UPPCS

SPECIAL SHORT NOTES

GEOGRAPHY
(Notes Code: 1.1 Part: 1)
INDIAN GEOGRAPHY
 GEOGRAPHY SPECIAL SHORT NOTES
INDIAN GEOGRAPHY – PART -1

Index

CHAPTER -1: INTRODUCTION 3

CHAPTER -2: PHYSIOGRAPHY OF INDIA 5
CHAPTER -3: DRAINAGE SYSTEM 19
CHAPTER -4: CLIMATE OF INDIA 27
CHAPTER -5: SOIL 34
CHAPTER -6: PROBLEMS OF INDIAN SOILS 43
CHAPTER -7: NATURAL VEGETATION OF INDIA 47

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CHAPTER -1
INTRODUCTION
 Historically, India is known as Bharatvarsh. -8iujhn
 Indian Ocean or Hind Mahasagar has also been named after India - the only country to be so.

Location, Extent and Boundaries of India

1. India lies wholly in the Northern Hemisphere and
Eastern Hemisphere. Note: According to the Constitution of
 Latitude: The Indian mainland lies between 8°4′ India, the country is known as Bharat
and 37°6′ North. or India.
 0Longitude: Between 68°7′ and 97°25′ East
2. The latitudinal and longitudinal extent of India, are roughly about 30 degrees, whereas the
actual distance measured from north to south extremity is 3,214 km, and that from east to west
is only 2,933 km.
3. The northern most point of the Indian mainland lies near Siachen Glacier at Indira Col,
Ladakh and the southernmost point of mainland is Kanyakumari in Tamil Nādu.
4. The southernmost point of the country as a whole lie further south in the
5. Andaman and Nicobar Islands. It is called Indira Point in Great Nicobar. (UPPCS Pre 1990,
Lower, 2003)
 It is situated at 6°45'N latitude.
6. The Western most point is in Guhar Moti, Gujarat, Eastern most point is in Kibithu,
Arunachal Pradesh.
7. The Tropic of Cancer passes almost halfway through the country. Thus, half of the country to
the south of the Tropic of Cancer is situated in the Tropical or Torrid zone and the other half
lying north falls in the Sub-tropical zone. It passes through 8 Indian states namely Mizoram,
Tripura, WB, Jharkhand, Chhattisgarh, MP, Rajasthan, Gujarat. (UPPCS Pre 1990,2017, RO
2016, M 2008)
8. Real Time Difference: As the longitudinal extent of India is nearly 29°, the real time difference
in India between its eastern and western extremities is roughly of two hours. (UPPCS Pre 1992,
2010)
 For the convenience of all, each country chooses its standard meridian in a multiple of 7°30'.
9. Accordingly, the standard meridian of India has been chosen to be 82°30' E near west of the
town of Mirzapur. It passes through UP, MP, Chhattisgarh, Odisha, Andhra Pradesh.
(UPPCS M 2010, Pre 2013)
 The western part of northern Indian Ocean is called the Arabian Sea while the eastern
part is called the Bay of Bengal.
10. The Palk Strait separates Indian mainland from Sri Lanka.
Note: Structurally, Sri Lanka is an extension of the peninsular block of India.
Area : 3.2 million
kmsq

Size
 Total Land Area: India accounts for 2.42 per cent (7th Note: Most of our boundary with
largest) of the world‘s total land area; whereas it sustains Pakistan and Bangladesh is almost
more than 17 per cent of the world population and it is 2nd man-made. There is no mountain
populous country in the world but would become the first range or river to form a natural
soon. (UPPCS M 2006) boundary.
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 The land frontiers of India measures around 15,106.7 km and a coastline of around 7516.6 km
including islands as well. (UPRO 2016)
 Pakistan, Afghanistan, China, Nepal, Myanmar, Bhutan and Bangladesh share common
boundaries with India.

******

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CHAPTER -2
PHYSIOGRAPHY OF INDIA

India may be divided into the following physiographic divisions:

 The elevated Peninsular region
 The mighty Himalayas and their associated young folded mountains
 The Indo-Gangetic-Brahmaputra Plains
 The Coastal Plains and
 Islands.

Origin and Physiography of the Peninsular India

 The origin of rocks of Peninsular India is more than 3600 million years old.
 Before the Carboniferous period, it was a part of the Gondwanaland.
 The India Peninsula never subsided under the sea permanently.
 It has experienced block faulting and displacement during the subsequent periods as evidenced
by the Dharwar and Gondwana formations and the fault valleys of the Narmada, Tapi and
Son rivers.
 It was during the Carboniferous Period that coal was formed in the Damodar, Son, Mahanadi and
Godavari basins. (UP Lower 2004)
 During the Cretaceous Period, large scale Vulcan city produced the Deccan Trap (the Lava
Plateau of India), comprising lava sheets of several thousand metres in depth.
 The plateau of Peninsular India has some of the oldest rocks of the world from the Precambrian
period (Archaean) and the youngest rocks of the Holocene epoch (Quaternary/Recent period).
 Gondwana rock system is the latest one as compared to Vindhyan, Cuddapah and Dharwar.
(UPPCS Pre 2016)

Physiography and Relief Features of Peninsular India

 Area: Covering an area of about l6 lakh sq. km, the peninsular upland forms the largest
physiographic division of India.
 Elevation: With a general elevation between 600-900 metres, the region constitutes an irregular
triangle with its base lying between the Delhi Ridge and the Raajmahal Hills and the apex
formed by Kanyakumari. Boundaries: It is bounded by the Aravallis in the north-west, Maikal
Range in the north, Hazaribagh and Raajmahal Hills in the northeast, the Western Ghats
{Sahyadri Mountains.) in the west and the Eastern Ghats in the east.
 Highest peak: The highest peak of Peninsular India-Anaimudi , is 2695 metres above sea level.
(UPPCS M 2015) The Peninsular Uplands can be divided into the following eight macro-
physiographic units

The Physiographic Regions of Peninsular India (Meso-Regions)

1. The North Central Highlands: The central highlands of peninsular India include the Aravallis,
the Malwa Plateau, and the Vindhyan Range.
 The Aravallis (Rajasthan) [UPRO 2014]:
o Extent: Runs from north-east to south-west for about 800 km, between Delhi to Palanpur
(Gujarat).

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o One of the oldest folded mountains of the world and India (UPPCS M 2017, UPPSC
GIC 2010) and being highly denuded and termed as residual mountain (UPPCS M
2005), its highest peak-Guru-Sikhar is only 1722 metres in height.
o It is composed of quartzites, gneisses and schists of the Precambrian period. Northwest
of Udaipur, the Aravallis are called jirga Hills (1431 m).
o The Goranghai Pass separates Guru shikar from Mount Abu.
o The Great Boundary Fault (GBF) separates the Aravallis from the Vindhyan
Mountains.
 The Malwa Plateau:
o Bordered by the Aravallis in the north, the Vindhyan Range in the south and the
Bundelkhand Plateau in the east.
o Two drainage systems, one towards the Arabian Sea (Narmada, and Mahi), and another
towards the Bay of Bengal (Chambal, Sind, Betwa and Ken) joining the Yamuna river.
2. The South-Central Highlands:
 Extent: The Vindhyan Range extends from Jobat (Gujarat) and Chittorgarh (Rajasthan) to
Sasaram in Bihar.
 Extends for about 1050 km with general elevation between 450 to 600 metres.
 Apart from the Kaimur Hills in the east, the Maikal Range forms connecting link between
the Vindhyan and the Satpura mountains.
 The Bundelkhand (Vindhyachal Plateau):
o Extent: It is bounded by the Yamuna River in the north Vindhyan in the south., the
Chambal in the northwest and Panna-Ajaigarh Range in the south-east.
o The Bundelkhand upland stretches over the districts of Banda, Hamirpur, Jalaun,
Jhansi, and Lalitpur (U.P.}, and Datia, Tikamgarh, Chhatarpur and Panna (M.P.)
 The Vindhyachal-Baghelkhand or Vindhyachal Plateau:
o Extent: Includes the plateaux of Satna, Rewa (M.P.) and Mirzapur {U.P.).
o Elevation: Its elevation varies between 150 to 1200 metres with uneven relief. To the
south of this lies the Narmada-Son trough (rift valley} characterized by the Archaean‘s
and Bijwar series.
o South of this trough is the eastward extension of the Satpura which is an area of radial
drainage. Among the basins, Singrauli and Dudhi (150-300 M) are Upper Gondwana
basins, which are rich in coal deposits.
o Rivers: Besides the Narmada and Son, this region is drained by the Karmanasa, Tons,
Ken and Belandare rivers.
o Ranges: Parallel to the Vindhyan between the Narmada and the Tapi rivers is the Satpura
Range. Satpura consists of Rajpipla Hills, Mahadev Hills and the Maikal Range.
o Peaks: Dhupgarh (1350 m, near Pachmarhi) is the highest peak of Satpura. Amarkantak
{1064 metres) is another important peak of the Satpura mountains.
 The Chotanagpur Plateau
o Extent: Sprawls over parts of West Bengal, Jharkhand, Chhattisgarh, Orissa and north
eastern part of Andhra Pradesh. It has a series of the meso and micro plateaux (Ranchi,
Hazaribagh, Singhbhum, Dhanbad, Palamu, Santhal-Parganas and Purulia districts of
West Bengal). Dalma Hills in Jharkhand is famous for wildlife sanctuary. (UPRO 2017)
o Composed of Archaean granite and gneiss rocks with patches of Dharwar (mica schists),
the Damuda series of the Gondwana Period, and the lava flow of the Cretaceous Period.
o Pat land: Consists of plateaux at different levels of elevation, the highest general
elevation of about 1100 m in the mid-western part is known as pat lands.

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o The rivers which drain the Chhotanagpur Plateau are Barakar, Damodar, Subarnarekha,
and Koels.
3. Eastern Plateau:
 The Damodar river flows through the middle of this region in a rift valley from west to east.
Here are found the Gondwana coal fields which provide bulk of coal in India.
 North of the Damodar river is the Hazaribagh plateau with an average elevation of 600 m
above mean sea level. This plateau has isolated hills. It looks like a peneplain due to large
scale erosion.
 The Ranchi Plateau to the south of the Damodar Valley rises to about 600 m above mean
sea level. Most of the surface is rolling where the city of Ranchi (661 m) is located.
 At places it is interruped by monadnocks (an isolated hill or ridge of erosion-resistant rock
rising above a peneplain. Ex: Ayers Rock in Australia) and conical hills.
4. The Meghalaya Plateau and the Mikir Hills (UPLDA 2013)
 Composition: Consisting of the Garo, Khasi, Jaintia hills and the outlying Mikir and Regma
hills.
 It is a plateau which has been detached from the Indian Peninsula by the Malda Gap.
Chequered evolutionary history of emergence, submergence, planation surface with several
phases of erosion, sedimentation, diastrophism and intrusions.
 Highest Peak: The Shillong Peak is the highest elevation (1961 m) in the Meghalaya
Plateau, while Nokrek (1412 m) is the highest peak of the Garo Hills. (UPRO 2017)
 Highest Rainfall Areas: Mawsynram which is west of Cherrapunji records the highest
rainfall in the world.
 Hills: The Mikir Hills are detached from the Meghalaya Plateau and are surrounded by plains
from three sides. The southern range of the Mikir Hills is known as the Rengma Hills (900
m).
5. The North Deccan (Maharashtra Plateau)
 The plateau of Maharashtra includes the entire state of Maharashtra, except the Konkan coast
and the Sahyadri‘s.
 Mainly covered by the basalt of the Cretaceous Period. The basaltic sheet has a thickness of
about 3 km in the western parts which diminishes towards the east and south-east.
 The most striking feature of the Maharashtra Plateau is the fault (1000 metres), giving rise to
the present shoreline of the Arabian Sea.
 Through the northern part of the Maharashtra Plateau flows the Tapi River from east to west.
 It has a gentle slope in the south and steep gradient in the north (towards the Satpura Hills).
6. The South Deccan: The south Deccan consists of several plateaux:
 Karnataka Plateau:
o Extent: Spans in the slate of Karnataka and the Cannanore and Kozhikode districts of
Kerala. Dominance of Archaean and Dharwar formations. It has an average elevation of
600-900 metres.
o Peaks: Mullayangiri (1930 metres) is the highest peak in Baba-Budan Hills, followed by
the Kudermukh (1894metres) peak. The northern upland of the Karnataka plateau is
known as Malnad, while the southern part is called a Maidan.
 The Telangana Plateau: Consists of Dharwar and Cuddapah formations. The Tamil Nadu
Upland: lies between the South Sahyadri and Tamil Nadu coastal plains covered by the
Archaean rocks.

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o The charnockites are found in Javadi and Shevaroy hills. Moreover, there are Cuddapah
and alluvial formations. Between Coimbatore and Annamalai‘s, there is a broad gap,
known as Palakkad Gap (Palghat), about 24 km wide.
7. The Western Ghats:
 Extent: The Western Ghats or Sahyadri‘s run parallel to the western coast for about 1600 km
in the north south direction from the mouth of the Tapi river to Kanyakumari (Cape
Camorin).
 Slope: The western slope of Sahyadri is steep while the eastern slope is gentle.
 These are block mountains formed due to the down warping of a part of land into the
Arabian Sea. Its northern section is covered by lava. (UPRO 2017)
 Rives/Watersheds: All the important rivers of Peninsular India, like the Godavari, Krishna
and Kaveri rise from the Western Ghats.
 The average elevation of the Western Ghats varies between 1000 to 1300 metres.
 Peaks: The important peaks of the Western Ghats are Kudermukh (1892 m), Pushpagiri
{1714 m), Kalsubai (1646 m) and Sajher (1567 m), Mahabaleshwar (1438 m) and
Harishchandra (1424 m}.
 Note: In the Nilgiris the Eastern Ghat joins the Western Ghat to form a mountain knot
(Nilgiri} whose highest point is Doddabetta (2637m) [UPPCS Pre 2005,2012,2016 &
UPLDA 2013). South of Nilgiri lies the Palghat (Palakkad Gap).
 Passes: Bhor ghat pass is located in Maharashtra which connects Mumbai and Pune. Pal
ghat pass is located in Kerala which connects Kollam and Madurai. Thal ghat is near the
town of Kasara in Maharashtra. It is along the busy Mumbai Nashik route. (UPRO 2016,
UPPCS Pre 2013)
8. The Eastern Ghats
 Extent: Form the eastern boundary of the Deccan Plateau. The average height of the Eastern
Ghats is about 600 m.
 The peak of Singaraju (Orissa) with an elevation of 1516 metres is one of the peaks of the
Eastern Ghats. Deomali Peak (1672m) is in Odisha and the highest peak in Eastern Ghat is
Jindhagada Peak (1690 m) in Andhra Pradesh.
 Among other peaks Nimalgiri (1515 m) in the Koraput District and Mahendragiri (1501 m)
in Ganjam District are the other important peaks.
 Ranges: Between the Krishna river and Chinnai are the Kondavidu, Nallarnalai, Velikonds,
Palkonda, and Erramala Ranges.
 Hills: Their continuation can be seen in the Seshachalam (Cuddapah and Anantapur
districts), Javadi, Shevaroy, Panchaimalai, Sirumalai, and Varushnad Hills south west of
Madurai (Tamil Nadu)

The Himalaya
 Extend from the eastern boundary of Pakistan to the border of Myanmar for about 2500 km with
a varying width of about 500 km in the west and about 320 km in the east.
 Lie to the north of the Ganga-Brahmaputra Plains and are separated from the plains by the
Himalayan Front Fault (HFF).
 Include parts of Jammu and Kashmir, Himachal Pradesh, Uttarakhand, Nepal, Sikkim, Bhutan
and Arunachal Pradesh.
 Their offshoots run in a north-south direction along the India-Myanmar boundary through
Nagaland, Manipur, and Mizoram.

