Course: Research Methods in Education (8604) Semester: Autumn, 2022

Name : Jameel er Rehman

F Name : Alam khan

Reg I'd : 21bpn00009

Program : B ED 2.5

Course code : 8604

Semester: Autumn 2022

ASSIGNMENT No. 1
Course: Research Methods in Education (8604) Semester: Autumn, 2022

Q.1 Discuss different methods used as a tool of acquiring knowledge. Compare the various
steps in scientific method with steps in research process.?

Ans

scientific method
The Scientific method is a process with the help of which scientists try to investigate, verify, or
construct an accurate and reliable version of any natural phenomena. They are done by
creating an objective framework for the purpose of scientific inquiry and analysing the
results scientifically to come to a conclusion that either supports or contradicts the
observation made at the beginning.

Scientific Method Steps

The aim of all scientific methods is the same, that is, to analyse the observation made at the
beginning. Still, various steps are adopted per the requirement of any given observation.
However, there is a generally accepted sequence of steps in scientific methods.

1. Observation and formulation of a question: This is the first step of a scientific method.
To start one, an observation has to be made into any observable aspect or
phenomena of the universe, and a question needs to be asked about that aspect. For
example, you can ask, “Why is the sky black at night? or “Why is air invisible?”

2. Data Collection and Hypothesis: The next step involved in the scientific method is to
collect all related data and formulate a hypothesis based on the observation.
The hypothesis could be the cause of the phenomena, its effect, or its relation to any
other phenomena.
Course: Research Methods in Education (8604) Semester: Autumn, 2022

3. Testing the hypothesis: After the hypothesis is made, it needs to be tested

scientifically. Scientists do this by conducting experiments. The aim of these
experiments is to determine whether the hypothesis agrees with or contradicts the
observations made in the real world. The confidence in the hypothesis increases or
decreases based on the result of the experiments.

4. Analysis and Conclusion: This step involves the use of proper mathematical and other
scientific procedures to determine the results of the experiment. Based on the
analysis, the future course of action can be determined. If the data found in the
analysis is consistent with the hypothesis, it is accepted. If not, then it is rejected or
modified and analysed again.

It must be remembered that a hypothesis cannot be proved or disproved by doing one

experiment. It needs to be done repeatedly until there are no discrepancies in the data and
the result. When there are no discrepancies and the hypothesis is proved, it is accepted as a
‘theory’.

Scientific Method Examples

Following is an example of the scientific method:
Growing bean plants:

1. What is the purpose: The main purpose of this experiment is to know where the bean
plant should be kept inside or outside to check the growth rate and also set the time
frame as four weeks.
2. Construction of hypothesis: The hypothesis used is that the bean plant can grow
anywhere if the scientific methods are used.
3. Executing the hypothesis and collecting the data: Four bean plants are planted in
identical pots using the same soil. Two are placed inside, and the other two are placed
outside. Parameters like the amount of exposure to sunlight, and amount of water all
are the same. After the completion of four weeks, all four plant sizes are measured.
4. Analyse the data: While analysing the data, the average height of plants should be
taken into account from both places to determine which environment is more
suitable for growing the bean plants.
5. Conclusion: The conclusion is drawn after analyzing the data.
6. Results: Results can be reported in the form of a tabular form.

Scientists use a dynamic, open-ended process to investigate questions. Here are the five steps.
1. Define a Question to Investigate

As scientists conduct their research, they make observations and collect data. The
observations and data often lead them to ask why something is the way it is. Scientists
pursue answers to these questions in order to continue with their research. Once scientists
have a good question to investigate, they begin to think of ways to answer it.
Course: Research Methods in Education (8604) Semester: Autumn, 2022

2. Make Predictions

Based on their research and observations, scientists will often come up with a hypothesis. A
hypothesis is a possible answer to a question. It is based on: their own observations, existing
theories, and information they gather from other sources. Scientists use their hypothesis to
make a prediction, a testable statement that describes what they think the outcome of an
investigation will be.

