ASSIGNMENT OF TELECOMMUNICTION NETWORKKS

DEBRE TABOR UNIVERSITY

GAFAT INSTITUTE OF TECHNOLOGY
DEPARTMENT OF ELECTRICAL AND COMPUTER
ENGINEERING
ELECTRONIC COMMUNICATION ENGINEERING STREAM
ASSIGNMENT OF TELECOMMUNICATION NETWORKS

Prepared By: group one

Name Id No
1. Eba Eshetu.........................................................................................0531
2. Edosa Misgenu…………………………………………............….0551
3. Desalegn Tesfaye………………………………………….............0509
4. Adisu Kindalem………………………………...……….........…...0236
5. Tewabe Shibabaw………………………………………...............3156

Submitted To: Mr.Yibeltal A.

Submission Date:
DEBRE TABOR, ETHIOPIA.
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1. Explain the SONET Frame structure in depth.

➢ SONET Frame Structure (Synchronous Optical Network)
SONET is a standardized digital communication protocol used to transmit large
volumes of data over relatively long distances using optical fiber. The key element
in SONET is its frame structure, which allows multiplexing of digital signals from
different sources.

❖ Frame Format Overview

A SONET frame is composed of 810 octets (bytes). Transmission happens row by
row, from left to right and top to bottom. Bits are transmitted serially. The STS-1
frame of SDH includes the section overhead, transport overhead, payload overhead,
and the data payload.

The frame begins with a fixed A1/A2 bit pattern, 0xf628, used for bit/octet
synchronization. SONET/SDH is considered octet synchronous. The first three
columns of the SONET frame are the transport overhead. The subsequent 87
columns are the Synchronous Payload Envelope (SPE), which includes the payload
overhead. The STS-1 data rate is approximately 51.84 Mbps. This rate is achieved
because each SONET/SDH frame repeats every 125 microseconds.

• SONET frames are structured in a matrix of 9 rows by 90 columns, resulting

in 810 bytes.
• The basic rate is STS-1 (Synchronous Transport Signal level 1) which
operates at 51.84 Mbps.
• A frame is transmitted every 125 microseconds, giving a frame rate of 8000
frames/sec.

• STS stands for Synchronous Transport Signal.

• STS-1, after scrambling, is referred to as OC-1 (Optical Carrier)

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The figure illustrates a basic SONET STS-1 frame, which consists of 9 rows and 90 columns.

❖ SDH/SONET Digital Rate Hierarchy

SONET Rate SDH Line Rate Synchronous Payload Transport Overhead

Name Name (Mbps) Envelope Rate (Mbps) Rate (Mbps)

STS-1 None 51.84 50.112 1.728

STS-3 STM-1 155.52 150.336 5.184

STS-12 STM-4 622.08 601.344 20.736

STS-48 STM-16 2488.32 2405.376 84.672

STS-192 STM-64 9953.28 9621.504 331.776

STM-
STS-768 256 39813.12 38486.016 1327.104

❖ Frame Breakdown
Interleaving in SONET/SDH
An STS-3 frame is created by interleaving three STS-1 frames. The interleaving is
done at the octet level; that is, the A1 octet from the first, second, and third STS-1

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frames is taken sequentially, followed by the A2 octets from all three frames, and so
on.

The STS-1 frame is divided into:

A. Transport Overhead (TOH) – First 3 columns (27 bytes)

This part of the frame is used for management and maintenance.

• Section Overhead (SOH): First 3 rows of the first 3 columns

o Used for functions like framing, error monitoring, and communication
between repeaters.
• Line Overhead (LOH): Next 6 rows of the first 3 columns
o Used for functions such as synchronization, automatic protection
switching, and error correction.

B. Synchronous Payload Envelope (SPE) – Remaining 87 columns

This part carries user data and path overhead.

• Path Overhead (POH): Located at the beginning of the SPE

✓ Responsible for end-to-end communication between network elements.

• Payload: Actual data to be transmitted.

❖ Higher-Order SONET Frames

• STS-3 (155.52 Mbps) = 3 STS-1 frames multiplexed together.

• OC-3 is the optical carrier version of STS-3.

2. Explain Wavelength Division Multiplexing (WDM) in

current optical transmissions.

➢ Wavelength Division Multiplexing (WDM)

Wavelength Division Multiplexing (WDM) is a technology that enables multiple

optical carrier signals to be transmitted through a single optical fiber by using
different wavelengths (or colors) of laser light.