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Consist of four litho-tectonic mountain ranges, namely:

1. Origin of the Himalayas
 Mostly formed of sedimentary and metamorphic rocks, it has been subjected to intense
folding and faulting. The main theories about the origin of the Himalaya are as under:
 The Geosyncline Origin: Geosyncline origin led to the formation of a long Tethys Sea
between the Lauratian Shield (Angaraland) of the north and the Gondwanaland of the south.
 The Plate Tectonic Origin of the Himalayas
o The theory of Plate Tectonics was put forward by WJ Morgan is based on the concept of
'Sea-Floor Spreading' advocated by H. H. Hess.
o About 70 or 65 million years ago there was an extensive geosyncline, called the Tethys,
in place of the Himalayas.
o About 60-30 million years ago due to Northward movement the Indian plate came very
close to the Eurasian plate and started subducting under the Asian plate that caused lateral
compression due to which the sediments of the Tethys were squeezed and folded into
three parallel ranges of the Himalayas.
o Estimated that this convergence has caused a crustal shortening of about 500 km in the
Himalayan region and is compensated by sea floor spreading along the oceanic ridge in
the Indian ocean region.
o Since the northward movement of the Indian plate is still continuing, the height of the
Himalayan peaks is increasing.
o The Indian Plate is moving northward and the centre of rotation is constantly changing.
2. Physiographic Divisions of The Himalayas
For a systematic study of the physiography and relief, the Himalayas may be divided into the
following:
 The Trans-Himalayas
o About 40 km wide contain the Tethys sediments.
o The rocks of this region contain fossils bearing marine sediments which are underlain by
'Tertiary granite', partly metamorphosed sediments and constitutes the core of the
Himalayan axis.
 The Greater Himalayas or Himadri
o Rise abruptly like a wall north of the Lesser Himalayas.
o The Main Central Thrust separates the Greater Himalayas from the Lesser Himalayas.
o Extent: About 25 km wide with an average height above 5000 metres.
o Almost all the lofty peaks of the Himalayas lie in this zone.
o Rocks: Composed of crystalline, igneous or metamorphic rocks (granite, schists, and
gneiss).
o The basal complex of the Himalayas is Archaean.
o It is the youngest mountain range of India. (UPPCS Pre 2020)
 The Lesser Himalayas
o Extent: About 80 km width and an average height of 1300-5000m, consists generally, of
metamorphosed crystalline.
o Rocks: Main rocks are slate, limestone and quartzites.
o Along the southern margin of the Lesser Himalayas lies the autochthonous belt of highly
compressed Upper Palaeozoic to Eocene rocks, often containing volcanic material.

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 The Shiwaliks or Outer Himalayas/Sub-Himalayas

o Extend from Jammu Division of Jammu and Kashmir State to Assam.
o In width, Shiwaliks vary from 8 km in the east to 45 km in the west with an average
elevation of about1300 m above sea level.
o Not a continuous range (Broader in the west and narrows down in the east).
o Doons: Between the Shiwaliks and the Lesser Himalayas are longitudinal valleys called
Doons/ Duns.
 Important Duns are Dehra Dun, Kothri, Kathmandu, Chumbi, Kota and Kyarda.
o Chos: There are parts or slopes of the Shiwalik range which are completely devoured or
lack forest cover, i.e. they face heavy erosion as they are very anatomized by the seasonal
rivers that flow through them. These seasonal rivers, streams or torrents that flow through
the Shiwalik range are known as chos or khads. Example is the northern part of Punjab
plain which is heavily eroded due to Chos.
o Composition: Mainly composed of sandstones, sand rocks, clay, conglomerates and
limestones, mostly belonging to the Upper Tertiary Period.

3. Longitudinal Divisions of the Himalayas: The Himalayas have also been divided by Sir S.
Burrard into following divisions, namely
 The Kashmir Himalayas
o Length and Width: About 350,000 sq. km in the state of Jammu and Kashmir, the range
stretches about 700 km in length and 500 km in width.

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o With an average height of 3000 m, it has the largest number of glaciers in India.
o The Ladakh region of the Kashmir Himalayas is characterised by cold desert conditions.
o Kashmir Valley: Surrounded by the Greater Himalayas and the Lesser Himalayas is the
Kashmir Valley.
o Karewa: A special feature of the Valley of Kashmir is the Karewa (lacustrine) deposits
consisting of silt, sand and clay.
 These karewas are mainly devoted to the cultivation of saffron and have orchards of
apple, peach, almond, walnut and apricot.
o Passes: Pir-Panjal, Banihal (Jawahar Tunnel), ZojiLa, Pensi-La, Saser-La, Lanak-La,
Jara-La, Taska-La, Chang-La, Umasi-La., and Qara-Tagh-La (Karakoram) are the
important passes of the Kashmir Himalayas.
 The Himachal Himalayas
o Extent: Stretching over Himachal Pradesh, it occupies an area of about 45,000 sq km. It
stands for Middle Himalayas. (UPPCS M 2008)
o Ranges: All the three ranges (the Greater, the Lesser and the Outer Himalayas) are well
represented in this region.
o Features: The northern slopes of the Himachal Himalayas are bare and show plains and
lakes, while the southern slopes are rugged and forest clad.
o Passes: Rohtang, Bara-Lacha, lmis-La, and Shipki-La are the important passes which
join Himachal Pradesh with Tibet (China).
o Valleys: The beautiful and highly productive valleys of Kangra, Kullu, Manali, Lahul,
and Spiti lie in Himachal Pradesh. Atal tunnel built by B.R.O. connects Manali and
Lahaul Spiti Valley across Pir – Panjal range of Himalayas. (UPRO 2016)
o Hill Stations: ShimIa, Dalhousie, Chamba, Kullu-Manali are the important hill stations
of this region.
 The Kumaun Himalayas
o Extent: lie between the Satluj and the Kali rivers, stretching to a length of 320 km and
occupying an area of about 38,000 sq km. (UPRO 2016)
o Peaks: Its highest peak is Nanda Devi (7817 m). Among the other peaks Kamet (7756
m), Trisul (7140 m), Badrinath (7138), Kedarnath (6940 m).
o Hill Stations: The important hill stations include Mussoorie, Nainital, Ranikhet, Almora,
and Bageshwar.
o Passes: The Kumaun Himalayas are connected to Tibet by a number of passes namely,
Muling-La (5669 m), Mana Pass, Niti Pass, (5068 m), Tun- Jun-La, Shalsal Pass, Balcha
Dhura. Kungrinbingri Pass, Lampiya Dhura, Mangsha Dhura, Marhi-La (4993 m), and
Lipu Lekh.
 The Central Himalayas
o Extent: Stretches from river Kali to river Tista for about 800 km occupying an area of
about 116,800 sq km.
o A major part of it lies in Nepal except the extreme eastern part called Sikkim Himalayas
and in the Darjeeling District of West Bengal.
o All the three ranges of the Himalayas are represented here.
o Peaks: The highest peaks of the world like Mt. Everest (8850 m), Kanchenjunga (8598
m), Makalu (8481 m), Dhaulagiri (8168 m), Annapurna (8075 m), and Gosainath (located
in Tibet) (8014 m) are situated in this part of the Himalayas. (UPPCS M 2005)
o Passes: The passes of NathuLa and Jelep-La in Sikkim connect Sikkim with Lhasa
{Tibet, China).
 The Eastern Himalayas

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o Extent: Lies between the Tista and the Brahmaputra rivers, covering a distance of about
720 km with an area of 67,500 sq km.
 The Eastern Himalayas occupy the state of Arunachal Pradesh (India) and Bhutan.
 The Himalayas rise very rapidly from the plains of Assam, and the foothills of
Shiwaliks are very narrow.
o Hills: The Eastern Himalaya include the Aka Hills, the Daphla Hills, Miri Hills
(Arunachal Pradesh) [UPRO 2017], Abor Hills, Mishmi Hills, and Namcha Barwa
(Tibet) and Gurla Manadhata (Tibet). [UPPCS Pre 2019]
o Passes: Has a number of mountains passes among which Bomdi-La, Tse-La, Dihang,
Debang (Arunachal Pradesh) are the most important
o Turn of Himalaya: On the southern border of Arunachal Pradesh, the Himalayas take a
southerly turn and the ranges are arranged in a north-south direction.
o Poorvanchal: Passing through states of Arunachal Pradesh (Tirap Division} Nagaland,
Manipur, Tripura, and Mizoram, the Himalayas are locally known as Poorvanchal.
o Hills: The main hills of the Eastern Himalayas are Patkai-Bum (Arunachal Pradesh along
the border of Myanmar)[UPPCS M 2015], Naga Hills (Nagaland), Manipur Hills, Blue
Mountains (Mizoram), Tripura Range, and Brail range.
o Arakanyoma: On the border of Nagaland and Myanmar lies the Arakanyoma.
o The Poorvanchal is joined by the Meghalaya Plateau in the west.
o In comparison to eastern Himalaya the value of height of tree – line in western area is
less. (UPPCS M 2005)
o Extension up to Islands: Extension of Myanmar mountain chain continues southward up
to Andaman and Nicobar Islands and even up to the Archipelago of Indonesia.
4. The Syntaxial Bends of The Himalayas
The general east-west trend of the Himalayas terminates suddenly at its western and eastern
extremities and the ranges are sharply bent southward in deep knee-bend flexures which are
called syntaxial bends.
 The Western Syntaxial Bend: is near Nanga Prabat where the Indus has cut a deep gorge.
o The geological formation here takes sharp hairpin bends as if they were bent round
pivotal points obstructing them.
 Eastern Syntaxial Bend: There is a hair-pin bend in Arunachal Pradesh where mountains
take a sharp bend from eastern to southern direction after crossing the Brahmaputra river.
o The tectonic strike also undergoes a deep knee-bend from an easterly to southerly trend.
Main Passes of Himalayas
 Situated to the north of K2 which is the highest mountain peak in India
Aghil Pass in the Karakoram at an elevation of about 5000 m above the sea level.
(Karakoram-Ladakh) (UPPCS M 2009)
 Joins Ladakh with the Xinjiang (Sinkiang) Province of China.
 Situated at an elevation of 2832 m the Pir-Panjal Range.
Banihal Pass  It joins Jammu with Srinagar.
(Jawahar Tunnel)  The Jawahar Tunnel {named after Pandit Jawaharlal Nehru), was
constructed for round-the-year surface transport.
Bara Lacha  Situated at an altitude of 4850 m.
(Himachal Pradesh  It is on the National Highway connecting Manali and Leh.
with Leh-Ladakh)
Bomdi La (Arunachal  It connects Arunachal Pradesh with Tibet. (UPPCS M 2006, 2015)
Pradesh)

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Bunail Pass (Srinagar  Situated at an altitude of more than five thousand feet above sea level.
with Kishan-Ganga  This pass connects Ladakh with China.
Valley)
Chang-La (Ladakh  Situated at an elevation of over 5391 m, it is a high mountain pass in
with Tibet) the Himalayas.
 Road after Chang-Ia is extremely steep, leading to town of Tangtse.
Dihang Pass  Situated in state of Arunachal Pradesh at elevation of about 4000 feet
 This pass connects Arunachal Pradesh with Mandalay (Myanmar).
Diphu Pass  Situated in Arunachal Pradesh, provides an easy and shortest access to
(Arunachal Pradesh Mandalay {Myanmar).
with Mandalay in
Myanmar)
 Situated at an elevation of more than five thousand m above sea level.
Khardung La  It is one of the highest motorable pass in the country but remained
closed in winter.
 It is gateway to Nubra and shyok valley
Khunjerab Pass  Situated at an altitude of more than four thousand metre in the
(Karakoram) Karakoram Mountains.
 It is international pass and highest point on Karakoram Highway.
Jelep La (4538 m)  This pass connects Sikkim with Lhasa. It passes through the Chumbi
Valley.(UPPCS M 2006)
 Situated at altitude of about five thousand metres in Aksai-Chin region
Lanak La (Ladakh Plateau) [UPPCS Pre 1995], it connects Ladakh with Lhasa.
 The Chinese have constructed a road to connect the Xinjiang
(Sinkiang) Province of China with Tibet.
Lekhapani  Situated at an altitude of more than four thousand metres above sea
(Arunachal Pradesh) level, the Lekhapani Pass joins Arunachal Pradesh with Myanmar.
 For trade and transport, it remains open throughout the year.
 Situated in Pithoragarh District, it connects Uttarakhand with Tibet.
Lipu Lakh
 The pilgrims for Man Sarovar Lake travel through this pass. (UP
(Uttarakhand)
Lower 2009, 2013,UPPCS Pre 2013)
Mana Pass  Situated at elevation of about 5545 m above sea level in the Greater
Himalayas, it connects Uttarakhand with Tibet. (UPPCS Pre 2016)
 Situated at elevation of more than five thousand metres in district of
Mangsha Dhura Pass Pithoragarh, Mangsha Dhura Pass connects Uttarakhand with Tibet.
 The pilgrims for Mansarovar cross this pass. Landslides create great
problems for tourists and pilgrims.
Muling La  Situated north of Gangotri, this seasonal pass joins Uttarakhand with
(Uttarakhand) Tibet.(UPPCS M 2006)
 Nathu La is located on the Indo-China border.
Nathu La (Sikkim):
 Pass, at 4310m above sea level forms part of offshoot of ancient Silk
(UPPCS Pre 2006)
Road.
 Situated at an altitude of 5068 m above sea level, the Niti Pass joins
Uttarakhand with Tibet.
Niti Pass
 Nelang Valley falls under Gangotri National Park in Uttarkashi,
Uttarakhand. It is near Indo – China border. (UPPCS Pre 2016)

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Pangsau Pass  Situated at an elevation of more than 4000 metres above sea level, this
(Arunachal Pradesh) pass connects Arunachal Pradesh with Mandalay (Myanmar).
Pir-Panjal Pass:  Traditional pass from Jammu to Srinagar, that lies on Mughal Road.
Qara Tagh Pass  Located in Karakoram Mountains at elevation of more than 6000 feet
above sea level, this pass was an offshoot of Great Silk Road.
 Located at elevation of 3979 m above sea level, this pass connects the
Kullu, Lahul and Spiti valleys of Himachal Pradesh. (UPPCS M 2015)
Rohtang Pass
 It has excellent road access, constructed by the Border Road
Organisation (BRO).
 Located at an altitude of more than 6000 m above sea level·(UPPCS M
Shipki La
2004, 2006, 2011,Pre 2016)
 Through Satluj Gorge, Shipki-La joins Himachal Pradesh with Tibet.
 Located at elevation of 5359m above sea level, mountain pass in
Thang La (Ladakh)
Ladakh .
 It is one of the highest motorable mountain pass in India.
 Located at an altitude of 3'850 m above sea level, it joins Srinagar with
Zoji La Kargil and Leh. (UPPCS Pre 2016)
 Recently, the Srinagar-Zoji-La Road has been declared a National ·
Highway (NH-l D) by the centre.
SE LA  It is located in Arunachal Pradesh. (UPPCS M 2015)

