Topic 2: Organisation of the Organism
Definitions in bold are for supplement only
Cell - The basic building block of all living organisms.
Cell membrane - A partially permeable barrier that surrounds the cell.
Cell wall - An outer layer made of cellulose that strengthens plant cells.
Chloroplast - An organelle in which photosynthesis occurs.
Magnification - The number of times larger an image appears
compared to the originalobject, calculated using the formula:
image size = magnification × real size
Micrometre (µm) - A quantitative unit of length. One micrometre is equal to ×10-6
metre.
Millimetre (mm) - A quantitative unit of length. One millimetre is equal to ×10-3 metre.
Mitochondria - An organelle that is the site of aerobic respiration. Cells with high rates of
metabolism require a large number of mitochondria.
Palisade mesophyll cells - Plant cells located below the upper epidermis. They receive
alarge amount of light so contain a high concentration of chloroplasts for photosynthesis.
Organ - A group of specialised tissues working together to carry out a specific function.
Organelle - A specialised structure found inside a cell.
Organ system - A group of specialised organs working together to carry out a specific
function.
Tissue - A group of specialised cells working together to carry out a specific function.
Cell Structure
Comparing the structure of animal cells and plant cells:
Similarities:
● They both contain a nucleus, cytoplasm, mitochondria, ribosomes
and a cell membrane.
Differences:
● Plant cells contain a cell wall, vacuole and chloroplasts.
● Plant cells have a more regular shape and are larger.
Animal cells
Plant cells
Functions of cell structures in animal and plant cells:
● Cytoplasm - A jelly-like material within the cell in which reactions occur. The
cytoplasm contains structures such as ribosomes and vesicles.
● Cell membrane - a thin membrane that surrounds the cell, controls entry and
exit of substances.
● Nucleus - the nucleus contains genetic material in the form of DNA which
codes for proteins. DNA replication also occurs in the nucleus.
● Ribosomes - Ribosomes are the site of protein synthesis.
● Mitochondria - site of respiration. Provides energy for the cell to function.
In plants only:
● Vacuole - is a fluid-filled sac containing mineral salts, sugars, amino
acids, waste substances and pigments which colour the cell and attract
pollinating insects.
● Chloroplasts - the site of photosynthesis, which allows plants to convert light
energy to glucose.
● Cell wall - gives the cell structure and prevents bursting. It is made of
cellulose.
New cells are produced by the division of existing cells.
Specialised cells:
Cells and tissues are specialised to carry out their particular function. Examples of specialised
cells are:
● Ciliated cells - ciliated cells are found lining the trachea. They have hair-like
projections called cilia which move together to transport mucus, dust and
bacteria upwards to the throat.
● Root hair cells - are adapted to have a large surface area. This speeds up
the rate of osmosis and mineral ion uptake in plants. Have a large number of
mitochondria to provide energy for active transport of water and mineral ions.
• Palisade mesophyll cells - this is where photosynthesis occurs. Mesophyll
cells are tall and closely packed to efficiently absorb light and contain lots of
chloroplasts for photosynthesis. They are also placed at the top of the leaf
where most of the light hits, enabling them to absorb as much light energy as
possible.
● Red blood cells - red blood cells contain haemoglobin which allows them to
carry oxygen around the body. They have a biconcave shape which
increases their surface area, allowing for rapid diffusion. They do not contain
a nucleus, thus have more space for oxygen.
● Sperm cells - sperm cells are gametes. Gametes are the reproductive cells of
organisms with half the chromosomes of normal cells. Sperm cells are adapted
by containing lots of mitochondria so that the cell has enough energy to reach
the egg cell. It has a tail to allow movement.
• Egg cells - egg cells are also gametes. Egg cells have nutrients in their
cytoplasm which help the growth of the embryo.
Levels of organisation:
Key terms:
● Cell - the basic building block of all living organisms
● Tissue - a group of similar cells working together to carry out a particular process
● Organ - a group of tissues working together to carry out a specific function
● Organ system - a group of related organs working together to carry out
functions in the body.
