PRELIMS PROGRAMME PREPARATORY

2024
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CLASS 11th- INDIAN GEOGRAPHY NCERT
Summary
1. India - Location
2. Structure and Physiography
3. Drainage System
4. Climate
5. Natural Vegetation
6. Soils
7. Natural Hazards and Disasters
Chapter 1: India - Location
Geographical Extent of India:

● India spans from Kashmir in the north to Kanyakumari in the south, and
from Arunachal Pradesh in the east to Gujarat in the west.

● Territorial limit extends up to 12 nautical miles (about 21.9 km) from the
coast.

● Southern boundary extends up to 6°45' N latitude in the Bay of Bengal.

Location and Dimensions:

● Longitudinal extent: About 30 degrees.

● Latitudinal extent: North-South distance of 3214 km, East-West

distance of 2933 km.

● Total area: 3.28 million sq. km, making up 2.4% of the world's land
surface area.

● India is the seventh-largest country globally.

Factors Influencing Variations:

● Difference between North-South and East-West extent: Longitudinal

distance decreases towards poles, while latitudinal distance remains
constant.

● Southern part within tropics, northern part in sub-tropical or warm

temperate zone.

● These variations influence landforms, climate, soil types, and natural

vegetation.

Impact on People:

● Longitudinal difference: Nearly 30 degrees.

● Two-hour time difference between easternmost and westernmost parts

of India.

● Sunrise occurs two hours earlier in the east compared to the west.
Physical Diversity:

● India's size contributes to its diverse geography, including lofty

mountains in the north, major rivers like the Ganga, Brahmaputra, and
others, green forested hills in the northeast and south, and the vast
desert of Marusthali.

Indian Subcontinent:

● The Indian subcontinent comprises India along with Pakistan, Nepal,

Bhutan, and Bangladesh.

Coastline and Oceanic Presence:

● The peninsular part extends into the Indian Ocean.

● India boasts a coastline of 6,100 km on the mainland and a total

geographical coast of 7,517 km, including island groups like Andaman
and Nicobar in the Bay of Bengal and Lakshadweep in the Arabian
Sea.

Standard Meridian and Time:

● The standard meridian, 82°30' E, has been adopted by India.

● Indian Standard Time (IST) is ahead of Greenwich Mean Time (GMT)

by 5 hours and 30 minutes.

● Many countries choose standard meridians in multiples of 7°30'

longitude. For instance, the USA has seven time zones due to its vast
east-to-west extent.

School Bhuvan:

● School Bhuvan is a portal offering map-based learning to enhance

students' awareness about the country's natural resources,
environment, and sustainable development.

Geographical Features:

● Sri Lanka is separated from India by the Gulf of Mannar and Palk Strait.

● Maldives lies to the south of Lakshadweep Island.

CHAPTER 2: STRUCTURE AND PHYSIOGRAPHY

Movement of Indian Plate:

● Indian plate was originally positioned south of the equator, and the
Australian part was part of the Indian plate millions of years ago.

● Subsequently, the Indian plate moved northwards while the Australian

plate moved southwards.

Division of India based on its Geological Structure and Formations:

● The Peninsular Block

● The Himalayas and other Peninsular Mountains

 ● The Indo-Ganga-Brahmaputra Plain

The Peninsular Block:

● Northern boundary: An irregular line from Kachchh, along the western

flank of the Aravali Range, to Delhi, and then roughly parallel to the
Yamuna and the Ganga up to the Raajmahal Hills and the Ganga delta.

● Extensions:

○ North Eastern extent: Karbi Anglong and Meghalaya plateau

○ Western Extent: Rajasthan

● The North-Eastern parts are separated by the Malda fault in West

Bengal from the Chotanagpur plateau.

● In Rajasthan, desert and other desert-like features overlay this block.

● A significant portion of the peninsular region comprises complex and

ancient gneisses and granite formations.

Peninsular Block:

● Since the Cambrian period, the peninsular part has remained a rigid
block, with the exception of the western coast submerged beneath the
sea.

● However, other parts have experienced changes due to tectonic

activity.

● As part of the Indo-Australian plate, the peninsular block undergoes

various vertical movements and block faulting, evident in features like
the rift valleys of Narmada, Tapi, and Mahanadi, and the block
mountain of Satpura.

● The Peninsula mainly comprises relict and residual mountains such as

the Aravali hills, Nallamala hills, Javadi hills, Veliconda hills, Palkonda
range, and Mahendragiri hills, among others. River valleys are shallow
with low gradients.

● Most rivers flow towards the east and form deltas, like the Krishna,
Godavari, and Mahanadi.
Himalayas and Other Peninsular Mountains:

● The Himalayas, along with other Peninsular mountains, are

characterized by a young, weak, and flexible geological structure
compared to the rigid and stable Peninsular Block.

● These mountains, including the Himalayas, are still subjected to the

interplay of endogenic and exogenic forces, leading to the development
of faults, folds, and thrust plains.

● Tectonic activity has shaped these mountains, which are dissected by

fast-flowing rivers in their youthful stage.