The Great Plains of India

1. The Great Plains of India lie to the south of the Shivalik separated by the Himalayan Front Fault
(HFF).
2. It is a transitional zone between the Himalayas of the north and Peninsular India of the south.
3. General Characteristics:
 Formation: It is an a gradational plain formed by the alluvial deposits of the Indus, Ganga,
Brahmaputra and their tributaries.
 Extent:
o The plain stretches for about 2400 km from west to east.
o It has varying width; 90-100 km in Assam, 160 km near Raajmahal Jharkhand), 200 km
in Bihar, 280 km near Allahabad and 500 km in Punjab.
o In general, the width of the plain increases from east lowest.
 The Great Plains of India consist largely of alluvial deposits brought down by the rivers
originating in the Himalayan and the Peninsular region
 The Northern Plains form an important geographical feature of India, covering over 7 lakhs
sq.km.
4. Division of Indo-Gangetic and Brahmaputra Plains
 Starting from the west, moving towards the east, the plain has the following divisions
o Sindh plain
o Rajasthan plain
o Punjab plain
o Ganga plain
o Ganga - Brahmaputra delta
o Brahmaputra plain

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1. Sindh plain
 It comprises the older alluvium deposited by the Indus and its tributaries. Hence, these are
considered to be Bhangar plains.
 The two important features of these plains are Dhor and Dhand.
o Dhors are long, narrow depressions which are considered to be the remnants of an old
river.
o Dhands are alkaline lakes which are usually found within the Dhors.
2. Rajasthan plain
 Extent: With an average elevation of 325m above the mean sea level (MSL), this region is
among the highest places in the Northern plains.
 This plain is mostly occupied by the Great Indian Desert or the Thar desert. It is the expanse
of Pleistocene and recent deposits. (UPPCS Pre 2018)
 The desert is also known by its regional name of Marusthali and forms a part of the Marwar
plain.
 Geologically, it's a part of the Peninsular plateau. They mostly contain peninsular rocks such
as granite, schist, and gneiss.
 Dhrian: The eastern part of the Marusthali is rocky in general, but the western part
comprises sand dunes which regularly shift their shape under the influence of local winds.
They are locally known as Dhrian.
 Rajasthan Bhagar is a semi-arid plain which occupies the intervening space between the
Thar desert until the Aravalli range.
3. Punjab Plain
 This plain is formed by the deposition of sediments by the tributaries of Indus viz., Jhelum,
Chenab, Sutlej, Beas, and Ravi.
 This region is characterized by Doabs - the area in between two rivers.
 Malwa plain is a part of the Punjab plains and lies to the south of the Sutlej.
 Delhi ridge (the northernmost extent of Aravallis) forms the eastern boundary of these plains.
4. Ganga plain
 With an area of around 3.75 lakh sq.km, this is the largest section of the Northern Plains.
 This region includes sediments brought down and deposited by the Himalayan rivers as well
as the Peninsular rivers.
 Since the plain is gently sloping towards the southeast, most of the rivers that flow through
this region drain into the Bay of Bengal.
 The region is further divided into - Rohilkhand plain, Awadh plain, Mithila plain, and
Magadh plain
5. Brahmaputra plain
 It is formed by the deposition/aggradation of sediments by the Brahmaputra and its
tributaries.
 It is mostly situated in Assam, in the Brahmaputra valley in Assam.
 The region is bounded by the Poorvanchal hills on its east and the Gangetic plain on its west.
 Majuli is the largest river island in the world and is situated in the Brahmaputra valley of
Assam
6. Ganga - Brahmaputra Delta
 The largest delta in the world, formed by the joining of the two largest rivers of the Indian
subcontinent - Ganga and Brahmaputra.
 This is an aggradation landform in which the merged river of Ganga and Brahmaputra,
known as the Padma, flows in the form of a number of channels.
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 Towards the mouth of the delta, there is a large mangrove forest famous for its Sundar trees
and is known as the Sundarbans. Moribund delta is a part of Bengal delta. (UPPCS Pre
2019)

Characteristics of Indo - Gangetic - Brahmaputra Plains

1. Bhabar Region: The narrow belt of the
plains at the foothills of sub-Himalayas
comprises boulders and pebbles brought
by the rivers, making it a porous region is
known as Bhabar. (UPPCS Pre 2007)
 Most of the streams disappear in this
region, flowing under the rocky layer.
This region is not suited for crop
cultivation.
2. Terai Region: Adjacent to Bhabar is a region comprising newer alluvium and finer sediments.
This is the Terai region and is a densely forested marshland.
3. Bhangar Region: Calcareous deposits or kankar make up a very large area of the plains. This
region contains the older alluvium, along with the terraces of the floodplains and is known as
Bhangar.
 Since old alluvium is rich in humus, it is one of most productive agricultural regions of India.
4. Khadar Region: The region next to the old alluvium is the region of Khadar, which comprises
new alluvium.
 It is made of sand, silt, clay and fine mud. Is extensively cultivated region, similar to
Bhangar.

The Coastal Plains

1. The Western Coastal Plains:
 Origin: The western coastal plan is an example of submerged coastal plain.
 Because of this submergence it is a narrow belt and provides natural conditions for the
development of ports and harbours.
o Ports: Kandla, Mazagaon, JLN port Navha Sheva, Marmagao, Mangalore, Cochin, etc.
are some of the important natural ports located along the west coast.
 Division: The western coast may be divided into following divisions – the Kachchh and
Kathiawar coast in Gujarat, Konkan coast in Maharashtra (UPPCS Pre 2016), Goan
coast and Malabar coast in Karnataka and Kerala respectively.
 Western coastal plains are narrow in the middle and get broader towards north and south.
 The rivers flowing through this coastal plain do not form any delta.
 Kayals: The Malabar coast has got certain distinguishing features in the form of ‗Kayals‘
(backwaters), which are used for fishing, inland navigation and also due to its special
attraction for tourists.
 Kuttanad is famous for its lowest altitude in India. Here farming is practiced 2.5 m to 4 m
below sea level. This farming system has been declared as Globally Important Agriculture
Heritage System by FAO. (UPPCS Pre 2015)
2. Eastern Coastal Plains:
 As compared to the western coastal plain, the eastern coastal plain is broader and is an
example of an emergent coast.
 There are well-developed deltas here, formed by rivers flowing eastward in Bay of Bengal.

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o These include the deltas of the Mahanadi, the Godavari, the Krishna and the Kaveri.
 Because of its emergent nature, it has less number of ports and harbours.
 The limit of the territorial water of India extends up to 12 nautical miles from the coast.
(UPPCS M 2005)
 The continental shelf extends up to 500 km into the sea, which makes it difficult for the
development of good ports and harbours.
 The coast located between Krishna delta and Cape Comorin is called Coromandel Coast.
(UPPCS Pre 2015). North of it lies Northern Circar.

The Indian Desert

1. To the northwest of the Aravali hills lies the Great Indian desert. It is a land of undulating
topography dotted with longitudinal dunes and barchans.
2. Marusthali: This region receives low rainfall below 150 mm per year; hence, it has arid climate
with low vegetation cover.
3. It is believed that during the Mesozoic era, this region was under the sea. This can be
corroborated by the evidence available at wood fossils park at Aakal.
4. Mushroom rocks, shifting dunes and oasis (mostly in its southern part) are found here.
 The northern part is sloping towards Sindh and the southern towards the Rann of
Kachchh. Most of the rivers in this region are ephemeral.
 The Luni river flowing in the southern part of the desert is of some significance.
 Low precipitation and high evaporation makes it a water deficit region.
 There are some streams which disappear after flowing for some distance and present a typical
case of inland drainage by joining a lake or playa.
 The lakes and the playas have brackish water which is the main source of obtaining salt.

Indian Islands
1. The major islands groups of India are Andaman and Nicobar Archipelago (A chain of islands
similar in origin) in Bay of Bengal and Lakshadweep islands in Arabian Sea.
 Andaman and Nicobar Islands: Formed due to collision between Indian Plate and
Burma Minor Plate [part of Eurasian Plate] [Similar to formation of Himalayas].
2. Andaman and Nicobar Islands are southward extension of Arakan Yoma range [Myanmar]
[Arakan Yoma in itself is an extension of Poorvanchal Hills].
 Lakshadweep Islands are coral islands: These islands are a part Reunion Hotspot
volcanism. (UPLDA 2013)
 Other than these two groups there are islands in Indo-Gangetic Delta [they are more a part of
delta than islands] and between India and Sri Lanka [Remnants of Adams Bridge (beginning
from Dhanush Kodi) formed due to submergence]. (UPLDA 2010)

1. Andaman and Nicobar Island

 This archipelago is composed of 265 big and small islands [203 Andaman Islands + 62
Nicobar Islands]
 Extent: The Andaman and Nicobar Islands extend from 6° 45′ N to 13° 45′ N and from 92°
10′ E to 94° 15′ E for a distance of about 590 km.
 Division: Andaman Islands are divided into 3 main islands i.e., North, Middle and South.
 Duncan passage separates Little Andaman from South Andaman.
 The Great Andaman group of islands in the north is separated by the Ten Degree
Channel from the Nicobar group in the south. (UPPCS Pre 2005)

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 Port Blair, the capital lies in the South Andaman.

 Among the Nicobar Islands, the Great Nicobar is the largest. It is the southernmost island
and is very close to Sumatra Island of Indonesia.
 The Car Nicobar is the northernmost.
 Composition: Most of these islands are made of tertiary sandstone, limestone and shale
resting on basic and ultrabasic volcanoes [Similar to Himalayas].
 The Barren and Narcondam Islands: North of Port Blair, are volcanic islands [Barren
islans are the only active volcanoes in India] [There are no active volcanoes in main
land India]. (UPPCS Pre 2016, UP GIC 2010)
 Some of the islands are fringed with coral reefs. Many of them are covered with thick
forests. Most of the islands are mountainous.
 Saddle peak (732m) in North Andaman is the highest peak. (UPPCS Pre 2009)
2. Lakshadweep
 In the Arabian Sea, there are three types of islands.
o Amindivi Islands (consisting of six main islands of Amini, Keltan, Chetlat, Kadmat,
Bitra and Perumul Par)
o Laccadive Islands (consisting of five major islands of Androth, Kalpeni, Kavaratti, Pitti
and Suheli Par) and
o Minicoy Island.
 At present these islands are collectively known as Lakshadweep.
 They are widely scattered about 200-500 km south-west of the Kerala coast.
 Amendivi Islands are the northern most while the Minicoy Island is the
southernmost and it is the remotest islands from Indian Coast. (UPLDA 2013)
 All are tiny islands of coral origin {Atoll} and are surrounded by fringing reefs.
 Most of the islands have low elevation and do not rise more than five metre above sea
level (Extremely Vulnerable to sea level change).
 Their topography is flat and relief features like hills, streams, valleys, etc. are absent.
3. New Moore Island
 It is a small uninhabited offshore sandbar landform {Marine Landforms} in the Bay of
Bengal, off the coast of the Ganges-Brahmaputra Delta region.
 It emerged in the Bay of Bengal in the aftermath of the Bhola cyclone in 1970. It keeps on
emerging and disappearing.
 Although the island was uninhabited and there were no permanent settlements or stations
located on it, both India and Bangladesh claimed sovereignty over it because of
speculation over the existence of oil and natural gas in the region.
 The issue of sovereignty was also a part of the larger dispute over the Radcliffe
Award methodology of settling the maritime boundary between the two nations.
4. Other Important Islands
 Viyant Syodhar is an island in the Gulf of Kutch,
 Piram is an island in the Gulf of Cambay,
 Dwaraka is an island in the Coast of Arabian sea,
 Diu is located in Coast of Kathiawar
 Rameswaram is located in the Ramanathpuram district of Tamil Nadu and Pamban Channel
separate it from mainland India. (UPPCS 2010, UPPCS Pre 2006)

******
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CHAPTER -3
THE DRAINAGE SYSTEM
An integrated system of tributaries and a bunk stream which collect and funnel surface water to the sea,
lake or some other body of water.

River Basins of India

 Drainage Basin: The area drained by the main river including all its tributaries is known as its
drainage basin.
 Note: India has about one hundred and thirteen river basins, of which 14 are large, 44 medium
and 55 minor river basins.
 The major river basins of India in descending order of area are: The Ganga, Indus,
Brahmaputra, Godavari, Krishna, Luni, Mahanadi, Narmada, Kaveri, Tapi, Mahi, Sabarmati,
Barak, and Subarnarekha.
 The major river basins form about 84 per cent of the total drainage area of the country

On the basis of mode of origin, the drainage of India may be divided into:
1. Himalayan Drainage System
 Evolution
o The river came into being due to earth movements which took place in the Tertiary era
and is thought to be descendant of the Himalayan Sea.
o Drainage/Drainage System: The flow of water through well-defined channels is known
as drainage and the network of such channels is known as a drainage system.
o River System: Rivers along with its tributaries form a river system.

 Himalayan River System

o The Indus River System
 The Indus also known as the Sindhu, is the westernmost of the Himalayan rivers in
India.

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 It originates from a glacier near Bokhar Chu in the Tibetan region at an altitude of
4,164 m in the Kailash Mountain range.
 In Tibet, it is known as ‗Singi Khamban; or Lion‟s mouth.
 Length: It has a large number of tributaries in both India and Pakistan and has a total
length of about 2880 km from the source to the point near Karachi where it falls into
the Arabian Sea out of which approx. 1114 km lies in India.
 After flowing in the northwest direction between the Ladakh and Zaskar ranges, it
passes through Ladakh and Baltistan.
 It cuts across the Ladakh range, forming a spectacular gorge near Gilgit in Jammu
and Kashmir.
 It enters into Pakistan near Chilas in the Dardistan region.
 The Indus receives a number of Himalayan tributaries such as the Shyok, the
Gilgit, the Zaskar, the Hunza, the Nubra, the Shigar, the Gasting and the Dras.
 It enters the Indian Territory in Jammu and Kashmir by forming a picturesque
gorge.
 It flows between the Ladakh Range and the Zaskar Range at Leh. Leh is located on
the right bank of river Indus. (UPLDA 2013)
 The river flows southward and receives „Panjnad‟ a little above Mithankot.
 The Panjnad is the name given to the five rivers of Punjab, namely the Satluj, the
Beas, the Ravi, the Chenab and the Jhelum.
 Other important tributaries joining the right bank of the Indus are the Khurram, the
Tochi, Gomal, the Viboa and the Sangar. They all originate in the Sulaiman ranges.
Tributaries
 Origin: Jhelum, an important tributary of Indus, rises from a spring at Verinag
situated at foot of the Pir Panjal in the south-eastern part of the valley of Kashmir
which is situated between Pir – Panjal and Himadri ranges. (UPPCS Pre 2020)
Jhelum  It flows through Srinagar and the Wular lake before entering Pakistan through
a deep narrow gorge.
 Kishanganga is a tributary of this river. (UPPCS M 2013)
 It joins the Chenab near Jhang in Pakistan.
 Source: The Bhaga river originates from Surya taal lake, which is situated a few
kilometers west of the Bara-lacha la pass in Himachal Pradesh.
Chenab  The Chenab is the largest tributary of the Indus.
 It is formed by two streams, the Chandra and the Bhaga, which join at Tandi near
Keylong in Himachal Pradesh. Hence, it is also known as Chandrabhaga.
 Source: It rises west of the Rohtang pass in the Kullu hills of Himachal Pradesh
and flows through the Chamba valley of the state.
Ravi  Before entering Pakistan and joining the Chenab near Sarai Sidhu, it drains the
area lying between the southeastern part of the Pir Panjal in J&K (UPPCS M
2007) and the Dhauladhar ranges.
 Source: Beas is another important tributary of Indus, originating from Beas Kund
near Rohtang Pass at an elevation of 4,000 m above the mean sea level.
 The river flows through the Kullu valley which is situated between Pir -Panjal
Beas
and Dhauladhar ranges (UP Lower 2002) and forms gorges at Kati and Largi in the
Dhaoladhar range.
 It enters the Punjab plains where it meets the Satluj near Harike.
Satluj  Source: Satluj originates in „Raksas tal‟ near Mansarovar at altitude of 4,555 m