Size of specimens
Cells can be viewed using a microscope to study their structure.
To calculate the size of a specimen under a microscope, we use the following formula:
Where the image size is the size of the specimen which appears when viewed through the
microscope. The actual size is the specimen’s real size.
The image size should be measured in millimetres.
Example:
A student measures the image of a cell under a microscope and it is 32mm wide. The image has
been magnified by a factor of x 100. What is the actual width?
Using the formula above:
Actual size = Image size / Magnification
32/100 = 0.32 mm
You may be asked to give the answer in micrometres. To convert between millimetres and
micrometres, you need to multiply by 1000.
1mm = 1000 µm
µm is the symbol used to represent micrometres.
Example:
A student measures the image of a cell under a microscope and it is 54mm wide. The
image has been magnified by a factor of x 500. What is the actual width in µm?
Actual size = Image size / Magnification 54/500
= 0.108 mm
0.108 mm x 1000 = 108 µm
Actual width = 108 µm
Topic 3: Movement Into and Out of Cells
Concentration gradient - The difference in concentration between two areas. The greater
the concentration gradient, the faster the rate of diffusion.
Diffusion - The net spreading out of particles from a high concentration to a lower
concentration (down their concentration gradient). Diffusion is as a result of the kinetic
energy of the random movement of particles (passive).
Osmosis - The diffusion of water molecules from a region of high water concentration to a
region of lower water concentration across a partially permeable membrane.
Water potential - A measure of the tendency of water molecules to move from one area to
another
The cell membrane and cell wall control what substances enter and exit the cell. Molecules
such as glucose and proteins move into the cell for use in metabolic reactions and storage.
Whereas waste products such as carbon dioxide and lactic acid are transported out into the
blood to be excreted from the body.
Diffusion
Diffusion is the net movement of particles from an area of high concentration to an area of
low concentration down the concentration gradient, as a result of their random movement.
The energy for diffusion comes from the kinetic energy of the molecules and ions.
Solutes and gases, such as carbon dioxide and oxygen, are able to diffuse in and out of cells
across the cell membrane. This is important as these substances are crucial to metabolic
reactions which occur within the cell, for example respiration and photosynthesis. Without
them, the processes would not occur, and the cell would die.
Factors affecting rate of diffusion:
● Surface area - As the surface area increases, the rate of diffusion increases. This
is because there is more space available for the substances to diffuse through.
● Temperature - As temperature increases, the rate of diffusion increases. This is
because the molecules gain kinetic energy and thus move faster.
● Concentration gradient - As the concentration gradient increases, rate of diffusion
increases.
● Diffusion distance - A greater diffusion distance slows the rate of diffusion as
molecules must travel further.
Osmosis
Osmosis is the net movement of water molecules through a partially permeable membrane.
Key terms:
● Turgid - cells are described as turgid when they are swollen due to a high-
water content.
● Turgor pressure - The pressure on the cell wall from the cell membrane pushing
upon it. This is a result of the cell becoming turgid as water moves into the cell
via osmosis.
● Flaccid - Occurs when water moves out of the cell via osmosis. The cell shrinks
but the cell membrane does not peel away from the cell wall. If more water leaves
the cell, it becomes plasmolyzed.
● Plasmolysis - Occurs when there is too little water in cells. In plant cells, the
cell membrane peels away from the cell wall.
Water moves in and out of cells through the cell membrane via osmosis. Water is important to
provide support for the cell structure through maintaining the turgor pressure. Plants are
supported by the pressure of water inside the cells pressing outwards on the cell wall. Water
also provides a medium in which metabolic reactions occur. Water has a high specific heat
capacity, thus acting as a temperature buffer. This is important as it maintains the optimum
temperature for enzyme reactions. Water also acts as a solvent in organisms which is
important for digestion, excretion and transport.