● Various landforms such as gorges, V-shaped valleys, rapids, and

waterfalls reflect the youthful stage of these mountains.

Indo-Ganga-Brahmaputra Plain:

● Comprises the plain formed by the rivers Indus, Ganga, and

Brahmaputra.

● Originally a geo-synclinal depression that developed in the third phase

of Himalayan formation around 64 million years ago.

● Gradually filled by sediments brought by peninsular and Himalayan

rivers.

● The average depth of alluvial deposits ranges from 1000 to 2000

meters.

Physiography:

● Physiography is the outcome of structure, process, and the stage of

development of an area.

● Physical features of India:

○ Rugged mountain topography in the north with various peaks,

valleys, and deep gorges.

○ Southern part characterized by stable tablelands with highly

dissected plateaus, denuded rocks, and developed series of
scarps.

○ Vast North Indian plain lies between the rugged north and the
stable south.
Physiographic Division of India:

● The Northern and North-Eastern Mountains

● The Northern Plain

● The Peninsular Plateau

● The Indian Desert

● The Coastal Plains

● The Islands

The North and North-Eastern Mountains:

● Part of the Himalayas, consisting of a series of parallel mountain

ranges.

● Includes the Greater Himalayan range, comprising the Great Himalayas

and the Shiwalik.

● General orientation of the ranges:

○ Northwest to southeast direction in the northwestern part of India.

○ East-west direction in the Himalayas of Darjeeling and Sikkim

regions.

○ Southwest to northwest direction in Arunachal Pradesh.

○ North-south direction in Nagaland, Manipur, and Mizoram.

● The central axial length of the Great Himalayan Range is 2,500 km

from east to west, with a width varying between 160-400 km from north
to south.

● Acts as a physical barrier:

○ Forms a strong and long wall between the Indian subcontinent

and the Central and East Asian countries.

○ Creates climatic, drainage, and cultural barriers.

Division of Himalayas:

● Based on relief, alignment of ranges, and other geomorphological

features.
Kashmir or North-Western Himalayas:

● Comprises ranges like the Karakoram, Ladakh, Zaskar, and Pir Panjal.

● Cold desert situated in its northeastern part between the Greater

Himalaya and the Karakoram range.

● Kashmir valley lies between the Great Himalaya and Pir Panjal range.

● Important glaciers such as Baltoro and Siachen are found here.

● Famous for Karewa formations, useful for cultivating Zafran, a local

variety of saffron.

● Important passes include Zoji La on the Great Himalayas, Banihal on

the Pir Panjal, Photu La on the Zaskar, and Khardung La on the Ladakh
range.

● Features important freshwater lakes like Dal and Wular, and saltwater
lakes such as Pangong Tso and Tso Moriri.

● Drained by the river Indus and its tributaries like Jhelum and Chenab.

● Known for picturesque landscapes attracting adventure tourists.

● Houses important pilgrimage sites like Vaishno Devi, Amarnath Cave,

and Charar-e-Sharif.

● Srinagar is situated on the banks of the Jhelum river.

● Jhelum in the Kashmir valley is still in its youth stage, yet forming
meanders, a typical feature associated with the mature stage of fluvial
landform.

● Southernmost part consists of longitudinal valleys known as 'duns',

including Jammu dun and Pathankot dun.
Himachal and Uttarakhand Himalayas:

● Lies between the Ravi in the west and the Kali (a tributary of Ghaghara)
in the east.

● Drained by two major river systems: the Indus and the Ganga.

● Tributaries of the Indus include Ravi, Beas, and Satluj, while tributaries
of the Ganga include Yamuna and Ghaghara.

● Northernmost part is an extension of the Ladakh cold desert, located in

the Spiti subdivision of Lahul and Spiti district.

● Three prominent ranges:

○ The Great Himalayan ranges

○ The Lesser Himalayas, locally known as Dhaoladhar in Himachal

Pradesh and Nagtibha in Uttarakhand

○ The Shiwalik ranges

 ● Altitude ranges between 1,000-2,000 meters, attracting British colonial
administration who established:

○ Important hill stations: Dharamshala, Mussoorie, Shimla, Kaosani

○ Cantonment towns and health resorts: Shimla, Mussoorie,

Kasauli, Almora, Lansdowne, and Ranikhet, among others.

● Distinguishing features include the 'Shiwalik' and 'Dun formations'.

○ Important duns include Chandigarh-Kalka dun, Nalagarh dun,

Dehra Dun, Harike dun, and the Kota dun.

○ Dehra Dun is the largest, approximately 35-45 km in length and

22-25 km in width.

● The Great Himalayan range valley is inhabited by Bhotias, nomadic

groups migrating to 'Bugyals' (summer grasslands) during summer and
returning to the valleys in winters.

● Valley of Flower is situated in this region.

● Places of pilgrimage include Gangotri, Yamunotri, Kedarnath,

Badrinath, and Hemkund Sahib.

● The region is known for five famous Prayags (river confluences).

Darjeeling and Sikkim Himalayas:

● Flanked by Nepal Himalayas in the west and Bhutan Himalayas in the

east.