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in Tibet where it is known as Langchen Khambab. (UPPSC GIC 2010, UPPCS

Pre 2013)
 It flows almost parallel to the Indus for about 400 km before entering India, and
comes out of a gorge at Rupar.
 It is a Trans – Himalayan river and cuts across all the ranges of the Himalayas.
(UPPCS Pre 2020, M 2012, RO 2014)
 It passes through the Shipki La on the Himalayan ranges and enters the Punjab
plains. It is an antecedent river.
 It is a very important tributary as it feeds canal system of Bhakra Nangal project.
o The Brahmaputra River System
 Origin: The Brahmaputra originates from Mansarovar Lake, which is also a source
of the Indus and Sutlej. (UPPCS Pre 2006)
 It flows parallel to the Himalayas in the eastward direction. When it reaches
Namcha Barwa, it takes a U-turn around it and enters India in the state of
Arunachal Pradesh. Here it is known as the Dihang River.
 The Brahmaputra has a braided channel throughout most of its length in Assam.
 The river is known as the Tsangpo in Tibet.
 It is considered one of the largest rivers in India in terms of Volume.
 Its major left bank tributaries are Burhi Dihing and Dhansari (South) whereas the
important right bank tributaries are the Subansiri, Kameng, Manas and Sankosh.
 Sankosh river forms boundary between Assam and West Bengal. (UPPCS M 2007)
 The Subansiri which has its origin in Tibet, is an antecedent river.
 The Brahmaputra enters into Bangladesh near Dhubri and flows southward.
 In Bangladesh, the Tista joins it on its right bank from where the river is known as the
Jamuna. It finally merges with the river Padma, which falls in the Bay of Bengal.
o Ganga River System
 It rises in the Gangotri glacier near Gaumukh in the Uttarkashi district of
Uttarakhand. Here, it is known as the Bhagirathi.
 At Devprayag, Bhagirathi meets the Alaknanda; hereafter, it is known as the Ganga.
 The Alaknanda has its source in the Satopanth glacier above Badrinath. (UPLDA 2013)
 The Alaknanda consists of the Dhauli and the Vishnu Ganga which meet at
Joshimath or Vishnu Prayag.
 The other tributaries of Alaknanda such as the Pindar joins it at Karna Prayag
while Mandakini or Kali Ganga meets it at Rudra Prayag.
 Note: The Ganga enters the plains at Haridwar.
 From here, it flows first to the south, then to the south-east and east before
splitting into two distributaries, namely the Bhagirathi and the Padma.
 Length: The river has a length of 2,525 km. It is shared by Uttarakhand (110 km) and
Uttar Pradesh (1,450 km), Bihar (445 km) and West Bengal (520 km).
 The Ganga basin covers about 8.6 lakh sq. km area in India alone.
 It is an example of antecedent drainage. (UPLDA 2013)
 The important left bank tributaries are the Ramganga, the Gomati, the Ghaghara,
the Gandak, the Kosi and the Mahananda.
 After entering Bangladesh, the main branch of the Ganges is known as ‗Padma‘.
(UPPCS M 2016)
 The river finally discharges itself into the Bay of Bengal near the Sagar Island.
 The concept of Panch Prayag
 Vishnu prayag: where the river Alaknanda meets river Dhauli Ganga

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 Nand prayag: where river Alaknanda meets river Nandakini

 Karna prayag: where river Alaknanda meets river Pinder
 Rudra prayag: where river Alaknanda meets river Mandakini
 Dev prayag: where river Alaknanda meets river Bhagirathi -Ganga
[UP Lower2002, UPLDA 2013, UPPCS M 2016]

Important Tributaries
 The western most and the longest tributary of the Ganga, has its source in
the Yamunotri glacier on the western slopes of Banderpunch range
 It joins the Ganga at Prayag (Allahabad).
 Tributaries: It is joined by Chambal, Sind, Betwa and the Ken (from west
The Yamuna to east) on its right bank which originates from the Peninsular
plateau[UPPCS Pre 2020,UPRO 2014] while the Hindan, the Rind, the
Sengar, the Varuna, etc. join it on its left bank. [UPPSC 2023]
 Much of its water feeds the western and eastern Yamuna and the Agra
canals for irrigation purposes.
 Source: The Chambal rises near Mhow in the Malwa plateau of Madhya
Pradesh and flows northwards through a gorge up wards of Kota in
Rajasthan, where the Gandhisagar dam has been constructed.
The Chambal
 From Kota, it traverses down to Bundi, Sawai Madhopur and Dholpur, and
finally joins the Yamuna.
 Chambal is famous for its badland topography called Chambal ravines.
The Gandak  Gandak comprises two streams, namely Kaligandak and Trishulganga.
 Source: It rises in the Nepal Himalayas between the Dhaulagiri and Mount

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Everest and drains the central part of Nepal. It does not flow through UP.
(UPRO 2021)
 It enters the Ganga plain in Champaran district of Bihar and joins the
Ganga at Sonpur near Patna.
 Source: Originates in the glaciers of Mapchachungo.
 After collecting the waters of its tributaries – Tila, Seti and Beri, it comes
The Ghaghara out of the mountain, cutting a deep gorge at Shishapani.
 The river Sarda (Kali or Kali Ganga) joins it in the plain before it finally
meets the Ganga at Chhapra.
 Source: The Kosi is an antecedent river with its source to the north of
Mount Everest in Tibet, where its main stream Arun rises.
 After crossing the Central Himalayas in Nepal, it is joined by the Son Kosi
The Kosi
from the West and the Tamur Kosi from the east.
 It is known for maximum shifting of its course. (UPLDA 2013)
 It forms Sapt Kosi after uniting with the river Arun.
 Ramganga is a small river rising in Garhwal hills near Gairsain.
The
 It changes its course to the southwest direction after crossing the Shiwalik
Ramganga
and enters into the plains of Uttar Pradesh near Najibabad.
 Finally, it joins the Ganga near Kannauj. [UPPSC 2023]
 The Damodar occupies the eastern margins of the Chotanagpur Plateau
where it flows through a rift valley and finally joins the Hugli. (UPPCS
Pre 2008,2019, UPLDA 2006)
 The Barakar is its main tributary, Barki and Jamunia are other ones.
The Damodar
(UPBEO Pre 2019)
 Once known as the „sorrow of Bengal‟, the Damodar has been now tamed
by the Damodar Valley corporation, a multipurpose project. Edon canal
has been taken from it. (UPPCS Pre 2015)
 It is one of the most polluted rivers. (UPLDA 2013)
 Source: Rises in the Milam glacier in the Nepal Himalayas where it is
The Sarda or known as the Goriganga.
Saryu river  Along the Indo-Nepal border, it is called Kali or Chauk, where it joins the
Ghaghara.
 Source: The Mahananda is another important tributary of the Ganga rising
The
in the Darjiling hills.
Mahananda
 It joins the Ganga as its last left bank tributary in West Bengal.
 Source: The Son is a large south bank tributary of the Ganga, originating
in the Amarkantak plateau.
The Son
 After forming a series of waterfalls at the edge of the plateau, it reaches
Arrah, west of Patna, to join the Ganga.
 Source: It rises from Gomat Taal (Fulhar Jheel) near Pilibhit in UP. It is
The Gomti
the only tributary which rises in plains. (UP Lower 2008)
2. Peninsular Drainage System
 Evolution
o The Peninsular drainage system is older than the Himalayan one.
o Three major geological events in the distant past have shaped the present drainage
systems of Peninsular India:

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 Subsidence of the western flank of the Peninsula leading to its submergence below
the sea during the early tertiary period.
 An upheaval of the Himalayas when the northern flank of the peninsular block was
subjected to subsidence and the consequent trough faulting.
 Slight tilting of the peninsular block from northwest to the south-eastern direction
gave orientation to the entire drainage system towards the Bay of Bengal during the
same period.
 Characteristics of Peninsular River System
o Age: Peninsula Rivers are much older than the Himalayan Rivers. The peninsular rivers
have reached the mature stage and have almost reached their base level.
o Nature: The peninsular drainage is mostly concordant except for few rivers in the Upper
Peninsula region.
 They are non-perennial rivers with an utmost release in the rainy season.
 The rivers are characterized by broad and superficial valleys.
o Slopes: The river banks have gentle slopes except for a limited track where faulting
forms steep sides.
o Water Divide: The main water divide in peninsular rivers is formed by the Western
Ghats, which run from north to south close to the western coast.
o Drainage Pattern: The rivers of South India mainly have the dendritic pattern. (UPPCS
Pre 2014)
o Gradient: The velocity of water in the rivers and the load-carrying capacity of the
streams is low due to the low gradient.
 River Systems of The Peninsular Drainage
o The Narmada River System
 Source: The Narmada originates on the western flank of the Amarkantak plateau .
(UPPCS M 2008)
 Flowing in a rift valley between the Satpura in the south and the Vindhyan range in
the north, it forms a picturesque gorge in marble rocks and Dhuandhar waterfall
near Jabalpur. (UPPCS Pre 2010,2012)
 The Sardar Sarovar Project has been constructed on this river.
 The river flows through the states of Madhya Pradesh, Gujarat, and Maharashtra.
 It drains into the Arabian Sea in the Bharuch district of Gujarat.
o The Tapi River System
 The Tapi is the other important westward flowing river which also passes through
a rift valley. (UPPCS M 2005, UPLDA 2013, UPGIC 2017)
 Source: It originates from Multai in the Betul district of Madhya Pradesh (Eastern
Satpura Range of southern Madhya Pradesh state). (UPPCS Pre 2007,2018)
 Basin: Nearly 79 per cent of its basin lies in Maharashtra, 15 per cent in Madhya
Pradesh and the remaining 6 per cent in Gujarat.
 It flows in a westward direction, draining some important historic places like Madhya
Pradesh‘s Nimar region, East Vidarbha region and Maharashtra‘s Khandesh in the
northwest corner of the Deccan Plateau and South Gujarat before draining into the
Gulf of Cambay of the Arabian Sea. It forms an estuary. (UPPCS Pre 2006)
 The principal tributaries of Tapi River are Waghur River, Aner River, Girna River,
Purna River, Panzara River and Bori River.
 Tapi and Narmada do not form delta. (UPRO 2013, UPPCS 2014)
o The Godavari River System
 The Godavari is the longest Peninsular River system. (UPLDA 2013, UPRO 2014)

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 The river is often referred to as the Vriddh (Old) Ganga).

 This river originates from Trimbakeshwar, near Nasik in Maharashtra.
 It is 1,465 km long with a catchment area spreading over 3.13 lakh sq. km 49 per cent
of this, lies in Maharashtra, 20 per cent in Madhya Pradesh and Chhattisgarh, and
the rest in Andhra Pradesh.
 The river after Rajahmundry splits into several branches forming a large delta.
 Pilgrimage sites on the bank: Nasik (MH), Bhadrachalam (TS), and Trimbak.
 Tributaries include Pranahita (Combination of Penganga and Warda), Indravati
River, Bindusara, Sabari, and Manjira.
o Krishna River System
 Source: The Krishna is the second largest east flowing Peninsular river which rises
near Mahabaleshwar in Sahyadri.
 Tributaries: The Koyna, the Tungbhadra and the Bhima are its major tributaries.
 Of the total catchment area of the Krishna, 27 per cent lies in Maharashtra, 44 per
cent in Karnataka and 29 per cent in Andhra Pradesh and Telangana.
 Tungabhadra River is the main tributary which itself is formed by the Tunga and
Bhadra rivers that originate in the Western Ghats. The Hangari river also known as
Vedavathi is its tributary. (UPPCS M 2009)
 Tributaries: Dudhganga Rivers, Koyna, Bhima, Mallaprabha, Dindi, Ghataprabha,
Warna, Yerla, and Musi are some of the other tributaries.
o The Cauvery River System
 The Cauvery is also known as Dakshin Ganga. (UPPCS Pre 2015)
 Source: The Kaveri rises in Brahmagiri hills (1,341m) of Kogadu district in
Karnataka. (UPPCS M 2011, UPRO 2013)
 Note: Since the upper catchment area receives rainfall during the southwest monsoon
season (summer) and the lower part during the northeast monsoon season (winter),
the river carries water throughout the year with comparatively less fluctuation than
the other Peninsular rivers.
 About 3 per cent of the Kaveri basin falls in Kerala, 41 per cent in Karnataka and
56 per cent in Tamil Nadu.
 Its important tributaries are the Kabini, the Bhavani and the Amravati.
 Other tributaries: Arkavathy, Shimsha, Hemavati, Kapila, Shimsha, Honnuhole,
Lakshmana, Lokapavani, Noyyal, and Tirtha.
o Mahanadi River System
 Source: The Mahanadi rises near Sihawa in Raipur district (Satpura Range) of
Chhattisgarh and runs through Odisha to discharge its water into the Bay of Bengal.
 Fifty-three per cent of the drainage basin of this river lies in Madhya Pradesh and
Chhattisgarh, while 47 per cent lies in Odisha
 The river drains of the state of Maharashtra, Chhattisgarh, Jharkhand, and
Orissa.
 It forms delta in Odisha. (UPRO 2014)
 The largest dam, the Hirakud Dam is built on the river
o Luni
 Luni is the largest river system of Rajasthan, west of Aravali.
 Source: It originates near Pushkar in two branches, i.e. the Saraswati and the
Sabarmati, which join with each other at Govindgarh.
 From here, the river comes out of Aravali and is known as Luni.

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 It flows towards the west till Telwara and then takes a southwest direction to join the
Rann of Kuchchh. Its upper course contains fresh water but lower part contains
saline water. (UPPCS Pre 2019)
 Nature: The entire river system is ephemeral.
Smaller Rivers Flowing Towards the West Small Rivers Flowing towards the East
The rivers flowing towards the Arabian sea have short There are a large number of rivers flowing
courses. Why do they have short courses? towards the east along with their tributaries.
 Shetruniji is one such river which rises near  There are small rivers which join the Bay
Dalkahwa in Amreli district. of Bengal, though small, these are
 The Bhadra originates near Aniali village in important in their own right.
Rajkot district.  The Subarnrekha, the Baitarni, the
 The Dhadhar rises near Ghantar village in Brahmani, the Vamsadhara, the
Panchmahal district. Penner, the Palar and the Vaigai are
 Sabarmati & Mahi are 2 famous rivers of Gujarat. important rivers.
It crosses tropic of cancer twice. (UPRO 2016)
 The Vaitarna rises from the Trimbak hills in Note: The discharge is the volume of water
Nasik district . flowing in a river measured over time. It is
 The Kalinadi rises from Belgaum district and falls measured either in cusecs (cubic feet per
in the Karwar Bay. second) or cumecs (cubic metres per
 The source of Bedti river lies in Hubli Dharwar second).
and traverses a course of 161 km.
 The Sharavati is another important river in
Karnataka flowing towards the west. It originates
in Shimoga, Karnataka and drains catchment area
of 2,209 sq. km.
 Goa has two important rivers which can be
mentioned here. Mandovi and Juari.

