis require that
plants draw carbon dioxide from the atmosphere through the leaves, and at
the same time exposes them to water loss through transpiration. To prevent
leaf desiccation, water is absorbed by the roots, and transported through the
plant body.

Vascular plants are also known as tracheophytes. Tracheophyte means “tube

plants.” These plants have a vascular tissue.

The vascular tissues are specialized cells which are used to transport fluid. They
consist of long, narrow cells arranged end-to-end, forming tubes. There are two
different types of vascular tissues, called xylem and phloem (see Figure 6.1).

Xylem is vascular tissue that transports water and dissolved minerals from roots to
stems and leaves. This type of tissue consists of dead cells that lack end walls
between adjacent cells. The side walls are thick and reinforced with a type of
carbohydrate called lignin, which makes them stiff and waterproof.

Phloem is vascular tissue that transports food (sugar dissolved in water) from
photosynthetic cells to other parts of the plant for growth or storage. This
type of tissue consists of living cells that are separated by end walls with tiny
perforations, or holes.

FIGURE 6.1
An illustration of the xylem and phloem

Water has great cohesive forces (molecules sticking to each other) and adhesive
forces (attaching to walls of xylem cells). Water molecules pull each other up
the column like a long chain. The column goes from roots leaves. The loss of
water through the leaves’ stoma (transpiration) generates the ‘suction force’
that pulls adjacent water molecules up the leaf surface.
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Sugars made in leaf mesophyll cells (source) diffuse to phloem cells in the
vascular bundles. Water moves into cells with high sugar concentration.
The dissolved sugars moves through the phloem to the rest of the plant
(translocation).

a. Non-vascular plants
Nonvascular plants are plants that lack the vascular tissue. They are called
bryophytes.

Most bryophytes are small. They not only lack vascular tissues; they also lack true
leaves, seeds, and flowers. Instead of roots, they have hair-like rhizoids to anchor
them to the ground and to absorb water and minerals. Bryophytes occupy
niches in moist habitats, but, as they lack vascular tissue, they are not very
efficient at absorbing water.

2.2.2 Plant Reproduction

The life cycle of a plant is very different from the life cycle of an animal.
Humans are made entirely of diploid cells (cells with two sets of chromosomes,
referred to as "2n"). Our only cells that are haploid cells (cells with one set
of chromosomes, "n") are sperm and egg cells.

Plants, however, can live when they are at the stage of having haploid cells
or diploid cells.

Plants alternate between diploid-cell plants and haploid-cell plants. This is

called alternation of generations, because the plant type alternates from
generation to generation. Figure 6.2 illustrates alternation of generation. In
alternation of generations, the plant alternates between a sporophyte that has
diploid cells and a gametophyte that has haploid cells.

Alternation of generations can be summarized in the following four steps:

follow along in the Figure 6.2 below as you read through the steps.

(1) The haploid gametophyte produces the gametes, or sperm and egg,
by mitosis. Remember, gametes are haploid, having one set of chromosomes.
(2) Then, the sperm fertilizes the egg, producing a diploid zygote that develops
into the sporophyte, which of course, is diploid.
(3) The diploid sporophyte produces haploid spores by meiosis.
(4) The haploid spores go through mitosis, developing into the haploid
gametophyte.

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FIGURE 6.2
An illustration of alternation of generation in plants.

2.3 EVOLUTION AND FOSSILS

AFTER HAVING STUDIED THIS UNIT, YOU SHOULD BE ABLE TO:

• Discuss the mechanisms of evolution

• Explain the evidence of evolution
• Discuss human evolution

10 Ac tivit y 2. 3.1
In the previous sections we have leant about biodiversity in detail. In the
current section we will look at how does diversity come about. This we
will explore using the theory of evolution.

Evolution is a thorny issue amongst some religious people. Do a research

and:

(a) Explain why some religious people differ with scientists on evolution.
(b) What is the African indigenous explanation of where humans originated
from?

Evolution is the process of change in all forms of life over generations. An

organism inherits features called traits from its parents through genes. Changes
called mutations in these genes can produce a new trait in the offspring
of an organism. If a new trait makes these offspring better adapted to their
environment, they will be more successful at surviving and reproducing.
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This process is called natural selection, and it causes useful traits to become
more common. Over many generations, a population can acquire so many
new traits that it becomes a new species.

2.3.1 Charles Darwin

Charles Darwin developed the idea that each species had developed from
ancestors with similar features. He described how a process he called natural
selection would make this happen. Darwin›s idea of how evolution works was
based on the following observation:

• If all the individuals of a species reproduced successfully, the population

of that species would increase uncontrollably.
• Populations tend to remain about the same size from year to year.
• Environmental resources are limited.
• No two individuals in a given species are exactly alike.
• Much of this variation in a population can be passed on to offspring.

2.3.2 Mechanisms of evolution

The key to evolution is genetic variation. This refers to changes in the genetic
makeup of an individual, which are inherited by their offspring. A number of
‘forces’ causes genetic variation. Some of these forces are:

• Natural selection is the process whereby organisms better adapted to their

environment tend to survive and produce more offspring
• Genetic drift, which is the change in the frequency of an existing gene variant
(allele) in a population due to chance disappearance of particular genes as
individuals die or do not reproduce.
• Gene flow is the movement of genes from one population to another due
to migration.
• Mutations are random changes to an organism’s DNA which can impact
all aspects of its life, from how it looks and behaves to its basic physiology.

2.3.3 Evidence of evolution

Scientists have been able to produce evidence that suggests that evolution has
occurred. This evidence includes:

(1) Fossils provide evidence of evolutionary change over time.

A series of fossils that start with ancient, primitive organisms and culminate
with modern species has been found for ancestors of modern whales, fossil
giraffes, elephants, horses, and mollusks.