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Now days, telecommunication's future technology is increased day by day with need
for more data rate with high speed of reliable data transmission. An optical WDM
technology is being deployed in the market place at a very rapid rate. The main
purpose of this paper is to summarize the basic optical networking approaches,
briefly report on the WDM deployment strategies of two major U.S. carrier's and
outline the current research and development trends on WDM optical fiber network.

Wavelength Division Multiplexing (WDM)

WDM combines multiple optical TDM data streams over a single fiber through the
use of multiple wavelengths of light. Each individual TDM data stream is sent to a
separate laser that transmits a unique wavelength of light.

In the other word we can say that in time division multiplexing (TDM) each time
slots are fixed sequentially for different signals. If there is an empty time slot that
can be used for other signals, using STDM - (Statistical Time Division
Multiplexing).

The basic advantage of wavelength division multiplexing (WDM) is to multiply the

capacity of the fiber at a given bitrate; Ideally, WDM-devices show as separate fibers
for port transmission equipment. While doing that a lot of regeneration can be
removed from the network, and the system is higher bitrate irrational.

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WDM Transmission over one pair of fiber

❖ Main components of the WDM system

There are certain main components of the WDM system, which are given below-

•Transmitters with stabilized wavelength lasers

•WDM Multiplex (WDM-MUX), combines multiple laser sources into one

fiber

•Optical amplifiers: Boosters to boost optical power after WDM-MUX (and

compensate for WDM-MUX loss), optical pre amplifier to compensate for
WDM-DEMUX losses and increase receiver sensitivity by ~ 10 dB. You have
to remember that WDM-DEMUX acts as a narrow-band filter for the pre-
amplifier.

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❖ Type of WDM System

Early WDM systems delivered two or four wavelengths that were widely
spaced. The "follow-on" technologies of WDM and CWDM and DWDM are
well developed. Beyond this initial range.

Traditional, passive WDM systems are expanded with 2, 4, 8, 12 and 16

channels being the normal deployments. This technique usually has a distance
limit under 100 km.

≻Bidirectional WDM (BWDM)

≻Coarse WDM systems (CWDM)

≻Dense WDM systems (DWDM)

✓ Bidirectional WDM (BWDM): Such as 1.3 / 1.55 mm WDM. 1.3 mm is used

for one signal, 1.55 mm for the other. It is possible Used to make a 2 channel link
on a pair of fibers; Or a channel bi-directional link On a single fiber.

✓ Coarse WDM systems (CWDM) : Large distances between wavelengths;

Something ... almost. 10 wavelengths. Limited Increase in capacity but cheaper
components can be used (e.g. unleaded laser).

These days, coarse WDM (CWDM) typically uses 20-nm spacing (3000 GHz) of up
to 18 channels. The CWDM provides a grid of wavelengths for target distances up
to about 50 km on single mode fibers. The CDDM grid is composed of 18
wavelengths spanning 20 nm between 1270 nm to 1610 nm.

✓ Dense WDM systems (DWDM): The dense WDM common spacing with
channel count can be 200, 100, 50, or 25 GHz Reaching 128 or more channels
at a distance of several thousand kilometers amplification and regeneration along
such a route.

Very high capacitance with multiple wavelengths, typ. 32-40 in commercial systems
in use In the traditional band, the same or more in the longer wavelength band.
Hundreds Performed in the laboratory. Uses Erbium Doped Fiber Amplifiers
(EDFA) typically operating at 1530..1565 nm Band (1570..1610 L-band also
possible). This means that the wavelengths are close. The resulting tight tolerance
of the filtering components and laser wavelengths to each other Stability.

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DWDM is an expensive technology but it is also true that still much cheaper than
digging ground. DWDM technology is used in today's network for the long haul
transmission systems.

Comparison of BWDB, CWDM and DWDM

➢ Optical Multiplexing Technology

In the Optical multiplexing technologies DWDM and WDM systems have

revolutionized the use of optical fiber networks. In other words, we can call
wavelength different colors of light, that combined into one optical signal and
sent over a fiber-optic cable to a far-end optical multiplexing system.

➢ Optical Multiplexing Filters

The diagram below shows that a filter is a physical device that connects each
wavelength with other wavelengths. Multiplexing uses several techniques,
including:

•Thin-film filters

•Bragg gratings
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•Arrayed wave-guide gratings (AWGs)

•Interweavers, periodic filters, and frequency slicers)

WDM Filter

❖ Thin-Film Filter
Thin film filter (TFF) is a device that is used to multiplex and demultiplex optical
signals in some optical networks. TFFs are devices that use multiple ultra-thin layers.
Coating dielectric material deposited on a glass or polymer substrate.