3. Gather Data

Evidence is needed to test the prediction. There are several strategies for collecting evidence,
or data. Scientists can gather their data by observing the natural world, performing an
experiment in a laboratory, or by running a model. Scientists decide what strategy to use,
often combining strategies. Then they plan a procedure and gather their data. They make
sure the procedure can be repeated, so that other scientists can evaluate their findings.

4. Analyze the Data

Scientists organize their data in tables, graphs, or diagrams. If possible, they include relevant
data from other sources. They look for patterns that show connections between important
variables in the hypothesis they are testing.

5. Draw Conclusions

Based on whether or not their prediction came true, scientists can then decide whether the
evidence clearly supports or does not support the hypothesis. If the results are not clear, they
must rethink their procedure. If the results are clear, scientists write up their findings and
results to share with others. The conclusions they draw usually lead to new questions to
pursue.

Q.2 Describe different types of research categorized on the basis of methods used and
the purpose of research.

Ans

Research is the careful consideration of study regarding a particular concern or problem

using scientific methods. According to the American sociologist Earl Robert Babbie, “research
is a systematic inquiry to describe, explain, predict, and control the observed phenomenon. It
involves inductive and deductive methods.”

Inductive methods analyze an observed event, while deductive methods verify the observed
event. Inductive approaches are associated with qualitative research, and deductive methods
are more commonly associated with quantitative analysis.

Research is conducted with a purpose to:

Course: Research Methods in Education (8604) Semester: Autumn, 2022

• Identify potential and new customers

• Understand existing customers
• Set pragmatic goals
• Develop productive market strategies
• Address business challenges
• Put together a business expansion plan
• Identify new business opportunities
What are the characteristics of research?
1. Good research follows a systematic approach to capture accurate data.
Researchers need to practice ethics and a code of conduct while making
observations or drawing conclusions.
2. The analysis is based on logical reasoning and involves both inductive and
deductive methods.
3. Real-time data and knowledge is derived from actual observations in natural
settings.
4. There is an in-depth analysis of all data collected so that there are no anomalies
associated with it.
5. It creates a path for generating new questions. Existing data helps create more
research opportunities.
6. It is analytical and uses all the available data so that there is no ambiguity in
inference.
7. Accuracy is one of the most critical aspects of research. The information must be
accurate and correct. For example, laboratories provide a controlled environment
to collect data. Accuracy is measured in the instruments used, the calibrations of
instruments or tools, and the experiment’s final result.
What is the purpose of research?
There are three main purposes:

1. Exploratory: As the name suggests, researchers conduct exploratory studies to

explore a group of questions. The answers and analytics may not offer a conclusion
to the perceived problem. It is undertaken to handle new problem areas that
haven’t been explored before. This exploratory process lays the foundation for
more conclusive data collection and analysis.
2. Descriptive: It focuses on expanding knowledge on current issues through a process
of data collection. Descriptive research describe the behavior of a sample
population. Only one variable is required to conduct the study. The three primary
purposes of descriptive studies are describing, explaining, and validating the
findings. For example, a study conducted to know if top-level management leaders
in the 21st century possess the moral right to receive a considerable sum of money
from the company profit.
3. Explanatory: Causal or explanatory research is conducted to understand the impact
of specific changes in existing standard procedures. Running experiments is the
most popular form. For example, a study that is conducted to understand the
effect of rebranding on customer loyalty.
It begins by asking the right questions and choosing an appropriate method to investigate the
problem. After collecting answers to your questions, you can analyze the findings or
observations to draw reasonable conclusions.
Course: Research Methods in Education (8604) Semester: Autumn, 2022

When it comes to customers and market studies, the more thorough your questions, the
better the analysis. You get essential insights into brand perception and product needs by
thoroughly collecting customer data through surveys and questionnaires. You can use this
data to make smart decisions about your marketing strategies to position your business
effectively.