● Known for fast-flowing rivers such as Tista.

● Region characterized by high mountain peaks like Kanchenjunga

(Kanchengiri) and deep valleys.

● Higher reaches inhabited by Lepcha tribes.

● Southern part, particularly Darjeeling Himalaya, has a mixed population

of Nepalis, Bengalis, and tribals from Central India.
Tea Plantations:

● Introduced by the Britishers due to favorable physical conditions:

○ Moderate slope

○ Thick soil cover with high organic content

○ Well-distributed rainfall throughout the year

○ Mild winters

● Absence of Shiwalik formation; instead, 'duar formations' are important

for tea garden development.

Sikkim:

● Known for its orchids.

Arunachal Himalayas:

● Extends from the east of the Bhutan Himalayas up to the Diphu pass in
the east.

● Important Mountain Peaks: Kangtu and Namcha Barwa.

● Ranges are dissected by fast-flowing rivers from north to south, forming

deep gorges. Brahmaputra flows through a deep gorge after crossing
Namcha Barwa.

● Important Rivers: Kameng, Subansiri, Dihang, Dibang, and Lohit.

These rivers are perennial with a high rate of fall, giving them the
highest hydro-electric power potential in the country.

● Ethnic Tribal Communities: From west to east are the Monpa, Abor,
Mishmi, Nyishi, and the Nagas. Most practice Jhumming cultivation.

● Due to rugged topography, inter-valley transportation linkages are

nominal. Most interactions occur through the duar region along the
Arunachal-Assam border.

Eastern Hills and Mountains:

● Part of the Himalayan mountain system with a general alignment from

north to south.

● Known by different local names:

 ○ Northern region: Patkai Bum, Naga hills, Manipur hills

○ Southern region: Mizo or Lushai hills.

● Low hills inhabited by numerous tribal groups practicing Jhum

cultivation.

● Barak is an important river in Manipur and Mizoram, with other

rivers forming tributaries of Barak, which itself is a tributary of
Meghna.

● Loktak lake in Manipur is surrounded by mountains, a unique

feature.

● Rivers in the eastern part of Manipur are tributaries of Chindwin,

which in turn is a tributary of the Irrawaddy in Myanmar.

● Mizoram, also known as the 'Molassis basin', is made up of soft

unconsolidated deposits.

● Most rivers in Nagaland form tributaries of the Brahmaputra.

The Northern Plains:

● Formed by the alluvial deposits brought by the rivers – the Indus, the
Ganga, and the Brahmaputra.

● Length is 3200 km from east to west, with an average width varying

from 150-300 km and maximum depth between 1000-2000 m.

● Divided into three major zones from north to south: The Bhabar, the
Tarai, and the alluvial plains. The alluvial plains further divided into
the Khadar and the Bhangar.

○ Bhabar:

■ Narrow belt ranging between 8-10 km parallel to the

Shiwalik foothills at the break-up of the slope.

■ Streams and rivers coming from the mountains deposit

heavy materials of rocks and boulders, and sometimes
disappear in this zone.

○ Tarai:

■ Lies south of the Bhabar with an approximate width of

10-20 km.
 ■ Streams and rivers re-emerge without proper demarcated
channels, creating marshy and swampy conditions known
as the Tarai.

■ Luxurious growth of natural vegetation and houses varied

wildlife.

○ South of Tarai is a belt consisting of old and new alluvial deposits

known as the Bhangar and Khadar respectively.

● Characteristic features include sandbars, meanders, oxbow lakes,

and braided channels.

● Brahmaputra plains, known for riverine islands and sandbars, subjected

to periodic floods and shifting river courses forming braided streams.

● States of Haryana and Delhi form a water divide between the Indus and
the Ganga river systems.

● Brahmaputra river flows from northeast to southwest before taking an

almost 90° southward turn at Dhubri before entering Bangladesh.

● Fertile alluvial soil supports a variety of crops like wheat, rice,

sugarcane, and jute, sustaining a large population.

The Peninsular Plateau:

● Irregular triangle rising from 150 m above the river plains to an

elevation of 600-900 m.

● Extent:

○ Northwest: Delhi ridge (extension of Aravalis)

○ East: Rajmahal hills

○ West: Gir range

○ South: Cardamom hills constitute the outer extent.

● Made up of patland plateaus like Hazaribagh, Palamu, Ranchi, Malwa,

Coimbatore, and Karnataka, among others.

● General elevation increases from west to east.

 ● Important physiographic features include tors, block mountains, rift
valleys, spurs, bare rocky structures, series of hummocky hills, and
wall-like quartzite dykes providing natural sites for water storage.

● Western and north-western part characterized by emphatic presence of

black soil.

● Underwent recurrent phases of upliftment and submergence, such as

Bhima fault.

● North-western part features complex relief of ravines and gorges like

those of Chambal, Bhind, and Morena.

● Divided into three broad groups based on prominent relief features: The
Deccan Plateau, The Central Highlands, and The North-eastern
Plateau.