******

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CHAPTER -4
CLIMATE OF INDIA

Factors Determining the Climate of India:

1. Factors related to Location and Relief Latitude:
 The tropical zone being nearer to the equator, experiences high temperatures throughout the
year with small daily and annual range.
 Area north of the Tropic of Cancer being away from the equator, experiences extreme
climate with high daily and annual range of temperature.
2. The Himalayan Mountains:
 The lofty Himalayas in the north along with its extensions act as an effective climatic divide.
 The towering mountain chain provides an invincible shield to protect the subcontinent from
the cold northern winds.
 Himalayas also trap monsoon winds, forcing them to shed their moisture within subcontinent.
3. Distribution of Land and Water:
 India is flanked by the Indian Ocean on three sides in the south and girdled by a high and
continuous mountain-wall in the north.
 As compared to the landmass, water heats up or cools down slowly. This differential heating
of land and sea creates different air pressure zones in different seasons in and around the
Indian subcontinent.
4. Distance from the Sea:
 Areas in the interior of India are far away from the moderating influence of the sea. Such
areas have extremes of climate.
 Altitude:(Temperature decreases with height)
 Due to thin air, places in the mountains are cooler than places on the plains.
5. Relief:
 Windward sides of Western Ghats and Assam receive high rainfall during June-September
whereas southern plateau remains dry due to its leeward situation along the Western Ghats.
6. Factors Related to Air Pressure and Wind
 To understand the differences in local climates of India, we need to understand the
mechanism of the following three factors:
o Distribution of air pressure and winds on the surface of the earth.
o Upper air circulation caused by factors controlling global weather and the inflow of
different air masses and jet streams.
o Inflow of western cyclones generally known as disturbances during the winter season and
tropical depressions during the south-west monsoon period into India, creating weather
conditions favourable to rainfall.

The Nature of Indian Monsoon

1. Entry of Monsoon into India: The southwest monsoon sets first over the Kerala coast by 1st
June and moves swiftly to reach Mumbai and Kolkata between 10th and 13th June. By mid-July,
southwest monsoon engulfs (UPRO 2016) the entire subcontinent. (UPPCS Pre 2006)
2. Types of Monsoon wind
 Southwest Monsoon:

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o Cause: Intense low-pressure formation over the Tibetan Plateau because of intense
heating during the summer season; permanent high-pressure cell in the South of the
Indian Ocean (East to Northeast of Madagascar in summer).
o SW monsoon winds bring heavy rainfall to most parts of the country.
o Factors influencing the onset of SW monsoons:
 Intense low-pressure formation over the Tibetan Plateau
 The permanent high-pressure cell in the South of the Indian Ocean
 Subtropical jet stream
 African Easterly jet (Tropical easterly jet)
 Inter-Tropical Convergence Zone (ITCZ)
o Factors influencing intensity of SW monsoons:
 Strengths of the low pressure over Tibetan plateau and the high pressure over the
south Indian Ocean
 Somali Jet
 Somali Current
 Indian Ocean dipole
 Indian Ocean branch of the Walker Cell
 Northeast Monsoon:
o Cause: High-pressure cells over the Tibetan and the Siberian Plateaus
o NE monsoon winds bring rainfall to the southeast coast of the country (Tamil Nadu coast
and Seemandhra‘s south coast).
o Factors responsible for the formation of the NE Monsoons:
 Formation and strengths of the high-pressure cells over the Tibetan and the Siberian
Plateaus during winters
 Migration of the Inter-Tropical Convergence Zone (ITCZ) to the south of India
 High-pressure cells in southern Indian Ocean migrating to the west and weakening
3. Rain-bearing Systems and Rainfall Distribution
 There seem to be two rain-bearing systems in India.
 First originate in the Bay of Bengal causing rainfall over the plains of north India.
 Second is the Arabian Sea current of the southwest monsoon which brings rain to the west
coast of India.
 Note: Much of the rainfall along the Western Ghats is orographic as the moist air is
obstructed and forced to rise along the Ghats.
4. Break in the Monsoon
 During the south-west monsoon period after having rains for a few days, if rain fails to occur
for one or more weeks, it is known as break in the monsoon.
 Note: Why the Tamil Nadu coast remains dry during this season? [UPPSC 2023]
 There are two factors responsible for it:
o Tamil Nadu coast is situated parallel to the Bay of Bengal branch of southwest monsoon.
o It lies in the rain shadow region.

Weather Seasons
The climatic conditions of India can best be described in terms of an annual cycle of seasons. The
meteorologists recognise the following seasons:
1. The Cold Weather Season
 Temperature:
o Usually, the cold weather season sets in by mid-November in northern India.
o December and January are the coldest months in the northern plain.
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o The mean daily temperature remains below 21°C over most parts of northern India.
o The night temperature may be quite low, sometimes going below freezing point in Punjab
and Rajasthan.
o There are three main reasons for the excessive cold in north India during this season:
 States like Punjab, Haryana and Rajasthan being far away from the moderating
influence of sea experience continental climate.
 The snowfall in the nearby Himalayan ranges creates cold wave situation; and
 Around February, the cold winds coming from the Caspian Sea and Turkmenistan
bring cold wave along with frost and fog over the north western parts of India.
o The Peninsular region of India, however, does not have any well-defined cold weather season.
o There is hardly any seasonal change in the distribution pattern of the temperature in
coastal areas because of moderating influence of the sea and the proximity to equator.
 For example, the mean maximum temperature for January at Thiruvananthapuram is
as high as 31°C, and for June, it is 29.5°C.
o Temperatures at the hills of Western Ghats remain comparatively low.
 Pressure and Winds:
o By the end of December (22nd December), the sun shines vertically over the Tropic of
Capricorn in the southern hemisphere.
o The weather in this season is characterised by feeble high-pressure conditions over the
northern plain.
o In south India, the air pressure is slightly lower.
o During the winters, the weather in India is pleasant.
 The pleasant weather conditions, however, at intervals, get disturbed by shallow
cyclonic depressions originating over the east Mediterranean Sea and travelling
eastwards across West Asia, Iran, Afghanistan and Pakistan before they reach the
north western parts of India.
 On their way, the moisture content gets augmented from the Caspian Sea in the north
and the Persian Gulf in the south.
 Rainfall:
o Winter monsoons do not cause rainfall as they move from land to the sea. It is because
firstly, they have little humidity; and secondly, due to anti cyclonic circulation on land,
the possibility of rainfall from them reduces. So, most parts of India do not have rainfall
in the winter season.
o However, there are some exceptions to it:
 In north western India, some weak temperate cyclones from the Mediterranean Sea
cause rainfall in Punjab, Haryana, Delhi and western Uttar Pradesh.
 Although the amount is meagre, it is highly beneficial for rabi crops.
 The precipitation is in the form of snowfall in the lower Himalayas. It is this snow
that sustains the flow of water in the Himalayan rivers during the summer months.
 The precipitation goes on decreasing from west to east in the plains and from
north to south in the mountains.
 The average winter rainfall in Delhi is around 53 mm. In Punjab and Bihar,
rainfall remains between 25 mm and 18 mm respectively. So, it gradually
decreases from west to east. (UPPCS Pre 2019, M 2012)
 Central parts of India and northern parts of southern Peninsula also get winter
rainfall occasionally.
 Arunachal Pradesh and Assam in the north-eastern parts of India also have rains
between 25 mm and 50 mm during these winter months.

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 During October and November, northeast monsoon while crossing over Bay of
Bengal, picks up moisture and causes torrential rainfall over Tamil Nadu coast,
southern Andhra Pradesh, southeast Karnataka and southeast Kerala. (UPPCS Pre
2009)
2. The Hot Weather Season
 Temperature:
o Northward Movement of Sun: With the apparent northward movement of the sun
towards the Tropic of Cancer in March, temperatures start rising in north India.
o April, May and June are the months of summer in north India.
o In most parts of India, temperatures recorded are between 30°-32°C.
o In March, highest day temperature of about 38°C occurs in Deccan Plateau while in
April, temperature ranging between 38°C and 43°C are found in Gujarat and Madhya
Pradesh.
o In May, the heat belt moves further north, and in the north-western part of India,
temperatures around 48°C are not uncommon.
o The hot weather season in south India is mild and not so intense as found in north
India.
o The Peninsular situation of south India with moderating effect of the oceans keeps the
temperatures lower than that prevailing in north India. So, temperatures remain between
26°C and 32°C.
o Due to altitude, the temperatures in the hills of Western Ghats remain below 25°C.
o In the coastal regions, the north-south extent of isotherms parallel to the coast confirms
that temperature does not decrease from north to south rather it increases from the coast
to the interior.
o The mean daily minimum temperature during the summer months also remains quite
high and rarely goes below 26°C.
 Pressure and Winds:
o In the heart of the ITCZ in the northwest, the dry and hot winds known as „Loo‟, blow in
the afternoon, and very often, they continue to well into midnight.
o Dust storms in the evening are very common during May in Punjab, Haryana, Eastern
Rajasthan and Uttar Pradesh.
 These temporary storms bring a welcome respite from the oppressing heat since they
bring with them light rains and a pleasant cool breeze.
o Occasionally, the moisture-laden winds are attracted towards the periphery of the trough.
o A sudden contact between dry and moist air masses gives rise to local storms of great
intensity. These local storms are associated with violent winds, torrential rains and even
hailstorms.
Some Famous Local Storms of Hot Weather Season
 Mango Shower: Towards the end of summer, there are p re-monsoon showers which are a common
phenomena In Kerala and coastal areas of Karnataka. Locally, they are known as mango showers since they
help in the early ripening of mangoes.
 Blossom Shower: With this shower, coffee flowers blossom in Kerala and nearby areas.
 Nor Westers: These are dreaded evening thunderstorms in Bengal and Assam. Their notorious nature can
be understood from the local nomenclature of ‗KalbaisakhV, a calamity of the month of Baisakh. These
showers are useful for tea, jute and rice cultivation. In Assam, these storms are known as ―Bardoisila‖.
 Loo: Hot, dry and oppressing winds blowing in the Northern plains from Punjab to Bihar with higher
intensity between Delhi and Patna.

3. Season of Retreating Monsoon

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 The months of October and November are known for retreating monsoons.
 Note: October Heat-The retreating southwest monsoon season is marked by clear skies and
rise in temperature. The land is still moist. Owing to the conditions of high temperature and
humidity, weather becomes rather oppressive. This is commonly known as ‗October heat‘.
 In second half of October, the mercury begins to fall rapidly, particularly in northern India.
 The weather in retreating monsoon is dry in north India but it is associated with rain in the
eastern part of Peninsula. Here, October and November are the rainiest months of the year.
 The widespread rain in this season is associated with the passage of cyclonic depressions
which originate over the Andaman Sea and manage to cross the eastern coast of the southern
Peninsula. These tropical cyclones are very destructive.
o A bulk of the rainfall of the Coromandal coast is derived from these depressions and
cyclones. Such cyclonic storms are less frequent in the Arabian Sea.

Traditional Indian Seasons

 In the Indian tradition, a year is divided into six two-monthly seasons.
 This cycle of seasons, which the common people in north and central India follow is based on
their practical experience and age-old perception of weather phenomena.
 However, this system does not match with the seasons of south India where there is little
variation. (UPRO Pre 2021)

Distribution of Rainfall
The average annual rainfall in India is about 125 cm, but it has great spatial variations.
1. Areas of High Rainfall:
 The highest rainfall occurs along the west coast, on the Western Ghats, as well as in the sub-
Himalayan areas is the northeast and the hills of Meghalaya. (UPPCS M 2016)
 Here the rainfall exceeds 200 cm.
 In some parts of Khasi and Jaintia hills, the rainfall exceeds 1,000 cm.
 In the Brahmaputra valley and the adjoining hills, the rainfall is less than 200 cm.
2. Areas of Medium Rainfall:
 Rainfall between 100-200 cm is received in the southern parts of Gujarat, east Tamil Nadu,
north eastern Peninsula covering Odisha, Jharkhand, Bihar, eastern Madhya Pradesh,
northern Ganga plain along the sub-Himalayas and the Cachar Valley and Manipur.
3. Areas of Low Rainfall:
 Western Uttar Pradesh, Delhi, Haryana, Punjab, Jammu and Kashmir, eastern Rajasthan,
Gujarat and Deccan Plateau receive rainfall between 50-100 cm.
4. Areas of Inadequate Rainfall:

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 Parts of the Peninsula, especially in Andhra Pradesh, Karnataka and Maharashtra, Ladakh
and most of western Rajasthan receive rainfall below 50 cm. Snowfall is restricted to the
Himalayan region. Leh receives the least rainfall in India. (UPPCS Pre 2008,2009, M 2010)

Climatic Regions of India

A climatic region has a homogeneous climatic condition which is the result of a combination of factors.
Temperature and rainfall are two important elements which are considered to be decisive in all the
schemes of climatic classification.
Type of Climate Areas
Amw Monsoon with short dry season West coast of India south of Goa
As - Monsoon with diy summer Coromandel coast of Tamil Nadu
Aw - Tripical savannah Most of Peninsular plateaus, south of Tropic of Cancer
BShw - Semi-arid steppe climate North-western Gujarat, some parts of western
Rajasthan and Punjab
BWhw - Hot desert Extreme western Rajasthan
Cwg - Monsoon with dry winter Ganga plain, eastern Rajasthan, northern Madhya
Pradesh, most of North-east India
Dfc - Cold humid winter with short summer Arunachal Pradesh
E - Polar type Jammu and Kashmir, Himachal Pradesh and
Uttarakhand

Cyclones
Cyclones are rapid inward air circulation around a low-pressure area. The air circulates in an
anticlockwise direction in the Northern hemisphere and clockwise in the Southern hemisphere.
Cyclones are usually accompanied by violent storms and bad weather.

When do cyclones occur?

 India has a bi-annual cyclone season that occurs between March to May and October to
December. But on rare occasions, cyclones do occur in June and September months.
 Typically, tropical cyclones in the North Indian Ocean region (Bay of Bengal and Arabian
Sea) develop during the pre-monsoon (April to June) and post-monsoon (October to
December) periods.
 May-June and October-November are known to produce cyclones of severe intensity that affect
the Indian coasts.

Tropical Cyclones
1. A tropical cyclone is an intense circular storm that originates over warm tropical oceans and
is characterized by low atmospheric pressure, high winds, and heavy rain.
2. A characteristic feature of tropical cyclones is the eye, a central region of clear skies, warm
temperatures, and low atmospheric pressure.
3. Storms of this type are called hurricanes in the North Atlantic and eastern Pacific and typhoons
in South-East Asia and China. They are called tropical cyclones in the southwest Pacific and
Indian Ocean region and Willy-willies in north-western Australia.
4. Storms rotate counter clockwise in the northern hemisphere and clockwise in the southern
hemisphere.
5. The conditions favourable for the formation and intensification of tropical storms are:
 Large sea surface with temperature higher than 27° C.

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 Presence of the Coriolis force.

 Small variations in the vertical wind speed.
 A pre-existing weak low- pressure area or low-level-cyclonic circulation.
 Upper divergence above the sea level system.

The Movement of Cyclones in Indian Ocean

The cyclone, with its whole system, moves forward from east to west (in Bay of Bengal) with a speed of
15 to 30 km per hour.

Where do the cyclones strike in India?

The eastern coast of India is the most cyclone affected region.
 The cyclone prone states are: West Bengal, Orissa, Andhra Pradesh and Tamil Nadu:
 Western coast is affected by the cyclones which originate in the Arabian Sea.
 Gujarat on the west coast, is most affected by cyclones.
 The coastal areas and interior of Maharashtra are affected by cyclones too.
Note: More cyclones originate in Bay of Bengal and the Arabian Sea than any other seas of the world.