It substrate only photons of a specific wavelength can be made to pass through, while
all others are reflected. By integrating several of these components, you can then
demultiplex Multiple wavelengths. As per given image shows what happens with
the four wavelengths.

Thin-Film Filter Concept

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The first TFF section passes through wavelengths 1 and represents 2, 3 and 4 Then
passes through 2 and denotes 3 and 4. This allows for demultiplexing or multiplexing
Optical signal.

❖ Fiber Bragg Gratings

A Bragg grating is made up of a small section of fiber that has been modified by
exposure. For ultraviolet radiation to create periodic changes in the refractive index
of the fiber. As given below the image, the result is that the light traveling through
Bragg gritting is refracted and then slightly reflected back, usually at a particular
wavelength.

Fiber Bragg Grating

The reflected wavelength, known as the Bragg resonance wavelength, depends on

the amount of refractive index change applied to the Bragg grating fiber and it also
depends on how far these changes are for refraction.

❖ Arrayed Wave-guides
In the transmitted direction, the AWG merges individual wavelengths, also known
as lambda (λ) from various lines etched into the AWG substrate (the base material it
supports) Waveguides in an etched line) is called an output waveguide, allowing a
multiplexer.

we are looking the below image in the opposite direction, the AWG can demultiplex
the composite λs onto individual etched lines. Usually, one is for AWG Transmit
and the other is for AWG to receive. Demultiplexing direction or receive.

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Arrayed Waveguide (Demultiplexer)

AWG can replace multiple Bragg grates; each Bragg grating supports only one
Wavelength and 8-λ have the same physical location as AWG. Multiple brag Grating
also costs more than a single AWG. For some applications, AWG provides a higher
channel capacity at a lower cost per Channel with a small footprint. It provides for
fewer components and results Component integration (eg, switching, variable
optical attenuators).

❖ Periodic Filters, Frequency Slicers, Inter leavers

The image below shows that there are periodic filters, frequency slices, and inter
lever devices can share the same functions and are usually used together. Stage 1 is
one of a kind Periodic filter, an AWG. Stage 2 is representative of a frequency slicer
at its input, in This example, another AWG; And an inter lever function at the output,
provided by six Bragg gratings.

Six λ are received at the input of AWG, which is then broken. Bottom sign in odd λ
and even λ. Strange λ and even λ go to their respective Phase 2 frequency slicers and
then six are distributed by the inter lever Discrete interference-free optical channels
for end-customer use.

By dividing a DWDM spectrum into several complementary sets of

periodic spectra, combined devices can create a hierarchical suite of
wavelengths for the more complex wavelength routing and switching.

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Combined Devices

3. Explain the SS7 Architecture and its cervices points in

depth.
❖ SS7 Architecture and Service Points
SS7 (Signaling System No. 7) is a set of telephony signaling protocols used to set
up and tear down telephone calls, as well as manage mobile services and text
messaging.

❖ SS7 Architecture: SS7 consists of layered protocols similar to the OSI model
A. MTP(Message Transfer Part)

Message Transfer Part diagram

1. MTP Level 1 – Physical layer (electrical/optical transmission)

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2. MTP Level 2 – Ensures reliable link-layer data transfer.

3. MTP Level 3 – Responsible for message routing between exchanges.

B. SCCP (Signaling Connection Control Part): Supports advanced routing and

global title translation for non-circuit-related messages.

❖ SCCP (Signaling Connection Control Part)

SCCP (Signaling Connection Control Part) is a network layer protocol used in
telecommunications for transmitting signaling messages over a network. SCCP
provides extended routing, flow control, segmentation, connection-orientation, and
error correction facilities in the SS7 protocol suite.
The base SCCP specification is defined by ITU-T in documentation Q.711 to Q.714,
with additional information in Q.715 and Q.716.

❖ SCCP Architecture
SCCP is situated above the Message Transfer Part (MTP) and below the Transaction
Capabilities Application Part (TCAP) in the SS7 protocol stack. This positioning
allows SCCP to leverage MTP's reliable transport capabilities while providing
enhanced routing and addressing services to TCAP and other higher-layer protocols.

• ASE (Application Service Elements): includes application-specific protocols

and services.

• OMAP (Operations, Maintenance, Administration, and Provisioning):

handles network management functions.

• TCAP (Transaction Capabilities Application Part): supports database services

in telecom networks.

• SCCP (Signaling Connection Control Part): provides connectionless and

connection-orientedservices

• ISUP (ISDN User Part): manages the setup, management, and release of voice
and data calls.