To make sense of your study and get insights faster, it helps to use a research repository as a
single source of truth in your organization and manage your research data in one centralized
repository.

Types of research methods and Examples

Research methods are broadly classified as Qualitative and Quantitative.

Both methods have distinctive properties and data collection methods.

Qualitative methods

Qualitative research is a method that collects data using conversational methods,

usually open-ended questions. The responses collected are essentially non-numerical. This
method helps a researcher understand what participants think and why they think in a
particular way.

Types of qualitative methods include:

1. One-to-one Interview
2. Focus Groups
3. Ethnographic studies
4. Text Analysis
5. Case Study

Quantitative methods

Quantitative methods deal with numbers and measurable forms. It uses a systematic way of
investigating events or data. It answers questions to justify relationships with measurable
variables to either explain, predict, or control a phenomenon.

Types of quantitative methods include:

1. Survey research
2. Descriptive research
3. Correlational research
Remember, it is only valuable and useful when it is valid, accurate, and reliable. Incorrect
results can lead to customer churn and a decrease in sales.
Course: Research Methods in Education (8604) Semester: Autumn, 2022

It is essential to ensure that your data is:

• Valid – founded, logical, rigorous, and impartial.

• Accurate – free of errors and including required details.
• Reliable – other people who investigate in the same way can produce similar results.
• Timely – current and collected within an appropriate time frame.
• Complete – includes all the data you need to support your business decisions.

1. Identify the main trends and issues, opportunities, and problems you observe.
Write a sentence describing each one.
2. Keep track of the frequency with which each of the main findings appears.
3. Make a list of your findings from the most common to the least common.
4. Evaluate a list of the strengths, weaknesses, opportunities, and threats identified in
a SWOT analysis.
5. Prepare conclusions and recommendations about your study.
6. Act on your strategies
7. Look for gaps in the information, and consider doing additional inquiry if necessary
8. Plan to review the results and consider efficient methods to analyze and interpret
results.

Q.3 discuss the concept of educational research. Also examine the need and importance
of research in education.

Ans

Educational Research

Educational research is a type of systematic investigation that applies empirical methods to

solving challenges in education. It adopts rigorous and well-defined scientific processes in
order to gather and analyze data for problem-solving and knowledge advancement.

J. W. Best defines educational research as that activity that is directed towards the
development of a science of behavior in educational situations. The ultimate aim of such a
science is to provide knowledge that will permit the educator to achieve his goals through the
most effective methods.

The primary purpose of educational research is to expand the existing body of knowledge by
providing solutions to different problems in pedagogy while improving teaching and learning
practices. Educational researchers also seek answers to questions bothering on learner
motivation, development, and classroom management.

Characteristics of Education Research

While educational research can take numerous forms and approaches, several characteristics
define its process and approach. Some of them are listed below:
Course: Research Methods in Education (8604) Semester: Autumn, 2022

1. It sets out to solve a specific problem.

2. Educational research adopts primary and secondary research methods in its data
collection process. This means that in educational research, the investigator relies on
first-hand sources of information and secondary data to arrive at a suitable
conclusion.
3. Educational research relies on empirical evidence. This results from its largely
scientific approach.
4. Educational research is objective and accurate because it measures verifiable
information.
5. In educational research, the researcher adopts specific methodologies, detailed
procedures, and analysis to arrive at the most objective responses
6. Educational research findings are useful in the development of principles and theories
that provide better insights into pressing issues.
7. This research approach combines structured, semi-structured, and unstructured
questions to gather verifiable data from respondents.
8. Many educational research findings are documented for peer review before their
presentation.
9. Educational research is interdisciplinary in nature because it draws from different
fields and studies complex factual relations.

Types of Educational Research

Educational research can be broadly categorized into 3 which are descriptive

research, correlational research, and experimental research. Each of these has distinct and
overlapping features.

Descriptive Educational Research

In this type of educational research, the researcher merely seeks to collect data with regards
to the status quo or present situation of things. The core of descriptive research lies in
defining the state and characteristics of the research subject being understudied.