The Deccan Plateau:

● Bordered by the Western Ghats in the west, Eastern Ghats in the east,
and the Satpura, Maikal range, and Mahadeo hills in the north.

● Western Ghats known by different local names:

○ Sahyadri in Maharashtra.

○ Nilgiri hills in Karnataka and Tamil Nadu.

○ Anaimalai hills and Cardamom hills in Kerala.

● Western Ghats are higher in elevation and more continuous:

○ Average elevation about 1,500 m, height increasing from north to

south.

○ Anaimudi (2,695 m), the highest peak of the peninsular region,

followed by Dodabetta (2,637 m) on the Nilgiri hills.

● Eastern Ghats comprising discontinuous and low hills highly eroded by

rivers such as the Mahanadi, Godavari, Krishna, Kaveri, etc.

● Eastern and Western Ghats meet each other at the Nilgiri hills.

The Central Highlands:

● Bounded to the west by the Aravali range.

 ● Satpura range formed by scarped plateaus on the south, generally at
an elevation varying between 600-900 m above sea level:

○ Northernmost boundary of the Deccan plateau.

○ Relict mountains highly denuded, forming discontinuous ranges.

● Western region underwent metamorphic processes in geological

history, evidenced by presence of metamorphic rocks like marble, slate,
gneiss, etc.

● General elevation ranges between 700-1,000 m above sea level.

● Slopes towards north and northeast.

● Tributaries of river Yamuna mostly originate in Vindhyan and Kaimur

ranges.

● Banas, significant tributary of river Chambal, originates from Aravalli in

the west.

● Eastern extension formed by Rajmahal hills, south of which lies a large

reserve of mineral resources in the Chotanagpur plateau.

The North-Eastern Plateau:

 ● Extension of peninsular plateau.

● Due to the north-eastward movement of the Indian plate during the

Himalayan origin, a huge fault was created between the Rajmahal hills
and the Meghalaya plateau.

● Meghalaya plateau further subdivided into three regions: The Garo

Hills; The Khasi Hills; The Jaintia Hills .

● Extension seen in Karbi Anglong hills of Assam.

● Rich in mineral resources like coal, iron ore, sillimanite, limestone,

and uranium.

● Receives maximum rainfall from southwest monsoon:

○ Meghalaya plateau highly eroded.

○ Cherrapunji displays bare rocky surface devoid of permanent

vegetation cover.

The Indian Desert:

● Lies northwest of the Aravali hills.

● Land of undulating topography dotted with longitudinal dunes and

barchans.

● During the Mesozoic era, this region was under the sea:

○ Evidence available at wood fossils park at Aakal and marine

deposits around Brahmsar, near Jaisalmer.

● Desert land features include mushroom rocks, shifting dunes, and

oases, mostly in its southern part.

● Divided into two parts based on orientation:

○ Northern part slopes towards Sindh.

○ Southern part slopes towards Rann of Kachchh.

● Most rivers ephemeral; Luni river in southern part of desert of some

significance.

● Presents typical case of inland drainage by joining a lake or playa.

● Lakes and playas have brackish water, main source of obtaining salt.
Coastal Plains:

The Western Coastal Plains:

● Submerged coastal plain.

● Narrow belt due to submergence, providing natural conditions for

development of ports and harbours such as Kandla, Mazagaon, JLN
Port Navha Sheva, Marmagao, Mangalore, Cochin, etc.

● Divisions:

○ Kachchh and Kathiawar coast in Gujarat.

○ Konkan coast in Maharashtra.

○ Goan coast and Malabar coast in Karnataka and Kerala

respectively.

● Narrow in middle, broader towards north and south.

● Malabar coast notable for 'Kayals' (backwaters), used for fishing and
inland navigation.

● Hosts famous Nehru Trophy Vallamkali (boat race) annually in

Punnamada Kayal, Kerala.

The Eastern Coastal Plains:

● Broader, example of emergent coast.

● Well-developed deltas formed by rivers flowing eastward into Bay of

Bengal.

● Smaller number of ports and harbours due to continental shelf

extending up to 500 km into sea, making development of good ports
and harbours difficult.

The Islands:

Bay of Bengal Island Groups:

● Consist of about 572 islands/islets, situated roughly between 6°N-14°N

and 92°E -94°E.

● Principal groups include Ritchie's archipelago and Labrynth island.

● Andaman and Nicobar separated by ten-degree channel.

 ● Elevated portion of submarine mountains.

● Barren island, India's only active volcano, situated in Nicobar Islands.

● Receive convectional rainfall; equatorial type vegetation.

Islands of the Arabian Sea:

● Include Lakshadweep and Minicoy.

● Scattered between 8°N-12°N and 71°E -74°E longitude.

● Located 280 km-480 km off Kerala coast.

● Entire group built of coral deposits; approximately 36 islands, 11

inhabited.

● Minicoy largest island (453 sq. km).

● Divided by Ten-degree channel; Amini island north, Cannanore island

south.

● Storm beaches with unconsolidated pebbles, shingles, cobbles, and

boulders on eastern seaboard.

Interesting Points:

● Karewas: Thick deposits of glacial clay and materials embedded with

moraines.