• MTP (Message Transfer Part):

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• MTP3 (Signaling Network Layer): responsible for message routing between

different nodes.
• MTP2 (Signaling Link Layer): ensures error-free transmission over a physical
link.
• MTP1 (Signaling Data Link Layer): handles the physical and electrical
characteristics of the signaling link.

❖ SCCP Message Structure

Unlike the Message Transfer Part (MTP), which routes messages based solely on
Point Codes, SCCP allows for more sophisticated routing using either a Point Code
and Subsystem Number or a Global Title.

✓ Point Code: This is a unique identifier assigned to each node or network

element within an SS7 network, used to direct messages to a specific node.
✓ Subsystem Number: This identifies a specific application or service within a
node, enabling targeted communication.
✓ Global Title Translation (GTT): SCCP employs Global Title Translation to
map logical addresses (Global Titles) to physical addresses (Point Codes),
guiding MTP on how to route messages through the network.

❖ SCCP Message Types

SCCP defines several message types to facilitate different communication functions:

Connectionless Messages (Used in protocol classes 0 and 1)

In connectionless mode, messages are sent independently without establishing a
dedicated connection between the sender and receiver. This mode is suitable for
applications where quick delivery is more critical than reliability. The following
message types are used in connectionless mode:

• Unit data (UDT): Used by SCCP to send data in a connectionless mode. It is

suitable for applications requiring quick transmission without the need for
connection setup.
• Unit data Service (UDTS): Indicates to the originating SCCP that a UDT
message cannot be delivered. It is sent when the "return on error" option is set
in the UDT.
• Extended Unit data (XUDT): Supports the transmission of data with optional
parameters in a connectionless mode. It is also used for segmenting large
messages into multiple XUDT messages.
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• Extended Unit data Service (XUDTS): Informs the originating SCCP that an
XUDT message cannot be delivered. It serves a similar purpose to UDTS but
for XUDT messages.
• Long Unit data (LUDT): Used to send larger data messages in connectionless
mode without segmentation, taking advantage of MTP capabilities. Allows
for NSDU sizes up to 3952 octets.
• Long Unit data Service (LUDTS): Indicates to the originating SCCP that a
Long Unit data (LUDT) message cannot be delivered. This message is used
when the LUDT delivery fails.

Connection-Oriented Messages
(Used in protocol classes 2 and 3 if other is not specified)
In connection-oriented mode, SCCP establishes a session between the sender and
receiver, ensuring reliable message delivery. This mode is suitable for critical
applications requiring data integrity and error correction. The following message
types are used in this mode:

• Connection Request (CR): Initiated by a calling SCCP to request the setup of

a signalling connection with a called SCCP. It includes the Source Local
Reference (SLR) as the address of the originating entity.
• Connection Confirm (CC): Sent by the called SCCP to indicate that the
signaling connection has been successfully set up. It contains the SLR as the
address of the called entity and DLR as the address of the originating entity.
• Connection Refused (CREF): Indicates that the setup of a signaling
connection has been refused by the called SCCP or an intermediate node.
• Data Form 1 (DT1): Used to send user data between two SCCP nodes during
an established connection. Used in the data transfer phase of protocol class 2.
• Data Form 2 (DT2): Similar to DT1 but includes the ability to acknowledge
messages flowing in the opposite direction. Used in the data transfer phase of
protocol class 3.
• Expedited Data (ED): Functions like a Data Form 2 message but bypasses
the flow control mechanism, allowing expedited transmission. Used in
protocol class 3.
• Expedited Data Acknowledgement (EA): Acknowledges receipt of an
Expedited Data message. Each ED message must be acknowledged by an EA
before another ED message can be sent. Used in protocol class 3.
• Data Acknowledgement (AK): Manages the window flow control mechanism
during data transfer, ensuring that data is received and processed in order.
Used in protocol class 3.

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• Inactivity Test (IT): Sent periodically to check if the signaling connection is

active and to audit connection data consistency.
• Protocol Data Unit Error (ERR): Sent when protocol errors are detected,
providing details about the error.
• Released (RLSD): Indicates that the sender wants to release a signaling
connection and associated resources. It prompts the receiving node to release
the connection as well.
• Release Complete (RLC): Sent in response to a Released message,
confirming that the release procedures have been completed.
• Reset Request (RSR): Indicates that the sender wants to initiate a reset
procedure, reinitializing sequence numbers with the receiver. Used in protocol
class 3.
• Reset Confirm (RSC): Sent in response to a Reset Request, confirming that
the reset procedures have been completed. Used in protocol class 3.