Because of its emphasis on the “what” of the situation, descriptive research can be termed
an observational research method. In descriptive educational research, the researcher makes
use of quantitative research methods including surveys and questionnaires to gather the
required data.

Typically, descriptive educational research is the first step in solving a specific problem. Here
are a few examples of descriptive research:

• A reading program to help you understand student literacy levels.

• A study of students’ classroom performance.
• Research to gather data on students’ interests and preferences.

From these examples, you would notice that the researcher does not need to create a
simulation of the natural environment of the research subjects; rather, he or she observes
Course: Research Methods in Education (8604) Semester: Autumn, 2022

them as they engage in their routines. Also, the researcher is not concerned with creating a
causal relationship between the research variables.

Correlational Educational Research

This is a type of educational research that seeks insights into the statistical relationship
between two research variables. In correlational research, the researcher studies two
variables intending to establish a connection between them.

Correlational research can be positive, negative, or non-existent. Positive correlation occurs

when an increase in variable A leads to an increase in variable B, while negative correlation
occurs when an increase in variable A results in a decrease in variable B.

When a change in any of the variables does not trigger a succeeding change in the other,
then the correlation is non-existent. Also, in correlational educational research, the research
does not need to alter the natural environment of the variables; that is, there is no need for
external conditioning.

Examples of educational correlational research include:

• Research to discover the relationship between students’ behaviors and classroom

performance.
• A study into the relationship between students’ social skills and their learning
behaviors.

Experimental Educational Research

Experimental educational research is a research approach that seeks to establish the causal
relationship between two variables in the research environment. It adopts quantitative
research methods in order to determine the cause and effect in terms of the research
variables being studied.

Experimental educational research typically involves two groups – the control group and the
experimental group. The researcher introduces some changes to the experimental group
such as a change in environment or a catalyst, while the control group is left in its natural
state.

The introduction of these catalysts allows the researcher to determine the causative factor(s)
in the experiment. At the core of experimental educational research lies the formulation of a
hypothesis and so, the overall research design relies on statistical analysis to approve or
disprove this hypothesis.

Examples of Experimental Educational Research

• A study to determine the best teaching and learning methods in a school.

• A study to understand how extracurricular activities affect the learning process.
Course: Research Methods in Education (8604) Semester: Autumn, 2022

Based on functionality, educational research can be classified into fundamental

research, applied research, and action research. The primary purpose of fundamental
research is to provide insights into the research variables; that is, to gain more knowledge.
Fundamental research does not solve any specific problems.

Just as the name suggests, applied research is a research approach that seeks to solve
specific problems. Findings from applied research are useful in solving practical challenges in
the educational sector such as improving teaching methods, modifying learning curricula, and
simplifying pedagogy.

Action research is tailored to solve immediate problems that are specific to a context such as
educational challenges in a local primary school. The goal of action research is to proffer
solutions that work in this context and to solve general or universal challenges in the
educational sector.

Importance of Educational Research

1. Educational research plays a crucial role in knowledge advancement across different

fields of study.
2. It provides answers to practical educational challenges using scientific methods.
3. Findings from educational research; especially applied research, are instrumental in
policy reformulation.
4. For the researcher and other parties involved in this research approach, educational
research improves learning, knowledge, skills, and understanding.
5. Educational research improves teaching and learning methods by empowering you
with data to help you teach and lead more strategically and effectively.
6. Educational research helps students apply their knowledge to practical situations.

Educational Research Methods

• Surveys/Questionnaires

A survey is a research method that is used to collect data from a predetermined audience
about a specific research context. It usually consists of a set of standardized questions that
help you to gain insights into the experiences, thoughts, and behaviors of the audience.

Surveys can be administered physically using paper forms, face-to-face conversations,

telephone conversations, or online forms. Online forms are easier to administer because they
help you to collect accurate data and to also reach a larger sample size. Creating your online
survey on data-gathering platforms like Formplus allows you to.also analyze survey
respondent’s data easily.