● Meanders in Jhelum river in Kashmir Valley caused by local base level

provided by erstwhile larger lake, present Dal Lake part of it.

● Important mountain peaks in Andaman and Nicobar Islands:

○ Saddle peak (North Andaman – 738 m)

○ Mount Diavolo (Middle Andaman – 515 m)

○ Mount Koyob (South Andaman – 460 m)

○ Mount Thuiller (Great Nicobar – 642 m)

CHAPTER 3: DRAINAGE SYSTEM

Drainage and its Components:

● Definition and Components: Drainage refers to the flow of water

through well-defined channels, constituting a drainage system. Key
components include:

○ Rivers: Channels through which water is drained from specific

areas, known as catchment areas.

○ Drainage Basin: Area drained by a river and its tributaries.

○ Watershed: Boundary line separating one drainage basin from

another.

● Factors Influencing Drainage Pattern: The drainage pattern in an

area is influenced by various factors such as:

○ Geological Time Period

○ Nature and Structure of Rocks

○ Topography and Slope

○ Volume of Water Flow

○ Periodicity of Flow

Division of Indian Drainage System:

● Based on Discharge of Water:

○ Arabian Sea Drainage

○ Bay of Bengal Drainage

○ Separated by geographical features like the Delhi ridge,

Aravalis, and Sahyadris.

● Based on Size of Watershed:

○ Major River Basins: Covering over 20,000 sq. km of catchment

area, including significant rivers like the Ganga, Brahmaputra,
Krishna, etc.
○ Medium River Basins: With catchment areas ranging from 2,000
to 20,000 sq. km, encompassing rivers like the Kalindi, Periyar,
Meghna, etc.

○ Minor River Basins: Covering less than 2,000 sq. km catchment

area, hosting numerous rivers mainly in regions with low rainfall.
Himalayan Drainage System:

● Evolution:

○ Developed over an extensive geological timeline.

○ Major basins include the Ganga, Indus, and Brahmaputra,

originating from deep gorges formed by concurrent erosional
activity during Himalayan uplift.

● Geological Features:

○ Rivers carve out deep gorges, V-shaped valleys, rapids, and

waterfalls in mountainous regions.

○ In plains, depositional features like flat valleys, ox-bow lakes,

floodplains, braided channels, and deltas are common near river
mouths.

● River Characteristics:

○ Rivers exhibit highly tortuous courses in Himalayan regions,

while displaying strong meandering tendencies in plains, often
causing frequent course shifts.

○ The River Kosi, known as the 'sorrow of Bihar,' frequently

changes its course due to heavy sediment deposition.

● Evolutionary History:

○ During the Miocene period (5-24 million years ago), the Shiwalik
or Indo-Brahma river flowed from Assam to Punjab, eventually
discharging into the Gulf of Sind near lower Punjab.

○ Pleistocene upheavals led to the dismemberment of the

Indo-Brahma river into three main drainage systems:

■ The Indus and its tributaries in the western part.

■ The Ganga and its Himalayan tributaries in the central part.

■ The Brahmaputra in Assam and its Himalayan tributaries in

the eastern part.

○ Geological events such as the uplift of the Potawar plateau

(Delhi ridge) and the down thrusting of the Malda gap redirected
 the flow of the Ganga and Brahmaputra systems towards the Bay
of Bengal.

River System of Himalayan Drainage:

Indus River System:

● Extent and Characteristics:

○ One of the world's largest river basins, covering 11,65,000 sq. km

globally (321,289 sq. km in India), with a total length of 2,880 km
(1,114 km in India).

○ Originating from a glacier near Bokhar Chu in the Tibetan region

at an altitude of 4,164 m within the Kailash Mountain range.

○ Known as 'Singi Khamban' or 'Lion's mouth' in Tibet.

○ Flows northwestward between Ladakh and Zaskar range,

traversing Ladakh and Baltistan regions.

● Geographical Features:

○ Cuts across the Ladakh range, forming a gorge near Gilgit in

Jammu and Kashmir.

○ Enters Pakistan near Chilas in the Dardistan region.

● Tributaries:

○ Left Bank Tributaries: Zaskar, Suru, Jhelum, Chenab, Ravi, Beas,

Satluj, etc.

○ Right Bank Tributaries: Shyok, Hunza, Nubara, Kabul, Khurram,

Gomal, Tochi, The Viboa, the Sangar, etc.

● Confluence and Further Course:

○ Emerges from hills near Attock, receiving the Kabul river on its
right bank.

○ Flows southward, receiving 'Panjnad' above Mithankot.

○ 'Panjnad' refers to the confluence of five rivers of Punjab: Satluj,

Beas, Ravi, Chenab, and Jhelum.
 ● Flow in India:

○ Indus flows solely through Jammu and Kashmir in India.

Tributaries of the Indus:

Jhelum:
● Origin and Course:

○ Springs from Verinag at the foot of the Pir Panjal in the

southeastern part of the Kashmir valley.

○ Flows through Srinagar and the Wular lake before entering

Pakistan via a deep narrow gorge.