******

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CHAPTER -5
SOIL

Soil
Soil is the thin top layer on the earth‘s crust comprising rock particles mixed with organic matter.
 Pedogenesis: is the natural process of soil formation that includes a variety of processes such as
weathering, leaching, calcification etc.
 Pedology: is the study of soils in their natural environment.

General Classification
The soil is classified on the basis of the proportion of particles of various sizes.
1. Sandy Soil: If soil contains greater proportion of big particles it is called sandy soil.
 Water can drain quickly through the spaces between the sand particles. So, sandy soils tend
to be light, well aerated and dry. Its diameter is between 0.06mm to 2mm.
2. Clayey Soil: If the proportion of fine particles is relatively higher, then it is called clayey soil.
 Clay particles, being much smaller less than 0.002mm, pack tightly together, leaving little
space for air. Unlike sandy soil, water can be held in the tiny gaps between the particles of
clay. So clay soils have little air. But they are heavy as they hold more water than the sandy
soils. (UPRO Pre 2017)
3. Loamy Soil: The best topsoil for growing plants is Loamy soil.
 The loamy soil also has humus in it. It has the right water holding capacity for the growth of
plants.
 It is a mixture of sand, clay and another type of soil particle known as silt.
 Silt occurs as a deposit in river beds. The size of the silt particles is between those of sand
and clay i.e. between 0.002mm and 0.06mm. (UPRO 2016,2017)

Soil and Crops:

 Clayey and loamy soils are both suitable for growing cereals like wheat, and gram. Such soils
are good at retaining water.
 For paddy, soils rich in clay and organic matter and having a good capacity to retain water are
ideal.
 For lentils (masoor) and other pulses, loamy soils, which drain water easily, are required.
 For cotton, sandy loam or loam, which drain water easily and can hold plenty of air, are more
suitable.

Soil Profile
A vertical section through different layers of the soil is called the soil profile. Each layer differs in feel
(texture), colour, depth and chemical composition.
1. Soil Horizon:
 A soil horizon is a layer generally parallel to the soil surface, whose physical characteristics
differ from the layers above and beneath.
 Horizons are defined in most cases by obvious physical features, chiefly colour and texture.
 The uppermost horizon is generally dark in colour as it is rich in humus and minerals. The
humus makes the soil fertile and provides nutrients to growing plants.

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2. Factors that influence soil formation in

Indian Conditions
 Parent Material
o The rocks from which soils are
formed are called parent materials.
o In most of cases, the parent material
determines the colouration, mineral
composition and texture of the soil.
o In some cases, the soil formed may or
may not have the same physical
properties of the parent rock.
o Climatic factors induce chemical
changes which also affect physical
properties of the soil.

In Indian Conditions, parent material is generally categorized into:

Ancient Crystalline and Metamorphic Rocks Cuddapah and Vindhyan rocks
 They are the Oldest rocks [(pre-Cambrian  They are ancient sedimentary rocks (4000 m
era) (formed due to solidification of molten thick).
magma about 4-billion years ago)].  On weathering they
 They form the „Basement Complex‟ of give calcareous [containing calcium carbonate;
peninsular India. chalky] and argillaceous [consisting of or
 They are basically granites, gniesses and containing clay] soils.
schists.  The soil is mostly devoid of metalliferous
 These rocks are rich in ferromagnetic minerals.
materials and give rise to red soils on
weathering.
Gondwana Rocks Deccan Basalts
 These rocks are also sedimentary in nature  Volcanic outburst over a vast area of the
and they are much younger. Peninsular India many hundred million years

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 On weathering they give rise to ago gave rise to Deccan Traps.

comparatively less mature soils.  Basaltic lava flowed out of fissures covering a
 The soil is more or less of uniform character vast area of about ten lakh sq. km.
but of low fertility.  Basalts are rich in titanium, magnetite,
aluminium and magnesium.
 Consequently, the weathering of these rocks has
given rise to soils of darker colour.
 The is fertile with high moisture holding
capacity and is popularly known as „regur‟ or
black cotton soil.
Tertiary And Mesozoic Sedimentary Rocks
 Rocks of extra peninsular (plains and Himalayas) India have given rise to soils with high porosity.
 These soils are generally immature recent and sub recent rocks, result in alluvial soils on
weathering.
 Alluvial fertile soils consist of fine silts and clay. These soils have little relation with the original
rocks.
 On the other hand, the soils of peninsular plateau are generally coarse-grained and are closely
related to the parent rocks. The peninsular soils are generally less fertile.
 Relief
o The relief is the most important factor for soil formation in places with steep slopes like
the hilly regions, edges of plateaus etc.
o Soil-erosion on barren slopes is rampant and it hinders soil formation.
Example: Chambal ravines, higher reaches of Himalayas where there is minimal or no
forest cover (most on the steep southern slopes) etc.
o The areas of low relief or gentle slope generally experience deposition and have deep
soils. Example: Indo-Gangetic plain.
o The exceptions in the plateau are river basins where the soil layers are sufficiently deep.
 Climate
o Two different parent materials may develop the same soil in the same type of climate.
Similarly, the same parent material may produce two different types of soils in two
different types of climates.
o The crystalline granites produce laterite soil in relatively moist parts of the
monsoonal region and non-laterite soil in drier areas.
o Hot summer and low rainfall develops black soil as is found in some parts of Tamil
Nadu irrespective of the parent rock.
 Example-In Rajasthan, both granite and sandstone give birth to sandy soil under
arid climate.
o In arid and semi-arid regions, evaporation always exceeds precipitation. There is little
vegetation and the soils badly lack humus content. Hence the soils are invariably of light
colour.
o In Rajasthan and the adjoining arid and semi-arid regions, excess of evaporation makes
soils lime accumulating. Hence the soil is pedocal in nature [Pedocal is a subdivision of
the zonal soil order. It is a class of soil which forms in semiarid and arid regions. It
is rich in calcium carbonate and has low soil organic matter].
o In cold climates of the Himalayan region, the process of vegetation decay is very
slow and the soils are acidic in nature.

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In areas of heavy rainfall and high temperature, the soils are red or lateritic. Why?
[UPPSC 2023]
 Torrential rainfall during the rainy season washes the upper soil and leaches the materials
into deeper horizon.
 During the dry summer season the evaporation exceeds precipitation and through capillary
action iron and aluminium oxides are transported to the surface making the soil red.
 In areas of alternate wet and dry climate, the leached material which goes deep down in the
horizon is brought up and the blazing sun bakes the top soil so hard that it resembles a
brick. Therefore, this soil is called lateritic which literally means brick.
 Natural Vegetation
o Natural vegetation reflects the combined effects of relief and climate.
o The formation and development of soil is very much influenced by the growth of
vegetation.
o The decayed leaf material adds much needed humus to soil thereby increasing its fertility.
o The densely forested areas contain some of the best soils in India. There is a close
relationship between the vegetation types and soil types in India.

Major Soil Types of India

Geologically, Indian soils can broadly be divided into soils of peninsular India and soils of extra-
peninsular India.
1. The soils of Peninsular India are formed by the decomposition of rocks in situ, i.e. directly
from the underlying rocks.
 Soils of Peninsular India are transported and re-deposited to a limited extent and are known
as sedentary soils.
2. The soils of the Extra-Peninsula are formed due to the depositional work of rivers and wind.
They are very deep. They are often referred to as transported or azonal soils.

Major groups:
 Alluvial soils,
 Black soils,
 Red soils,
 Laterite and Lateritic soils,
 Forest and Mountain soils,
 Arid and Desert soils,
 Saline and Alkaline soils and
 Peaty and Marshy soils.
Alluvial Soil
Characteristics of Alluvial Soils
 Alluvial soils are formed mainly due to silt  They are immature and have weak profiles due
deposited by Indo-Gangetic- to their recent origin.
Brahmaputra rivers.  Most of the soil is Sandy and clayey soils are not
 In coastal regions some alluvial deposits uncommon.
are formed due to wave action.  The soil is porous because of its loamy (equal
 Parent Material: Rocks of the Himalayas proportion of sand and clay) nature.
form the parent material. Thus the parent  Porosity and texture provide good drainage and
material of these soils is of transported other conditions favourable for agriculture.
origin.  These soils are constantly replenished by the

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 They are the largest soil group covering recurrent floods.

about 15 lakh sq. km or about 46 per
cent of the total area.
 Support more than 40% of India‟s
population by providing most productive
agricultural lands.(UPRO 2014)
Chemical properties of Alluvial Soils Distribution of Alluvial Soils in India
 The proportion of nitrogen is generally  They occur all along the Indo Gangetic-
low. Brahmaputra plains except in few places where
 The proportion of Potash, phosphoric acid the top layer is covered by desert sand.
and alkalis are adequate  They also occur in deltas of the Mahanadi, the
 The proportion of Iron oxide and lime vary Godavari, Krishna and the Cauvery, where they
within a wide range. are called deltaic alluvium (coastal alluvium)
 Some alluvial soils are found in the Narmada,
Tapi valleys and Northern parts of Gujarat.
Crops in Alluvial Soils
 They are mostly flat and regular soils and are best suited for agriculture.
 They are best suited to irrigation and respond well to canal and well/tube-well irrigation.
 They yield splendid crops of rice, wheat, sugarcane, tobacco, cotton, jute, maize, oilseeds,
vegetables and fruits.
Geological Divisions of Alluvial Soils
Bhabar Terai
 The bhabar belt is about 8-16 km wide  Terai is an ill-drained, damp (marshy) and
running along the Shivalik foothills. thickly forested narrow tract (15-30 km wide)
 It is a porous, northern most stretch of to the south of Bhabar running parallel to it.
Indo-Gangetic plain.  The underground streams of the Bhabar belt re-
 Rivers descending from the Himalayas emerge in this belt. It is a swampy lowland with
deposit their load along the foothills in the silty soils.
form of alluvial fans.  The terai soils are rich in nitrogen and organic
 The porosity of bhabar is the most unique matter but are deficient in phosphate.
feature. The porosity is due to deposition  These soils are generally covered by tall grasses
of huge number of pebbles and rock and forests but are suitable for a number of crops
debris across the alluvial fans. such as wheat, rice, sugarcane, jute etc.
 The streams disappear once they reach the  This thickly forested region provides shelter to
bhabar region because of this porosity. a variety of wild life.
Therefore, the area is marked by dry
river courses except in the rainy season.
 The area is not suitable for agriculture
and only big trees with large roots
thrive in this belt.
Khadar
 The Bhangar is the older alluvium along  The Khadar is composed of newer alluvium and
the river beds forming terraces higher forms the flood plains along the river banks.
than the flood plain (about 30 metres  Banks are flooded almost every year and a new
above the flood level). layer of alluvium is deposited with every flood.
 It is of a more clayey composition and is This makes them most fertile soils of Ganges.
generally dark colored.
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 A few metres below the terrace of the  They are sandy clays and loams, drier and more
bhangar are beds of lime nodules known leached, less calcareous and carbonaceous (less
as “Kankar”. kankar). A new layer of alluvium is deposited by
river flood almost every year.
Black Soils
Characteristics
 The parent material for most of the black soil or regur soil are the volcanic rocks that were formed in
the Deccan Plateau (Deccan and the Raajmahal trap). (UPPCS Pre 2015, Lower 2015, RO 2016)
 In Tamil Nadu, gneisses and schists form the parent material. The former are sufficiently deep while
the later are generally shallow.
 These are the region of high temperature and low rainfall. It is, therefore, a soil group typical to the dry
and hot regions of the Peninsula.
 A typical black soil is highly argillaceous with a large clay factor, 62 per cent or more.
 Fertility: In general, black soils of uplands are of low fertility while those in valleys are very fertile.
 It is highly retentive of moisture & swells greatly on accumulating moisture(UPPCS Pre 2010)
 In summer, the moisture evaporates, the soil shrinks and is seamed with broad and deep cracks. The
lower layers can still retain moisture. The cracks permits oxygenation of the soil to sufficient depths
and the soil has extraordinary fertility. These are called self-ploughing soil.
Colour of Black Soils Chemical Composition of Black Soils
 The black colour is due to the presence of  10 per cent of alumina,
a small proportion of titaniferous  9-10 per cent of iron oxide,
magnetite or iron and black  6-8 per cent of lime and magnesium carbonates,
constituents of the parent rock.  Potash is variable (less than 0.5 per cent) and
 In Tamil Nadu and parts of Andhra  phosphates, nitrogen and humus are low.
Pradesh, the black colour is derived from
crystalline schists and basic gneisses.
Distribution of Black Soils Crops in Black Soils
 Spread over 46 lakh sq. km (16.6 per  These soils are best suited for cotton crop. Hence
cent of the total area) these soils are called as regur and black cotton
across Maharashtra, Madhya Pradesh, soils. (UPPCS Pre 2018, M 2004, 2014)
parts of Karnataka, Telangana, Andhra  Other major crops grown on the black soils
Pradesh, Gujarat and Tamil Nadu. include wheat, jowar, linseed, Virginia tobacco,
 The predominant soil of Malwa Plateau is castor, sunflower and millets.
Black soil. (UPPSC GIC 2010)  Rice and sugarcane are equally important where
irrigation facilities are available.
 Large varieties of vegetables and fruits are also
successfully grown on the black soils.
Red Soils
Characteristics of Red Soils
 Red soils along with its minor groups form the largest soil group of India.
 Main parent rocks: crystalline and metamorphic rocks like acid granites, gneisses and quartzites.
 The texture of these soils can vary from sand to clay, the majority being loams.
 On the uplands, the red soils are poor, gravelly, and porous. But in the lower areas they are rich,
deep dark and fertile.
Chemical Composition of Red Soils Colour of Red Soils
 They are acidic mainly due to the nature  The red colour is due to the presence of iron
of the parent rocks. The alkali content is oxide.
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fair.  When limestone, granites, gneisses and quartzites

 They are poor in lime, are eroded the clay enclosed within the rocks
magnesia, phosphates, nitrogen and remains intact with other forms of non-soluble
humus. materials.
 They are fairly rich in potash and  Colour is more due to the wide diffusion rather
potassium. than high percentage of iron oxide content.
Distribution of Red Soils Crops in Red Soils
 These soils mostly occur in the regions  The red soils are mostly loamy and hence cannot
of low rainfall. retain water like the black soils.
 They occupy about 3.5 lakh sq. km (10.6  The red soils, with the proper use of fertilizers and
per cent) of the total area of the country. irrigation techniques, give good yield of cotton,
 These soils are spread on almost the wheat, rice, pulses, millets, tobacco, oil seeds,
whole of Tamil Nadu. potatoes and fruits.
 Other regions with red soil include parts
of Karnataka, south-east of Maharashtra,
Telangana, Andhra Pradesh, MP,
Chhattisgarh, Odisha, Chhota Nagpur
plateau; parts of south Bihar, West
Bengal, UP; Aravallis and eastern half of
Rajasthan (Mewar or Marwar Plateau),
parts of North-Eastern states.
Laterite Soils
Characteristics
 Laterite soils are mostly the end products of weathering.
 They are formed under conditions of high temperature and heavy rainfall with alternate wet and
dry periods.
 Heavy rainfall promotes leaching (nutrients gets washed away by water) of soil whereby lime
and silica are leached away and a soil rich in oxides of iron and aluminium compounds is left
behind.
 „Laterite‟ means brick in Latin. They harden greatly on loosing moisture.
 Laterite soils are red in colour due to little clay and more gravel of red sand-stones.
Chemical composition Distribution
 Laterite soils are rich in bauxite or ferric  Laterite soils cover an area of 2.48 lakh sq. km.
oxides.  Continuous stretch of laterite soil is found on the
 They are very poor in lime, summits of Western Ghats at 1000 to 1500 m
magnesia, potash and nitrogen. (UPPCS above mean sea level, Eastern Ghats, the
Pre 2001) Raajmahal Hills, Vindhyan, Satpura and Malwa
 Sometimes, the phosphate content may Plateau, Malabar Coastal Region. (UPLDA 2006,
be high in the form of iron phosphate. UPPCS Pre 2000)
 In wetter places, there may be higher  They also occur at lower levels and in valleys in
content of humus. several other parts of the country.
 They are well developed in south Maharashtra,
parts of Karnataka etc. and are widely scattered in
other regions.
Crops in Laterite – Lateritic Soils
 Laterite soils lack fertility due to intensive leaching.
 When manured and irrigated, some laterites are suitable for growing plantation crops like tea,
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coffee, rubber, cinchona, coconut, arecanut etc.