In order to gather accurate data via your survey, you must first identify the research context
and the research subjects that would make up your data sample size. Next, you need to
choose an online survey tool like Formplus to help you create and administer your survey
with little or no hassles.

• Interviews
Course: Research Methods in Education (8604) Semester: Autumn, 2022

An interview is a qualitative data collection method that helps you to gather information
from respondents by asking questions in a conversation. It is typically a face-to-face
conversation with the research subjects in order to gather insights that will prove useful to
the specific research context.

Interviews can be structured, semi-structured, or unstructured. A structured interview is a

type of interview that follows a premeditated sequence; that is, it makes use of a set of
standardized questions to gather information from the research subjects.

An unstructured interview is a type of interview that is fluid; that is, it is non-directive. During
a structured interview, the researcher does not make use of a set of predetermined
questions rather, he or she spontaneously asks questions to gather relevant data from the
respondents.

A semi-structured interview is the mid-point between structured and unstructured

interviews. Here, the researcher makes use of a set of standardized questions yet, he or she
still makes inquiries outside these premeditated questions as dedicated by the flow of the
conversations in the research context.

Data from Interviews can be collected using audio recorders, digital cameras, surveys, and
questionnaires.

• Observation

Observation is a method of data collection that entails systematically selecting, watching,

listening, reading, touching, and recording behaviors and characteristics of living beings,
objects, or phenomena. In the classroom, teachers can adopt this method to understand
students’ behaviors in different contexts.

Observation can be qualitative or quantitative in approach. In quantitative observation, the

researcher aims at collecting statistical information from respondents and in qualitative
information, the researcher aims at collecting qualitative data from respondents.

Q.4. What is an experiment and how you will conduct an experimental research? What will
be the threats to internal and external validity and how you will minimize these threats?

Ans

Internal validity is a measure of how well a study is conducted (its structure) and how
accurately its results reflect the studied group.

External validity relates to how applicable the findings are in the real world. These two
concepts help researchers gauge if the results of a research study are trustworthy and
meaningful.

Internal Validity
• Conclusions are warranted
• Controls extraneous variables
Course: Research Methods in Education (8604) Semester: Autumn, 2022

• Eliminates alternative explanations

• Focus on accuracy and strong research methods
External Validity
• Findings can be generalized
• Outcomes apply to practical situations
• Results apply to the world at large
• Results can be translated into another context
What Is Internal Validity in Research?

Internal validity is the extent to which a research study establishes a trustworthy cause-and-
effect relationship.1 This type of validity depends largely on the study's procedures and how
rigorously it is performed.

Internal validity is important because once established, it makes it possible to eliminate

alternative explanations for a finding. If you implement a smoking cessation program, for
instance, internal validity ensures that any improvement in the subjects is due to the
treatment administered and not something else.

Internal validity is not a "yes or no" concept. Instead, we consider how confident we can be
with study findings based on whether the research avoids traps that may make those findings
questionable. The less chance there is for "confounding," the higher the internal validity and
the more confident we can be.

In short, you can only be confident that a study is internally valid if you can rule out
alternative explanations for the findings. Three criteria are required to assume cause and
effect in a research study:

• The cause preceded the effect in terms of time.

• The cause and effect vary together.
• There are no other likely explanations for the relationship observed.