● Confluence:

○ Joins the Chenab near Jhang in Pakistan.

Chenab:
● Significance:

○ Largest tributary of the Indus.

● Formation:

○ Formed by the confluence of the Chandra and Bhaga rivers near

Tandi, close to Keylong in Himachal Pradesh.

○ Also known as Chandrabhaga.

● Course:

○ Flows for 1,180 km before entering Pakistan.

Ravi:
● Source and Route:

○ Originates west of the Rohtang Pass in the Kullu hills of

Himachal Pradesh.

○ Flows through the Chamba valley of the state.

● Confluence:

○ Joins the Chenab near Sarai Sidhu in Pakistan.

Beas:
● Source:

○ Originates from Beas Kund near the Rohtang Pass at an

elevation of 4,000 m above mean sea level.

● Course:

○ Flows through the Kullu valley, forming gorges at Kati and Largi
in the Dhauladhar range.

● Confluence:

○ Meets the Satluj near Harike upon entering the Punjab plains.

Satluj:
● Origin:

○ Springs from 'Raksas Tal' near Mansarovar at an altitude of 4,555

m in Tibet, known as Langchen Khambab.

● Course:

○ Flows parallel to the Indus for around 400 km before entering

India and emerging from a gorge at Rupar.

○ Passes through Shipki La on the Himalayan ranges before

entering the Punjab plains.

● Characteristics:

○ Antecedent river.

○ Plays a significant role in feeding the canal system of the Bhakra

Nangal project.
The Ganga System:
● Significance:

○ Most important river in India in terms of basin and cultural

significance.

● Source and Initial Course:

○ Rises from the Gangotri glacier near Gaumukh (3,900 m) in

Uttarkashi district, Uttarakhand, known as the Bhagirathi.

○ Cuts through the Central and Lesser Himalayas in narrow

gorges.

● Confluence:

○ At Devprayag, Bhagirathi meets Alaknanda, thereafter known as

the Ganga.

○ Alaknanda originates from the Satopanth glacier above

Badrinath.

● Prayags:

○ Vishnu Prayag (Joshimath): Confluence of Dhauli and Vishnu

Ganga.

○ Karna Prayag: Pindar joins Alaknanda.

○ Rudra Prayag: Mandakini or Kali Ganga meets Alaknanda.

● Plains Entry and Course:

○ Enters plains at Haridwar, then flows southward, followed by

southeast and eastward directions.

○ Total length of 2,525 km, shared by Uttarakhand (110 km), Uttar

Pradesh (1,450 km), Bihar (445 km), and West Bengal (520 km).

● Basin and Tributaries:

○ Ganga basin covers approximately 8.6 lakh sq. km in India.

○ Consists of rivers originating from both the peninsula and the

Himalayas.
 ● Tributaries:

○ Left Bank Tributaries: Ramganga, Gomati, Ghaghara, Gandak,

Kosi, Mahananda.

○ Right Bank Tributaries: Son, Punpun, Damodar.

Tributaries of the Ganga River:

Yamuna:

● Origin:

○ Arises from the Yamunotri glacier on the western slopes of the

Banderpunch range (6,316 m).

● Confluence:

○ Joins the Ganga at Prayagraj (Allahabad).

● Tributaries:

○ Right Bank: Chambal, Sind, Betwa, Ken.

○ Left Bank: Hindan, Rind, Sengar, Varuna.

Chambal:
● Source and Route:

○ Originates near Mhow in the Malwa plateau of Madhya Pradesh.

○ Flows through a gorge upstream of Kota in Rajasthan, where the

Gandhisagar dam is constructed.

○ Passes through Bundi, Sawai Madhopur, Dholpur, and finally

joins the Yamuna.

● Distinct Feature:

○ Known for its badland topography, referred to as the Chambal

ravines.

Gandak:
● Formation:

○ Comprises two streams, Kaligandak and Trishulganga.

 ○ Originates in the Nepal Himalayas between Dhaulagiri and Mount
Everest, draining the central part of Nepal.

● Course:

○ Enters the Ganga plain in Champaran district of Bihar.

○ Joins the Ganga at Sonpur near Patna.

Ghaghara:

● Origin:

○ Arises from the glaciers of Mapchachungo.

○ Collects waters from tributaries Tila, Seti, and Beri before

emerging from the mountains.

● Geographical Feature:

○ Cuts a deep gorge at Shishapani as it exits the mountains.

● Confluence:

○ Joined by the river Sarda (Kali or Kali Ganga) in the plains before
ultimately meeting the Ganga at Chhapra.

Kosi:
● Characteristics:

○ Antecedent river, originating north of Mount Everest in Tibet.

○ Main-stream Arun rises from its source.

● Course:

○ Crosses the Central Himalayas in Nepal.

○ Joined by the Son Kosi from the west and the Tamur Kosi from
the east.

○ Forms Sapt Kosi after uniting with the river Arun.

Ramganga:
● Source and Route:

○ Originates in the Garhwal hills near Gairsain.