❖ SCCP Management Messages

These messages are used for managing subsystems and handling network
conditions:

• Subsystem-Prohibited (SSP): Informs concerned destinations of a subsystem

failure, indicating that the subsystem is prohibited.
• Subsystem-Allowed (SSA): Informs destinations that a previously prohibited
subsystem is now allowed or that an unavailable SCCP is now available.
• Subsystem-Status-Test (SST): Verifies the status of a prohibited subsystem
or an unavailable SCCP, checking its operational status.
• Subsystem Congested (SSC): Sent by an SCCP node experiencing
congestion, notifying concerned destinations of the congestion status.
• Subsystem-Out-of-Service-Request (SOR): Allows subsystems to go out of
service gracefully without degrading network performance.
• Subsystem-Out-of-Service-Grant (SOG): Sent in response to a Subsystem-
Out-of-Service-Request, confirming that the request has been granted and
procedures are in place.

❖ SCCP Protocol classes:SCCP protocol supports a variety of network

services through four distinct protocol classes. These classes are designed to
accommodate different communication needs.

There are two classes in connectionless mode: class 0&1

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Class 0: Basic Connectionless Class (BCC)

• Provides a straightforward, connectionless transport service where messages

are sent independently without establishing a session or connection.
• Ideal for applications like Short Message Service (SMS) where quick delivery
is prioritized over reliability, and some message loss or duplication is
acceptable.
• Does not ensure message sequencing or delivery acknowledgment.

Class 1: Sequenced Connectionless Class (SCC)

• Extends the basic connectionless service by ensuring messages are delivered

in the order they were sent, adding a layer of reliability in terms of sequencing.
• Suitable for applications requiring ordered message delivery, such as
command and control systems, while still operating without a dedicated
connection.

C. TCAP (Transaction Capabilities Application Part)

• Enables database queries for services like 800-number translation or prepaid

billing.

D. ISUP (ISDN User Part)

• Responsible for establishing, maintaining, and releasing voice calls over PSTN.

E. MAP (Mobile Application Part)

• Used in mobile networks to support roaming, SMS, call forwarding, etc.

❖ SS7 Service Points

1. SP (Signaling Point): Any node in the SS7 network with a point code that
can send/receive messages.
2. SSP (Service Switching Point): Exchanges that initiate SS7 messages (e.g.,
to set up a call).

Signal Switching Point SSPs are switches that have SS7 software and terminating
signaling links. An SSP can be a combined voice/SS7 switch or an adjunct computer
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system (front end) connected to a voice (Class 5 or tandem) switch. SSPs create
packets (signal units) and send those messages to other SSPs, as well as queries to
remote shared databases to find out how to route calls. They can originate, terminate,
or switch calls. SSPs communicate with the voice switch via the use of primitives
and have the ability to send messages using ISUP (call setup and teardown) and
TCAP (database lookup) protocols.

3. STP (Signal Transfer Point): Routers that forward SS7 messages between
SPs.

STPs are packet switches, and act like routers in the SS7 network. Messages are not
usually originated by an STP. An STP can act like a firewall, screening messages
with other networks. STPs route SS7 messages (based on information contained in
the message format) to outgoing signaling links over the SS7 network. They are the
most versatile of all the SS7 entities, and are a major component in the network.
There are three levels of STPs.

• National Signal Transfer Point

• International Signal Transfer Point

• Gateway Signal Transfer Point

National STP: A National STP exists within the national network (will vary with
the country). It can transfer messages that use the same national standard of protocol.
Messages can be passed to an International STP, but can not be converted by the
National STP. Protocol converters often interconnect a National and an International
STP by converting from ANSI to ITU-TS. International STP An International STP
functions within an international network. It provides for SS7 interconnection of all
countries, using the ITU-TS standard protocol. All nodes connecting to an
International STP must use the ITU-TS protocol standard.

4. SCP (Service Control Point): Databases that provide services like number
translation and mobile subscriber management.

An SCP is usually a computer used as a front end to a database system. It is an

interface to telco databases, not usually to other, application-specific databases.
Telco databases are usually linked to SCPs by X.25 links. The SCP can provide
protocol conversion from X.25 to SS7, or can provide direct access to the database
through the use of primitives which support access from one level of protocol to
another. Note Some new SCP applications are being implemented in STPs. The
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address of an SCP is a point code, and the address of the database it interfaces with
is a subsystem number. The database is an application entity which is accessed via
the TCAP protocol.

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