 In some areas, these soils support grazing grounds and scrub forests.
Forest – Mountain Soils
Characteristics Distribution
 These soils occupy about 2.85 lakh sq. km or  In the Himalayan region, such soils are mainly
8.67% of the total land area of India. found in valleys, less steep and north facing
 They are heterogeneous soils found on slopes.
hill slopes covered by forests.  The south facing slopes are very steep and
 The formation of these soils is mainly exposed to denudation and hence do not support
governed by the characteristic deposition soil formation.
of organic matter derived from forests and  Forest soils occur in Western and Eastern Ghats
their character changes with parent also.
rocks, ground-configuration and climate.
 Consequently, they differ greatly even if
they occur in close proximity to one
another.
Chemical properties Crops in Forest
 The forest soils are very rich in humus.  They are suitable for plantations of tea, coffee,
 They are deficient in potash, spices and tropical fruits in peninsular forest
phosphorus and lime. region. (UPPCS Pre 2002)
 They require good deal of fertilizers for  Wheat, maize, barley and temperate fruits are
high yields. grown in the Himalayan forest region.
Arid – Desert Soils
Characteristics Distribution
 The desert soils consist of Aeolian  Occur in arid and semi-arid regions of Rajasthan,
sand (90 to 95%) and clay (5 to 10%). Punjab and Haryana.
 They cover a total area of 1.42 lakh sq.  The sand here is blown from the Indus basin and
km (4.32%). the coast by the prevailing south-west monsoon
 The presence of sand inhibits soil growth. winds.
 Desertification of neighboring soils is  Sandy soils without clay factor are also common
common due to intrusion of desert sand in coastal regions of Odisha, Tamil Nadu and
under the influence of wind. Kerala.
Chemical Properties Crops of Arid-Desert Soil
 They are usually poor in organic matter.  Phosphates and nitrates make these soil fertile
 Some desert soils are alkaline with wherever moisture is available.
varying degree of soluble salts  There is a possibility of reclaiming these soils if
like calcium carbonate. proper irrigation facilities are available.
 Calcium content increases downwards  In large areas, only the drought resistant and salt
and subsoil has ten times more calcium. tolerant crops such as barley, cotton, millets,
 The phosphate content of these soils is maize and pulses are grown.
as high as in normal alluvial soils.
 Nitrogen is originally low but some of it
is available in the form of nitrates.
Saline – Alkaline Soils
Characteristics Distribution of Saline – Alkaline Soils
 In Saline and Alkaline Soils, the top soil  Saline and Alkaline Soils occupy 68,000 sq. km of

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is impregnated (soak or saturate with a area.

substance) with saline and alkaline  These soils are found in canal irrigated areas and
efflorescence‘s. in areas of high sub-soil water table.
 Undecomposed rock fragments, on  Parts of Andhra Pradesh, Telangana, Karnataka,
weathering, give rise to sodium, Bihar, Uttar Pradesh, Haryana, Punjab (side
magnesium and calcium salts and effects of improper or excess irrigation),
sulphurous acid. Rajasthan and Maharashtra have this kind of soils.
 In regions with low water table, the salts  The accumulation of these salts makes the soil
percolate into sub soil and in regions with infertile and renders it unfit for agriculture.
good drainage, the salts are wasted away  In Gujarat, areas around the Gulf of Khambhat are
by flowing water. affected by sea tides carrying salt-laden deposits.
 But in places where the drainage system  Vast areas comprising the estuaries of the
is poor, the water with high salt Narmada, the Tapi, the Mahi and the Sabarmati
concentration becomes stagnant and have thus become infertile.
deposits all the salts in the top soil once  The largest area of saline soil is found in Gujarat
the water evaporates. and alkaline soil is found in UP. (UPPCS M
2007, 2012,2017)
Peaty – Marshy Soils
Characteristics Distribution of Peaty – Marshy Soils
 These are soils with large amount of  Kottayam and Alappuzha districts of Kerala where
organic matter and considerable it is called Kari.
amount of soluble salts.  Also occur in the coastal areas of Odisha and
 Most humid regions have this type of soil. Tamil Nadu, Sundarbans of West Bengal, in Bihar
 They are black, heavy and highly acidic. and Almora district of Uttarakhand.
Chemical Properties Crops of Peaty – Marshy Soils
 They are deficient in potash and  Most of the peaty soils are under water during the
phosphate. rainy season but as soon the rains cease, they are
put under paddy cultivation.

Characteristics of Indian Soils

 Most soils are old and mature. Soils of the peninsular plateau are much older than the soils of the
great northern plain.
 Indian soils are largely deficient in nitrogen, mineral salts, humus and other organic
materials.
 The micronutrient maximum deficient in Indian soils is Zinc. (UPPCS M 2004)
 Plains and valleys have thick layers of soils while hilly and plateau areas depict thin soil cover.
 Some soils like alluvial and black soils are fertile while some other soils such as laterite, desert
and alkaline soils lack in fertility and do not yield good harvest.
 Indian soils have been used for cultivation for hundreds of years and have lost much of their
fertility.

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CHAPTER -6
PROBLEMS OF INDIAN SOILS

Problems of Indian Soils

1. Soil Erosion
 Refers to removal of top soil. Growing menace in many parts of India. When top soil is
removed, it is known as sheet erosion, and when runoff makes gullies, it is known as gully
erosion.
 In India, soil erosion is a universal problem.
o In the areas where rainfall is heavy water is the main agent of soil erosion, while in the
arid and semi-arid areas wind is responsible for soil erosion.
o According to one estimate about 180 million hectares (about 60 per cent of the total area
of the country) is adversely affected by soil erosion.
o Main agents of soil erosion are water, wind, sea-waves, glaciers, and shifting
cultivation.
 Agents of Soil Erosion:
o Water erosion may be classified under three categories:
 Surface erosion or the uniform removal of soil from the surface,
 Rill erosion in which the running water makes finger-shaped grooves in the land, and
 Gully formations, in which the rills are enlarged, making the land bad and unsuitable
for cultivation.
 A typical example of gully erosion is provided in Chambal valley in MP.
Rajasthan and UP also provide typical examples of gully erosion.
 Gully erosion is also significant in the Shivalik tracts of Punjab, Haryana,
Himachal Pradesh, Jammu and Kashmir, Uttarakhand, Uttar Pradesh and along
the southern slopes of Himalayas, and the Western and Eastern Ghats.
o Wind erosion: Significant in arid and semi-arid areas of Rajasthan, Haryana, Punjab,
western MP and Gujarat. Wind erodes soil along the coastal plains of Peninsular India.
o The tidal waters: Severe erosion of beaches along the Kerala, Tamil Nadu, Andhra
Pradesh, Orissa, and Gujarat coasts is the example of sea-wave erosion.
 Note: The largest area affected by soil erosion is in the state of Rajasthan, followed by
Madhya Pradesh, Maharashtra, Uttar Pradesh, Gujarat, Andhra Pradesh and Karnataka.
 The worst affected areas of soil erosion include:
o Chambal and Yamuna rivers
o The southern slopes of Shivalik‘s foothills, Lesser and Greater Himalayas,
o The Western and Eastern Ghats,
o The Chotanagpur Plateau, and
o The arid and semi-arid areas of Rajasthan, Gujarat, Haryana, and Punjab.
 Consequences of Soil Erosion
o Loss of fertile top soil from the top layer leading to gradual loss of soil-fertility and
agricultural productivity.
o Loss of important nutrients from soil through leaching and water-logging.
o Lowering of the underground water-table and decrease in soil moisture.
o Drying of vegetation and extension of arid lands.
o Increase in the frequency of droughts and floods.
o Silting of rivers and canal beds.

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o Recurrence of landslides.
o Adverse effect on economy which retards cultural development.
o Increase in crimes and anti-social activities through the formation of natural hideouts for
criminals and dacoits.
o Burden on the exchequer to reclaim the bad lands.
o There is no uniform strategy to reclaim all wasteland and degraded soils of different
types.
2. Declining Fertility of Soil,
 Indian soils are generally deficient in nitrogen and phosphorous, while high in potassium.
 Phosphorous is low in Indo-Gangetic plains, Central and North East India.
 Also, nitrogen deficiency is across the country, with the deficiency higher in central and
southern India than in the Gangetic plains
 Degradation of soil health has also been reported due to long-term imbalanced use of
fertiliser nutrients
 The ideal n-p-k use ratio is 4:2:1, but has gone from 6:2.4:1 in 1990 to 6.7:2.7:1 in 2016,
according to a 2017 report by Fertilizer Association of India
 The 54th report of the Parliamentary Standing Committee of Agriculture (2017-18) says that
skewed subsidy policy in favour of urea and high prices of other fertilisers are behind the
imbalance in the use of fertilisers in the country.
 Extractive farming practices such as in-field burning of crop residues (common in north-west
India), removal of crop residues are also making soil lose fertility in India
3. Salinity and Alkalinity,
 These are the result of over irrigation in irrigated areas
 When farmers indulge in over irrigation, the ground water level rises resulting in salt
deposition, due to capillary action
 Alkalinity implies dominance of sodium salts
 Example: due to intense irrigation, the most fertile soils in Punjab & Haryana are rendered
useless due to salinity/alkalinity
 Effects of salinity and alkalinity
o Salinity and alkalinity have adverse effect on soil and reduce soil fertility.
o Cultivation is not possible on saline soils unless they are flushed out with large quantities
of irrigation water to leach out the salts.
o Choice of crops is limited to salinity tolerant crops like cotton, barley etc.
o Quality of fodder becomes poor.
o Salinity and alkalinity create difficulties in building and road construction.
o These cause floods due to reduced infiltration of water which sometimes leads to damage
to crops.
 Steps to treat salinity and alkalinity: Providing outlets for lands to drain out excess water
and lower water table. + Sealing leakages from canals, tanks and other water bodies by lining
them. + Making judicious use of irrigation facilities. + Improve vegetal cover to avoid further
degradation + Planting salt tolerant vegetation and crops such as Barley, cotton, palm, linseed
etc. + Crop rotation with Dhaincha (green fodder) with other crops. + Liberal application of
gypsum to convert the alkalies into soluble compounds. + Organic residues such as rice
husks and rice straw can be added to promote formation of mild acid as a result of their
decomposition. + Flushing the salt by flooding the fields with excess water. However, this
practice can lead to accumulation of saline water in the downstream area.
4. Water-Logging

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 The flat surfaces and depressions make movement of Surface water sluggish results in waterlogging.
 Waterlogged soils are soaked with water accumulated during rainy season or due to leakage from
various water sources.
 Extent of waterlogged soils is about 12 million hectares in India — half of which lies along the coast
and the other half in the inland area.
 Waterlogging is believed to be one of the chief causes of salinity.
 Proper layout of drainage schemes is the only way to overcome the menace of waterlogging.
 The basic methods of removing excess water from waterlogged soils are —
o Surface drainage — Surface drainage involves the disposal of excess water over ground
surface through an open drainage system with an adequate outlet. It is helpful where —
 Soils are deep with low infiltration
 Intensity of rainfall is high
 Water table is high
o Vertical drainage — Any bore or well from which the underlying water is extracted is
defined as vertical drainage. It works well in Indo-Gangetic plain where the pumped
water is used for irrigating the neighbouring regions.
5. Desertification
 This is the spread of desert like conditions in arid/semi-arid regions due to man‘s influence or
climate change
 This process can be attributed to factors such as:
o Uncontrolled grazing
o Reckless felling of trees
o Population pressures
 It has the potential to result in excessive wind erosion, decreasing productivity and increasing
frequency of droughts
 Ecological implications of desertification
o Drifting of sand and its accumulation on fertile agricultural land.
o Excessive soil erosion by wind and to some extent by water.
o Deposition of sand in rivers, lakes and other water bodies thereby decreasing their water
containing capacity.
o Lowering of water table leading to acute water shortage.
o Increase in area under wastelands.
o Decrease in agricultural production.
o Increase in frequency and intensity of droughts.

Some strategies that might help in the reclamation of wasteland are given below:
 All the degraded forest lands should be planted with trees.
 Marginal lands which are not suitable for agriculture should be brought under social forestry and
agro-forestry.
 Degraded soils and degraded lands can be reclaimed with the help of watershed programmes.
 Rainwater harvesting and conservation should be the focus of development planning.
 A series of small projects of water harvesting in the watershed area should be undertaken to
maximise benefits from watershed projects.
 Soil conservation practices should be adopted which have been briefly described in the following pages.

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Soil Conservation
Some of the important steps which can go a long way in the conservation of soils are as under:
 Afforestation (UPRO 2014)
 Restriction on the Felling of Trees
 Contour Ploughing and Strip Cultivation
 Control of Floods
 Reclamation of Ravine and Badlands
 Restriction on Shifting Cultivation
 Restoration of Long Fallow
 Reclamation of Saline and Alkaline (usar) Soil
 Other Measures of Soil Conservation

Government Program
1. Integrated Wasteland Development Program:
 Major programme implemented for improving the productivity of waste & degraded lands
keeping in view the poverty, backwardness, gender & equity is Integrated Wasteland
Development Programme.
 IWDP is being implemented by the National Wasteland Development Board of the Ministry
Of Rural Development (now Ministry of Rural Areas and Employment).
 The strategy includes development of wastelands mainly in non-forest areas aimed at:
o checking land degradation , putting such wastelands of the country to sustainable use
o increasing bio-mass availability especially that of fuelwood , fodder , fruits, fiber & small
timber.
 IWDP also works for revitalizing & reviving village level institutions & enlisting people‘s
participation. It is people‘s own programme which aims at giving them actual decision
making powers in terms of project implementation & fund disbursal.
2. Integrated Watershed Management Program (IWMP):
 IWMP was launched in 2009-10 with the objective of bringing various programmes such as
the Integrated Wastelands Development Programme (IWDP), Desert Development
Programme (DDP) and Drought Prone Areas Programme (DDAP), under one common
integrated programme.
 The Integrated Watershed Management Programme (IWMP) aims at prevention of soil
erosion, regeneration of vegetative cover, introduction of rainwater harvesting and recharging
of ground water table.
 The IWMP seeks to bring together all government agencies under one common programme
to address all these problems and improve the quality of life and health of these people
through enhanced livelihood opportunities.
 Cluster approach is adopted in selecting and preparing the project, with the average size of
the IWMP implementation being 5,000 hectares, which comprises a cluster of micro-
watersheds.
 The programme also involves extensive use of technology using remote sensing data, IT and
GIS for project planning, implementation, monitoring and evaluation.