Factors That Improve Internal Validity

To ensure the internal validity of a study, you want to consider aspects of the research design
that will increase the likelihood that you can reject alternative hypotheses. Many factors can
improve internal validity in research, including:

• Blinding: Participants—and sometimes researchers—are unaware of what

intervention they are receiving (such as using a placebo on some subjects in a
medication study) to avoid having this knowledge bias their perceptions and
behaviors, thus impacting the study's outcome
• Experimental manipulation: Manipulating an independent variable in a study (for
instance, giving smokers a cessation program) instead of just observing an association
without conducting any intervention (examining the relationship between exercise
and smoking behavior)
• Random selection: Choosing participants at random or in a manner in which they are
representative of the population that you wish to study
Course: Research Methods in Education (8604) Semester: Autumn, 2022

• Randomization or random assignment: Randomly assigning participants to treatment

and control groups, ensuring that there is no systematic bias between the research
groups
• Strict study protocol: Following specific procedures during the study so as not to
introduce any unintended effects; for example, doing things differently with one
group of study participants than you do with another group

Internal Validity Threats

Just as there are many ways to ensure internal validity, there is also a list of potential threats
that should be considered when planning a study.2

• Attrition: Participants dropping out or leaving a study, which means that the results
are based on a biased sample of only the people who did not choose to leave (and
possibly who all have something in common, such as higher motivation)
• Confounding: A situation in which changes in an outcome variable can be thought to
have resulted from some type of outside variable not measured or manipulated in the
study
• Diffusion: This refers to the results of one group transferring to another through the
groups interacting and talking with or observing one another; this can also lead to
another issue called resentful demoralization, in which a control group tries less hard
because they feel resentful over the group that they are in
• Experimenter bias: An experimenter behaving in a different way with different groups
in a study, which can impact the results (and is eliminated through blinding)
• Historical events: May influence the outcome of studies that occur over a period of
time, such as a change in the political leader or a natural disaster that occurs,
influencing how study participants feel and act
• Instrumentation: This involves "priming" participants in a study in certain ways with
the measures used, causing them to react in a way that is different than they would
have otherwise reacted
• Maturation: The impact of time as a variable in a study; for example, if a study takes
place over a period of time in which it is possible that participants naturally change in
some way (i.e., they grew older or became tired), it may be impossible to rule out
whether effects seen in the study were simply due to the impact of time
• Statistical regression: The natural effect of participants at extreme ends of a measure
falling in a certain direction due to the passage of time rather than being a direct
effect of an intervention
• Testing: Repeatedly testing participants using the same measures influences
outcomes; for example, if you give someone the same test three times, it is likely that
they will do better as they learn the test or become used to the testing process,
causing them to answer differently

What Is External Validity in Research?

External validity refers to how well the outcome of a research study can be expected to apply
to other settings. This is important because, if external validity is established, it means that
the findings can be generalizable to similar individuals or populations.
Course: Research Methods in Education (8604) Semester: Autumn, 2022

Population validity and ecological validity are two types of external validity. Population
validity refers to whether you can generalize the research outcomes to other populations or
groups. Ecological validity refers to whether a study's findings can be generalized to
additional situations or settings.

Another term called transferability refers to whether results transfer to situations with similar
characteristics. Transferability relates to external validity and refers to a qualitative
research design.

Factors That Improve External Validity

If you want to improve the external validity of your study, there are many ways to achieve
this goal. Factors that can enhance external validity include:

• Field experiments: Conducting a study outside the laboratory, in a natural setting

• Inclusion and exclusion criteria: Setting criteria as to who can be involved in the
research, ensuring that the population being studied is clearly defined
• Psychological realism: Making sure participants experience the events of the study as
being real by telling them a "cover story," or a different story about the aim of the
study so they don't behave differently than they would in real life based on knowing
what to expect or knowing the study's goal
• Replication: Conducting the study again with different samples or in different settings
to see if you get the same results; when many studies have been conducted on the
same topic, a meta-analysis can also be used to determine if the effect of an
independent variable can be replicated, therefore making it more reliable
• Reprocessing or calibration: Using statistical methods to adjust for external validity
issues, such as reweighting groups if a study had uneven groups for a particular
characteristic (such as age)

External Validity Threats

External validity is threatened when a study does not take into account the interaction of
variables in the real world.2 Threats to external validity include:

• Pre- and post-test effects: When the pre- or post-test is in some way related to the
effect seen in the study, such that the cause-and-effect relationship disappears
without these added tests
• Sample features: When some feature of the sample used was responsible for the
effect (or partially responsible), leading to limited generalizability of the findings
• Selection bias: Also considered a threat to internal validity, selection bias describes
differences between groups in a study that may relate to the independent variable—
like motivation or willingness to take part in the study, or specific demographics of
individuals being more likely to take part in an online survey3
• Situational factors: Factors such as the time of day of the study, its location, noise,
researcher characteristics, and the number of measures used may affect the
generalizability of findings
Course: Research Methods in Education (8604) Semester: Autumn, 2022

While rigorous research methods can ensure internal validity, external validity may be limited
by these methods.
Internal Validity vs. External Validity

Internal validity and external validity are two research concepts that share a few similarities
while also having several differences.

Similarities

One of the similarities between internal validity and external validity is that both factors
should be considered when designing a study. This is because both have implications in terms
of whether the results of a study have meaning.

Both internal validity and external validity are not "either/or" concepts. Therefore, you always
need to decide to what degree a study performs in terms of each type of validity.

Each of these concepts is also typically reported in research articles published in scholarly
journals. This is so that other researchers can evaluate the study and make decisions about
whether the results are useful and valid.

Differences

The essential difference between internal validity and external validity is that internal validity
refers to the structure of a study (and its variables) while external validity refers to the
universality of the results. But there are further differences between the two as well.

For instance, internal validity focuses on showing a difference that is due to the independent
variable alone. Conversely, external validity results can be translated to the world at large.

Internal validity and external validity aren't mutually exclusive. You can have a study with
good internal validity but be overall irrelevant to the real world. You could also conduct a
field study that is highly relevant to the real world but doesn't have trustworthy results in
terms of knowing what variables caused the outcomes.
Examples of Validity

Perhaps the best way to understand internal validity and external validity is with examples.

Internal Validity Example

An example of a study with good internal validity would be if a researcher hypothesizes that
using a particular mindfulness app will reduce negative mood. To test this hypothesis, the
researcher randomly assigns a sample of participants to one of two groups: those who will
use the app over a defined period and those who engage in a control task.

The researcher ensures that there is no systematic bias in how participants are assigned to
the groups. They do this by blinding the research assistants so they don't know which groups
the subjects are in during the experiment.
Course: Research Methods in Education (8604) Semester: Autumn, 2022

A strict study protocol is also used to outline the procedures of the study. Potential
confounding variables are measured along with mood, such as the participants'
socioeconomic status, gender, age, and other factors. If participants drop out of the study,
their characteristics are examined to make sure there is no systematic bias in terms of who
stays in.

External Validity Example

An example of a study with good external validity would be if, in the above example, the
participants used the mindfulness app at home rather than in the laboratory. This shows that
results appear in a real-world setting.

To further ensure external validity, the researcher clearly defines the population of interest
and chooses a representative sample. They might also replicate the study's results using
different technological devices.

Q.5 Define descriptive research What are its major forms? Strengthen your answer with the
example of Case Studies, Causal Comparative studies and correlation studies?

Ans

An important goal of the research scientist is the publication of the results of a completed
study. Scientific journals do not allow for literary embellishments and expressions, often seen
in other journals, as the purpose is to communicate the scientific findings as clear as possible,
in a highly stylized, distinctive fashion. This often makes it difficult for the applied
professional to grasp all that the article has to offer. The purpose of this article is to help
bridge much of that communication breach in scientific writing.