(2) Comparative anatomy gives evidence of descent with modification.

Comparing the bodies of organisms of different species reveals similarities that
can be explained only by shared ancestry, and differences that could result
only from evolutionary change during descent from a common ancestor.

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(3) Homologous structures provide evidence of common ancestry.

• The forelimbs of birds and mammals are variously used for flying, swimming,
running, and grasping objects.
• Despite this diversity of function, the internal anatomy of all bird and
mammal forelimbs is remarkably similar.

(4) Functionless structures are inherited from ancestors.

• Evolution by natural selection helps explain vestigial structures that serve
no apparent purpose.
• Examples: molar teeth in vampire bats (which live on blood and thus don’t
chew their food) and pelvic bones in whales and some snakes.

(5) Some anatomical similarities result from evolution in similar environments.

• There are many anatomical similarities that do not stem from common
ancestry.
• Such similarities stem from convergent evolution, in which natural selection
causes non-homologous structures that serve similar functions to resemble
one another.

(6) Embryological similarity suggests common ancestry.

• All vertebrate embryos look quite similar to one another early in their
development.

(7) Modern biochemical and genetic analyses reveal relatedness among

diverse organisms.
• For example, the protein cytochrome c is present in all plants and animals
and performs the same function in all of them.
• The DNA sequence of nucleotides is similar in all these diverse species;
this provides evidence that a common ancestor of plants and animals had
cytochrome c in its cells.

(8) Controlled breeding modifies organisms.

• Artificial selection is the breeding of domestic plants and animals to produce
specific desirable features.

2.3.4 Human evolution

In 2013, scientists from the University of Witwatersrand found fossil skeletons of
an extinct human-related species, called Homo naledi, in the Dinaledi Chamber
of the Rising Star Cave system which is part of the Cradle of Humankind World
Heritage Site about 50 km northwest of Johannesburg. Upon analysis, the
scientists found that the fossils were 335,000 to 236,000 years old long after
much larger-brained and more modern-looking hominins had appeared. Further
analysis suggested that H. naledi is not a direct ancestor of modern humans,
although it is probably an offshoot within the genus Homo

Human evolution is about the origin of human beings. All humans belong
to the same species, which has spread from its birthplace in Africa to almost
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all parts of the world. Its origin in Africa is proved by the fossils, which have
been found there.

The term ‘human’ in this context means the genus Homo. However, studies of
human evolution usually include other hominids, such as the Australopithecines,
from which the genus Homo had diverged (split) by about 2.3 to 2.4
million years ago in Africa. The first Homo sapiens, the ancestors of
today’s humans, evolved around 200,000 years ago.

Out of Africa
Studies of the human genome have supported the theory which suggest that
all human originated from Africa.

The first truly modern humans seem to have appeared between 200,000
and 130,000 years ago. These early humans later moved out from Africa. By
about 90,000 years ago they had moved into Eurasia and the Middle East. This
was the area where earlier species of humans, (such as Neanderthals, Homo
neanderthalensis) had been living for a long time (at least 500,000 years in
western Europe).

By about 42 to 44,000 years ago Homo sapiens had reached western Europe,
including Britain. In Europe and western Asia, Homo sapiens replaced the
Neanderthals by about 35,000 years ago. The details of this event are not
known. At roughly the same time Homo sapiens arrived in Australia. Their
arrival in the Americas was much later, about 15,000 years ago. All these
earlier groups of modern man were hunter-gatherers.

Genetic studies and fossil evidence show that archaic Homo sapiens evolved
to anatomically modern humans solely in Africa between 200,000 and 60,000
years ago. Members of one branch of Homo sapiens left Africa at some
point between 125,000 and 60,000 years ago, and that over time these
humans replaced earlier populations of the genus Homo such as Neanderthals
and Homo erectus.

The date of the earliest successful “out of Africa” migration (earliest migrants
with living descendants) has generally been placed at 60,000 years ago based
on genetics, but migration out of the continent may have taken place as early
as 125,000 years ago according to Arabian archaeological finds of tools in
the region.

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Ball, L (2009). “Cholera and the Pump on Broad Street: The Life and Legacy
of John Snow”. History Teacher 43(1): 105-109
Galloway-McLean, K. (2017). Advance guard: climate change impacts,
adaptation, mitigation and indigenous peoples: a compendium of case
studies.
Govender, N. (2012). Educational implications of applying the complexity
approach to Indigenous Knowledge Systems (IKS). Alternation, 19(2),
112-137.
Hempel, S (2006). The Medical Detective: John Snow, Cholera, and the Mystery
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Hewitt, P.G., Lyons, S., Suchocki, J., Yeh, J. (2007). Conceptual Integrated
Science, Pearson Education: San Francisco.
Hopkins, W.G., Hüner, N.P.A. (2009): Introduction to Plant Physiology, 4th
Edition. John Wiley and Sons, Inc., Hoboken, USA.
Mader, S.S. and Pendarvis, P. M., (2008). Biology, 9th Edition; McGraw-Hill
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Masoga, M. (2005). South African research in indigenous knowledge systems
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Raven, P.H., Johnson, G.B., Mason, K.A, Losos, J.B, and Singer, S.R., (2014),
Biology, Tenth Edition. McGraw-Hill International Edition.
Taiz, L. and Zeiger, E. (2002). Plant Physiology, 3rd Edition. The Benjamin
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Taiz, L. and Zeiger, E. (2010). Plant Physiology, 5th Edition. The Benjamin
Cummings Publishing Company, Redwood City–California.
http://www.biology.ie/biologyandthescientificmethod
http://evolution.berkeley.edu/evolibrary/article/lines_01
http://www.pbs.org/wgbh/evolution/educators/teachstuds/svideos.html

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