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CHAPTER -7
NATURAL VEGETATION OF INDIA

Climate, soil and topography are the major factors that influence Natural Vegetation of a place.
 The main climatic factors are rainfall and temperature. The amount of annual rainfall has a
great bearing on the type of vegetation.
Annual Rainfall Type of Vegetation
200 cm or more Evergreen Rain Forests
100 to 200 cm Monsoon Deciduous Forests
50 to 100 cm Drier Deciduous or Tropical Savanna
25 to 50 cm Dry Thorny Scrub (Semi-arid)
Below 25 cm Desert (Arid)
 Temperature is the major factor in Himalayas and other hilly regions with
an elevation of more than 900 metres.
 As the temperature falls with altitude in the Himalayan region the vegetal
cover changes with altitude from tropical to sub-tropical, temperate and
finally alpine.
 Soil is an equally determining factor in few regions.
 Mangrove forests, swamp forests are some of the examples where soil is
the major factor.
 Topography is responsible for certain minor types e.g. alpine flora, tidal
forests, etc.

Classification of Natural Vegetation Of India

India‘s vegetation can be divided into 5 main types and 16 sub-types as given
below:
Moist Tropical Forests Dry Tropical Forests
 Tropical Wet Evergreen  Tropical Dry Evergreen
 Tropical Semi-Evergreen  Tropical Dry Deciduous
 Tropical Moist Deciduous  Tropical Thorn
 Littoral and Swamp
Montane Sub-tropical Forests Montane Temperate Forests
 Sub-tropical broad leave hill  Montane Wet Temperate
 Sub-tropical moist hill (pine)  Himalayan Moist Temperate
 Sub-tropical dry evergreen  Himalayan Dry Temperate
Alpine Forests
 Sub-Alpine
 Moist Alpine scrub
 Dry Alpine scrub

Forest Type in India % of Total Area

Tropical Moist Deciduous 37
Tropical Dry Deciduous 28
Tropical Wet Evergreen 08
Sub-Tropical Moist Hill 06
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Tropical Semi-Evergreen 04
Rest below 4 %

Moist Tropical Forests

1. Tropical Wet Evergreen Forests or Rain Forests
Climatic Conditions Characteristics
 Annual rainfall exceeds 250 cm  Evergreen: Due to high heat and high
 Annual temperature is about 25°-27°C humidity, the trees of these forests do not
 Average annual humidity exceeds 77% shed their leaves together.
and  Mesos phytic: Plants adopted to neither
 The dry season is distinctly short. too dry nor too wet type climate.
 Lofty: The trees often reach 45 – 60 metres in height.
 Thick Canopy: From the air, the tropical rain forest appears like a
thick canopy of foliage, broken only where it is crossed by large rivers
or cleared for cultivation.
 All plants struggle upwards (most epiphytes) for sunlight resulting in
a peculiar layer arrangement. The entire morphology looks like a green
carpet when viewed from above.
 Epiphytes
o Less undergrowth: The sun light cannot reach the ground due to
thick canopy. The undergrowth is formed mainly of bamboos,
ferns, climbers, orchids, etc.
Distribution Timber
 Western side of the Western Ghats  Hardwood: The timber of these forests is fine-
(500 to 1370 metres above sea level). grained, hard and durable.
 Some regions in the Poorvanchal  It has high commercial value but it is highly
hills. challenging to exploit due to dense
 In the Andaman and Nicobar Islands. undergrowth, absence of pure stands and
lack of transport
 The important species of these forests
are mahogany, mesua, white cedar, jamun,
canes, bamboo.
2. Tropical Semi-Evergreen Forests
 They are transitional forests between tropical wet evergreen forests
and tropical deciduous forests.
 They are comparatively drier areas compared to tropical wet evergreen
forests.
Climatic Conditions Distribution
 Annual rainfall is 200-250 cm  Western coast
 Mean annual temperature varies from 24°C to  Assam
27°C  Lower slopes of Eastern Himalayas
 The relative humidity is about 75 per cent  Odisha and
 The dry season is not short like in tropical  Andamans.
evergreen forests.
Characteristics Timber

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 The semi-evergreen forests are less dense.  Hardwood: Similar to that in

 They are more gregarious [living in flocks or tropical evergreen forests except
colonies – more pure stands] than the wet that these forests are less dense
evergreen forests. with more pure stands (timber
 These forests are characterized by many species. industry here is better than in
 Trees usually have buttressed trunks with evergreen forests).
abundant epiphytes
Buttressed Trunks
 The important species are laurel, rosewood,
mesua, thorny bamboo – Western Ghats, white
cedar, Indian chestnut, champa, mango, etc. –
Himalayan region.
3. Tropical Moist Deciduous Forests
Climatic Conditions Characteristics
 Annual rainfall 100 to 200 cm.  Trees drop their leaves during the spring and early
 Mean annual temperature of summer when sufficient moisture is not available.
about 27°C  General appearance is bare in extreme summers
 The average annual relative (April-May).
humidity of 60 to 75 per cent.  Tropical moist deciduous forests present irregular
top storey [25 to 60 m].
 Heavily buttressed trees and fairly complete
undergrowth.
 These forests occupy a much larger area than the
evergreen forests but large tracts under these
forests have been cleared for cultivation.
Distribution Timber
 Belt running along Western Ghats  These provide valuable timer like Teak.
surrounding belt of evergreen  The main species found in these forests are teak,
forests. sal, laurel, rosewood, amla, jamun, bamboo,
 Strip along Shivalik range etc.
including terai and bhabar from  It is comparatively easy to exploit these forests
77° E to 88° E. due to their high degree of gregariousness.
 Manipur and Mizoram.
 Hills of eastern MP and
Chhattisgarh.
 Chhota Nagpur Plateau.
 Most of Odisha.
 Parts of West Bengal and
 Andaman and Nicobar islands.
4. Littoral and Swamp Forests
 They can survive and grow both in fresh as well as brackish water.
 Occur in and around deltas, estuaries and creeks prone to tidal influences (delta or tidal
forests).
 Littoral (relating to or on shore of the sea or a lake) forests occur at several places along
coast.

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 Distribution: Swamp forests are confined to the deltas of the Ganga, the Mahanadi, the
Godavari, the Krishna and the Cauvery.
 Dense mangroves occur all along the coastline in sheltered estuaries, tidal creeks,
backwaters, salt marshes and mudflats. It provides useful fuel wood.
 The most pronounced and the densest is the Sunderban in the Ganga delta where the
predominant species is Sundri (Heriteera).
 Timber
o It provides hard and durable timber which is used for construction, building purposes and
making boats.
o The important species found in these forests are Sundri, agar, rhizophora, screw pines,
canes and palms, etc.

Dry Tropical Forests

1. Tropical Dry Evergreen Forests
Climatic Conditions Characteristics
 Annual rainfall of 100 cm [mostly from  Short statured trees, up to 12 m high, with
the north-east monsoon winds in complete canopy.
October – December].  Bamboos and grasses not conspicuous.
 Mean annual temperature is about 28°C.  The important species are jamun, tamarind,
 The mean humidity is about 75 per cent. neem, etc.
 The growth of evergreen forests in areas  Most of land under these forests has been
of such low rainfall is a bit strange. cleared for agriculture or casuarina
plantations.
2. Tropical Dry Deciduous Forests
Characteristics Distribution
 These are similar to moist deciduous  They occur in an irregular wide strip running
forests and shed their leaves in dry from the foot of the Himalayas to
season. Kanniyakumari except in Rajasthan, Western
 The major difference is that they can Ghats and West Bengal.
grow in areas of comparatively less  The important species are teak,sal, axlewood,
rainfall. rosewood, common bamboo, red sanders,
 They represent a transitional type – laurel, satinwood, etc.(UPPCS M 2007)
moist deciduous on the wetter side and  Large tracts of this forest have been cleared
thorn forests on the drier side. for agricultural purposes.
 They have closed but uneven canopy.  These forests have suffered from over
 The forests are composed of a mixture grazing, fire, etc.
of a few species of deciduous trees
rising up to a height of 20 metres.
 Undergrowth: Enough light reaches the
ground to permit the growth of grass and
climbers.
Climatic Conditions
 Annual rainfall is 100-150 cm.
3. Tropical Thorn Forests
Climatic Conditions Characteristics
 Annual rainfall less than 75 cm.  The trees are low (6 to 10 metres maximum)
 Humidity is less than 50 per cent. and widely scattered.
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 Mean temperature is 25°-30°C.  Acacias and Euphorbias are very

prominent.
Distribution
 Rajasthan, south-western Punjab, western Haryana, Kachchh and neighbouring parts of
Saurashtra. Here they degenerate into desert type in the Thar desert.
 Such forests also grow on the leeside of the Western Ghats covering large areas of
Maharashtra, Karnataka, Telangana, Andhra Pradesh and Tamil Nadu.
 The important species are neem, babul, cacti, etc.

Montane Sub-Tropical Forests

1. Sub-tropical Broad-leaved Hill Forests
Climatic conditions Characteristics
 Mean annual rainfall is 75 cm to 125  Forests of evergreen species.
cm.  Commonly found species are evergreen oaks,
 Average annual temperature is 18°- chestnuts, ash, beech, sals and pines.
21°C.  Climbers and epiphytes [plant that grows non-
 Humidity is 80 per cent. parasitically on tree or other plant] are
common.
 These forests are not so distinct in the
southern parts of the country. They occur only
in the Nilgiri and Palni hills at 1070-1525
metres above sea level.
 It is a ―stunted rain-forest‖ and is not so
luxuriant as the true tropical evergreen.
Distribution
 Eastern Himalayas to the east of 88°E longitude at altitudes varying from 1000 to 2000 m.
 The higher parts of the Western Ghats such as Mahabaleshwar, the summits of the Satpura
and the Maikal Range, highlands of Bastar and Mt. Abu in the Aravalli Range carry sub-
types of these forests.
2. Sub-tropical Moist Pine Forests
Distribution Timber
 Western Himalayas between 73°E and  Chirr or Chill is the most dominant tree
88°E longitudes at elevations between which forms pure stands.
1000 to 2000 metres above sea level.  It provides valuable timber for furniture,
 Some hilly regions of Arunachal boxes and buildings.
Pradesh, Manipur, Naga Hills and  It is also used for producing resin and
Khasi Hills. turpentine.
3. Sub-tropical Dry Evergreen Forests
Distribution Climatic Conditions
 Found in the Bhabar, the Shivalik‘s and  Annual rainfall is 50-100 cm (15 to 25 cm in
the western Himalayas up to about December-March).
1000 metres above sea level.  The summers are sufficiently hot and winters
are very cold.
Characteristics
 Low scrub forest with small evergreen stunted trees and shrubs.
 Olive, acacia modesta and pistacia are the most predominant species.

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Montane Temperate Forests

1. Montane Wet Temperate Forests
Climatic Conditions Characteristics
 Grows at a height of 1800 to 3000  These are closed evergreen forests. Trunks have
m above sea level large girth.
 Mean annual rainfall is 150 cm to  Branches are clothed with mosses, ferns and other
300 cm epiphytes.
 Mean annual temperature is about  Trees rarely achieve a height of more than 6m m.
11°C to 14°C and the  Deodar, Chilauni, Indian chestnut, birch, plum,
 Average relative humidity is over machilus, cinnamomum, litsea, magnolia, blue
80 per cent. pine, oak, hemlock, etc. are important species.
Distribution
 Higher hills of Tamil Nadu and Kerala, in the Eastern Himalayan region.
2. Himalayan Moist Temperate Forests
Climatic Conditions Timber
 Annual rainfall varies from 150 cm  It provides fine wood which is of much use for
to 250 cm construction, timber and railway sleepers.
Distribution Characteristics
 Occurs in the temperate zone of the  Mainly composed of coniferous species.
Himalayas between 1500 and 3300  Species occur in mostly pure strands.
metres.  Trees are 30 to 50 m high.
 Cover the entire length of this  Pines, cedars, silver firs, spruce, etc. are most
mountain range in Kashmir, important trees.
Himachal Pradesh, Uttarakhand,  They form high but fairly open forest with
Darjeeling and Sikkim. shrubby undergrowth including oaks,
rhododendrons and some bamboos.
3. Himalayan Dry Temperate Forests
Characteristics Distribution
 Coniferous forests with xerophytic  Such forests are found in inner dry ranges of
shrubs in which deodar, oak, ash, Himalayas where south-west monsoon is very
olive, etc are the main trees. feeble.
 Such areas are in Ladakh, Lahul, Chamba,
Kinnaur, Garhwal and Sikkim.

Alpine Forests
1. Altitudes ranging between 2,900 to 3,500.
2. These forests can be divided into:
 Sub-Alpine: The sub-alpine forests occur lower alpine scrub and grasslands.
 Moist Alpine Scrub and
 Dry Alpine Scrub.
3. It is a mixture of coniferous and broad-leaved trees in which the coniferous trees attain a height
of about 30 m while the broad-leaved trees reach only 10 m.
4. Fir, spruce, rhododendron, etc. are important species.
5. The moist alpine scrub is a low evergreen dense growth of rhododendron, birch etc. which
occurs from 3,000 metres and extends upto snowline.

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6. The dry alpine scrub is the uppermost limit of scrub xerophytic, dwarf shrubs, over 3,500 metres
above sea level and found in dry zone.
7. Juniper, honeysuckle, artemisia etc. are important species.

Mangrove Forests
1. Found in the areas of coasts influenced by tides.
2. Mud and silt get accumulated on such coasts.
3. Dense mangroves are the common varieties with roots of the plants submerged under water.
4. The deltas of the Ganga, the Mahanadi, the Krishana, the Godavari and the Kaveri are covered
by such vegetation.
5. In the Ganga Brahmaputra delta i.e., Sundarbans, Sundari trees are found, which provide durable
hard timber. (UPPCS Pre 2017)
6. Palm, coconut, keora, agar, also grow in some parts of the delta.
7. Royal Bengal Tiger is the famous animal in these forests.
8. Turtles, crocodiles, gharials and snakes are also found in these forests.
9. Mangroves in India:
 Coverage: According to the India State of Forest Report, 2019, the mangrove cover in India
is 4,975 sq km, which is 0.15% of the country‘s total geographical area.
o West Bengal has the highest percentage of area under total Mangrove cover followed by
Gujarat and Andaman Nicobar Islands.
 Largest Mangrove Forest: Sundarbans in West Bengal are the largest mangrove forest
regions in the world. It is listed as a UNESCO World Heritage Site.
o The forest is home to the Royal Bengal tiger, Gangetic dolphins and Estuarine crocodiles.
 Bhitarkanika Mangroves: The second largest mangrove forest in India is Bhitarkanika in
Odisha created by the two river deltas of River Brahmani and Baitarani.
o It is one of the most significant Ramsar wetlands in India.
 Godavari-Krishna Mangroves, Andhra Pradesh: The Godavari-Krishna mangroves
extend from Odisha to Tamil Nadu.
 The deltas of the Ganges, Mahanadi, Krishna, Godavari, and the Cauvery rivers contain
mangrove forests.
 The backwaters in Kerala have a high density of mangrove forest.
 Pichavaram in Tamil Nadu has a vast expanse of water covered with mangrove forests. It is
home to many aquatic bird species.
 West Bengal has 42.45% of India‘s mangrove cover, followed by Gujarat 23.66% and A&N
Islands 12.39%.

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