Osmosis can also be described as the net movement of water molecules from a region of higher
water potential (dilute solution) to a region of lower water potential (concentrated
solution), through a partially permeable membrane. When the cell is more concentrated than
the surrounding cells, water molecules diffuse into the cell via osmosis, making it turgid. When
it is less concentrated than the surrounding cells, water molecules will leave the cell, making it
flaccid and leading to plasmolysis. This effect can be investigated by placing cells in solutions
of different concentrations.
Osmosis can be investigated via dialysis tubing. Dialysis tubing is an artificial partially
permeable membrane made from cellulose. It has small pores which allow the entry of small
molecules and prevents the entry of larger molecules. To demonstrate osmosis, dialysis
tubing can be filled with concentrated sucrose solution. The tubing should then be placed in a
beaker filled with distilled water. Water will move from the beaker(an area of higher water
potential) to the tubing (an area of lower water potential).
3.1 osmosis and water flow practical ; AK
Observation: level in capillary at start: 0 cm
level in capillary after 10 minutes : 20cm
difference in levels: 20 cm
conclusion:
The rise in the liquid level in the capillary tube indicates osmosis. Water has moved across a
semipermeable membrane from an area of lower solute concentration (outside the capillary) to an area
of higher solute concentration (inside the capillary).
1. The red dye was likely added to the sugar solution to make it easier to observe the movement of
water due to osmosis.
2. Repeat the experiment multiple times and calculate the average rise in the capillary tube.
Set up a control capillary tube without any sugar solution
Ensure the sugar solution concentration is the same in each trial.
Use a more accurate measuring tool to record the liquid level in the capillary tube, such as a
digital or finely calibrated ruler, to minimize reading errors.
3. a. The liquid would rise higher in the capillary tube.
b. The liquid would rise to a lower height compared to the original setup.
the smaller bore method is generally more accurate for observing osmosis, especially when
measuring small changes in liquid level.
4. Switching the concentration gradient would result in a drop in the liquid level inside the
capillary tube due to the outward movement of water through osmosis.
3.2 observing osmosis in potato tissue : AK
1. in water, water will move into the potato cells by osmosis, causing the potato pieces to gain
mass and become firmer.
In a sugar solution, water will move out of the potato cells, causing the potato pieces to lose
mass and become softer.
2.
Length (cm) Mass (g)
Before After Before After
In water 5 cm 5.5 cm 10 g 12.5 g
In sugar solution 5 cm 4.5 cm 10 g 8.5 g
3. Potato Cylinders in Water: They appear larger with a glossy surface due to water uptake and
feel firm and crisp, indicating turgidity.
Potato Cylinders in Sugar Solution: They appear smaller with a shriveled or wrinkled surface
due to water loss and feel soft and less firm, resulting in a rubbery or mushy texture.
4. Potato Cylinders in Water:
Mass Change: +25.0%
Length Change: +10.0%
Potato Cylinders in Sugar Solution:
Mass Change: -20.0%
Length Change: -10.0%
5. The water causes the potato cells to swell, making the cylinders larger and firmer. As a
result, the mass of the potato cylinders increases as they absorb water. The increase in
length and mass indicates that the cells have become turgid due to the water uptake.
The loss of water from the potato cells causes them to shrink and become flaccid. This
results in a decrease in both the length and mass of the potato cylinders. The cells lose
their turgidity, leading to a softer and less firm texture.
Evaluation:
1. peeling the potato enhances the accuracy and reliability of the osmosis experiment by
allowing for better water movement and more consistent results.
2. to enhances the control and reliability of the experimental conditions, contributing to more
accurate and consistent results in studies of osmosis and other processes.
3. helps to ensure the validity and reliability of the experiment, allowing for more accurate
conclusions about the effects of osmosis in the potato tissue.
4. To improve the accuracy of an osmosis experiment with potato cylinders, ensure consistent
sample sizes and environmental conditions, and use precise measurement techniques.
Conduct multiple trials and document all procedures to minimize variability and enhance
reliability.