 ○ Changes direction southwest after crossing the Shiwalik range
and enters the plains of Uttar Pradesh near Najibabad.

● Confluence:

○ Joins the Ganga near Kannauj.

Damodar:
● Location and Characteristics:

○ Occupies the eastern margins of the Chotanagpur Plateau,

flowing through a rift valley.

○ Joins the Hugli river.

● Tributary:

○ Barakar serves as its main tributary.

● Historical Significance:

○ Historically known as the 'sorrow of Bengal,' it has been

managed by the Damodar Valley Corporation, a multipurpose
project, to mitigate flooding and harness its resources.

Sarda or Saryu River:

● Origin and Names:

○ Rises in the Milam glacier in the Nepal Himalayas, known as the

Goriganga.

○ Along the Indo-Nepal border, referred to as Kali or Chauk, where

it joins the Ghaghara.

Mahananda:

● Source and Route:

○ Originates in the Darjiling hills.

○ Flows as a significant tributary of the Ganga, joining it as the last

left bank tributary in West Bengal.
Son:
● Origin and Course:

○ Originates in the Amarkantak plateau.

○ Forms a series of waterfalls at the plateau's edge before reaching

Arrah, west of Patna, where it joins the Ganga as a significant
south bank tributary.

Brahmaputra System:
● Origin and Initial Course:

○ Originates in the Chemayungdung glacier of the Kailash range

near Mansarovar lake.

○ Travels longitudinally eastward for around 1,200 km in a dry and

flat region of southern Tibet, known as the Tsangpo, meaning 'the
purifier.'

● Major Tributary in Tibet:

○ Rango Tsangpo serves as the major right bank tributary.

● Emergence and Name Change:

○ Emerges from the Central Himalayas near Namcha Barwa (7,755

m).

○ Referred to as Siang or Dihang upon emerging from the foothills.

● Entry into India:

○ Enters India west of Sadiya town in Arunachal Pradesh.

● Tributaries:

○ Left Bank: Burhi Dihing and Dhansari (South).

○ Right Bank: Subansiri, Kameng, Manas, and Sankosh.

○ The Subansiri, originating in Tibet, is an antecedent river.

● Course in Bangladesh:

○ Enters Bangladesh near Dhubri and flows southward.

In Bangladesh:

● Tista Confluence:

○ Tista joins the Brahmaputra on its right bank.

○ After this confluence, the river is referred to as the Jamuna.

● Merge with Padma:

○ Eventually merges with the river Padma.

● Outflow:

○ Padma River falls into the Bay of Bengal.

Hydrological Characteristics:

● Floods and Erosion:

○ Brahmaputra is notorious for floods, channel shifting, and bank

erosion.

○ Large tributaries bring substantial sediments due to heavy rainfall

in the catchment area.

The Peninsular River System:

● Age and Characteristics:

○ Older than the Himalayan system, evident from broad, largely

graded shallow valleys, and mature rivers.

● Flow Direction:

○ Most major Peninsular rivers, except Narmada and Tapi, flow

from west to east.

○ Western Ghats serve as the water divide between west and east
flowing rivers.

● Ganga River System Tributaries:

○ Rivers like Chambal, Sind, Betwa, Ken, and Son, originating in

the northern part of the Peninsula, belong to the Ganga river
system.
 ● Major River Systems:

○ Key river systems include Mahanadi, Godavari, Krishna, and

Kaveri.

● Characteristics:

○ Peninsular rivers exhibit fixed courses, absence of meanders,

and nonperennial flow of water.

○ Exceptions include Narmada and Tapi, flowing through rift

valleys.

Evolution of Peninsular Drainage System:

Three major geological events have significantly influenced the present
drainage systems of Peninsular India:

1. Subsidence of the Western Part:

○ Occurred during the early Tertiary period, leading to

submergence below the sea.

○ Disrupted the symmetrical plan of rivers on either side of the

original watershed.

2. Upheaval of the Himalayas:

○ Northern flank of the Peninsular block subjected to subsidence

and consequent trough faulting.

○ Narmada and Tapi rivers flow in trough faults, filling original

cracks with detritus materials.

○ Lack of alluvial and deltaic deposits in these rivers due to this

geological process.

3. Tilting of the Peninsular Block:

○ Slight tilting from northwest to southeast direction during the

same period.

○ Oriented the entire drainage system towards the Bay of Bengal.

River Systems of the Peninsular Drainage:

Mahanadi:
● Source and Course:

○ Originates near Sihawa in Raipur district of Chhattisgarh.

○ Flows through Odisha before discharging into the Bay of Bengal.

● Length and Catchment Area:

○ Stretches 851 km in length.

○ Catchment area spans over 1.42 lakh sq. km.

● Navigation:

○ Some navigation activities occur in the lower course of the river.

 ● Distribution of Drainage Basin:

○ 53% of the drainage basin lies in Madhya Pradesh and

Chhattisgarh.

○ 47% lies in Odisha.

Godavari:
● Size and Nickname:

○ Largest Peninsular river system, also known as the Dakshin

Ganga.

● Source and Destination:

○ Originates in the Nasik district of Maharashtra.