In almost every research article you read you will see a definite methodology develop that
will help you understand the study. Fortunately, most research journals begin each article
with an Abstract that summarizes the study for you. In the Introduction the researchers will
define their problem or question that was studied, briefly review related research, and
perhaps even hypothesize (make a tentative assumption) possible outcomes of their study.
Important to the authenticity and replicability of any scientific finding is how it is studied. This
is referred to as the Methods and Procedures section in which the researchers will
painstakingly explain how they studied their problem: who the subjects were, how and why
they were selected, how many subjects were there, how they were tested, what type of
equipment was used, what type of research and statistical design was employed, and how
they controlled for all extraneous factors that might effect the study results. Of great interest
to all readers are the findings. These are presented in a most direct manner in
the Results section. This section is invariably the most difficult to understand because it is a
straight forward recounting of the statistical results. The Discussion and Conclusions section
explains, discusses and concludes the meaning of the study findings and often parallels these
findings to similar studies for comparison. Some journals now have a Practical
Applications section which synthesizes the applied usefulness to be gained from the study. If
not apparently defined in the article, usually the practical application will be addressed in the
last couple of paragraphs by the researchers. The challenge to the reader is to evaluate the
Course: Research Methods in Education (8604) Semester: Autumn, 2022

methodology of the researchers in order to best ascertain the credibility of the study.
Fortunately, most primary research journals (a journal where research is first disclosed) have
a very strict peer-review process where two or more specialists in the field of study related to
the article critically review the article and recommend whether the article should be
accepted or rejected for publication. The next sections of this article will delineate the
different types of research and define common terminology presented in studies.

Classification of Research
Research can be differentiated into five categories. The following explanations provide a brief
overview of each group so that you can determine the type of research you are reading.

Historical Research:
Historical research involves understanding, studying, and explaining past events. Its purpose
is to arrive at some
conclusions concerning past occurrences that may help to anticipate or explain present or
future events. Understanding past research from high-impact aerobics injuries has helped
our industry design step and slide programs that offer safer means of achieving similar goals.

Descriptive Research:
Descriptive research often involves collecting information through data review, surveys,
interviews, or observation. This type of research best describes the way things are. A review
paper of previously reported research is descriptive research. The music and exercise article
in this edition of IDEA Today is an example of this type of research. Often new ideas and
theories are discovered and presented from this descriptive process.

Correlational Research:
Correlational research attempts to determine how related two or more variables are. This
degree of relation is expressedas a correlation coefficient. For example, a researcher may
way to wish to determine the relationship between cardiorespiratory fitness and self-esteem
in college females. What is the relationship between college females cardiorespiratory fitness
and their level of self-esteem? If the variables are highly related, a correlation coefficient
near + 1.00 will be obtained meaning the variables are positively related. If the two variables
are not related, a correlation coefficient near .00 will be obtained. If the correlation
coefficient is near -1.00, the variables are inversely related.

Causal-Comparative Research:
Causal-comparative research attempts to identify a cause-effect relationship between two or
more groups.
Causal-comparative studies involve comparison in contrast to correlation research which
looks at relationship. For
instance, a researcher may wish to compare the body composition of persons who have only
trained with free weights versus persons who have only trained with exercise machines. In
this case the researcher is not manipulating any variables, only investigating the effect of free
weights versus exercise machines on body composition. Obviously, since other factors such
as diet, training program, aerobic conditioning could effect body composition, casual-
comparative research must be reviewed scrupulously to see how these other factors were
controlled.
Course: Research Methods in Education (8604) Semester: Autumn, 2022

Experimental Research:
Experimental research is guided by a hypotheses (or several hypothesis) that states an
expected relationship between two or more variables. An experiment is conducted to
support or disconfirm this experimental hypothesis. For instance, much of this author's
research has been involved with the physiological effects of step training with and without
handweights. With this type of experimental research, I have randomly selected the group of
subjects, decided the exercise program (step training with handweights, step training without
handweights, and a control group which remained physically active but did no step training),
tried to control all relevant factors (e.g. no other aerobic programs, no change in diet, no
additional resistance training, etc.), and then measured the effect of the step training with
and without handweights on a number of variables (such as cardiorespiratory fitness,
muscular strength, body composition, blood lipids and lipoproteins, etc.). Experimental
research, although very demanding of time and resources, often produces the soundest
evidence concerning hypothesized cause-effect relationships