○ Empties into the Bay of Bengal.

● Tributaries and States:

○ Tributaries traverse through Maharashtra, Madhya Pradesh,

Chhattisgarh, Odisha, and Andhra Pradesh.

● Length and Catchment Area:

○ Spans 1,465 km in length.

○ Catchment area covers 3.13 lakh sq. km, with 49% in

Maharashtra, 20% in Madhya Pradesh and Chhattisgarh, and the
remainder in Andhra Pradesh.

● Tributaries:

○ Left Bank: Banganga, Kadva, Shivana, Purna, Kadam, Pranahita,

Indravati, Taliperu, Sabari, Dharna.

○ Right Bank: Nasardi, Pravara, Sindphana, Manjira, Manair,

Kinnerasani.

● Floods and Gorge Formation:

○ Subjected to heavy floods in its lower reaches south of

Polavaram, where it forms a picturesque gorge.

● Navigation and Delta:

○ Navigable only in the deltaic stretch.

 ○ After Rajamundri, the river splits into several branches, forming a
large delta.

Krishna:
● Size and Direction:

○ Second largest east-flowing Peninsular river.

○ Originates near Mahabaleshwar in the Sahyadri range.

● Length:

○ Total length measures 1,401 km.

● Tributaries:

○ Left Bank: Bhima, Dindi, Peddavagu, Musi, Paleru, Munneru.

○ Right Bank: Koyana, Venna, Panchganga, Dhudhganga,

Ghataprabha, Malaprabha, Tungabhadra.

● Catchment Area:

○ 27% of the total catchment area lies in Maharashtra.

○ 44% in Karnataka.

○ 29% in Andhra Pradesh and Telangana.

Kaveri:
● Source and Length:

○ Originates in the Brahmagiri hills (1,341m) of Kodagu district in

Karnataka.

○ Extends for a length of 800 km.

● Drainage Area and Fluctuation:

○ Drains an area of 81,155 sq. km.

○ Maintains consistent water flow throughout the year with less

fluctuation compared to other Peninsular rivers.

■ Upper catchment area receives rainfall during the

southwest monsoon season (summer).
 ■ Lower part receives rainfall during the northeast monsoon
season (winter).

● Catchment Distribution:

○ Approximately 3% of the Kaveri basin falls in Kerala.

○ 41% in Karnataka.

○ 56% in Tamil Nadu.

● Tributaries:

○ Left Bank: Herangi, Hemvati, Shimsha, Akravaty, etc.

○ Right Bank: Kabini, Bhavani, Amravati, Lakshmana Tirtha,

Noyyal, etc.

Narmada:
● Origin:

○ Originates on the western flank of the Amarkantak plateau at an

altitude of about 1,057 m.

● Course:

○ Flows in a rift valley between the Satpura in the south and the
Vindhyan range in the north.

○ Forms a picturesque gorge in marble rocks and the Dhuandhar

waterfall near Jabalpur.

● Length and Outflow:

○ Extends for a distance of about 1,312 km.

○ Meets the Arabian Sea south of Bharuch, forming a broad 27 km

long estuary.

● Catchment Area:

○ Covers approximately 98,796 sq. km.

● Sardar Sarovar Project:

○ Hosts the Sardar Sarovar Project, a significant multipurpose

project, on this river.
Tapi:
● Origin:

○ Originates from Multai in the Betul district of Madhya Pradesh.

● Length and Drainage Area:

○ Stretches for 724 km in length.

○ Drains an area of 65,145 sq. km.

● Catchment Distribution:

○ Approximately 79% of its basin lies in Maharashtra.

○ 15% in Madhya Pradesh.

○ Remaining 6% in Gujarat.

Luni:
● Size and Location:

○ Largest river system of Rajasthan, flowing west of Aravali.

● Origin and Confluence:

○ Originates near Pushkar in two branches, Saraswati and

Sabarmati, which join at Govindgarh.

○ Upon confluence, known as Luni.

● Course:

○ Flows west till Telwara, then takes a southwest direction to join

the Rann of Kuchchh.

● Nature:

○ Entire river system is ephemeral, meaning it often runs dry.

West Flowing Rivers:

● Rivers flowing towards the Arabian Sea generally have short courses.
In Gujarat:

● Shetrunji:

○ Rises near Dalkahwa in Amreli district.

● Bhadra:

○ Originates near Aniali village in Rajkot district.

● Sabarmati and Mahi:

○ Two famous rivers of Gujarat.

● Dhadhar:

○ Rises near Ghantar village in Panchmahal district.

In Maharashtra:

● Vaitarna:

○ Rises from the Trimbak hills in Nasik district at an elevation of

670 m.

In Karnataka:

● Kalinadi:

○ Rises from Belgaum district and falls in the Karwar Bay.

● Bedti:

○ Source lies in Hubli Dharwar and has a course of 161 km.

● Sharavati:

○ Originates in Shimoga district and drains a catchment area of

2,209 sq. km.

In Goa:

● Mandovi and Juari:

○ Two important rivers.

In Kerala:

● Bharathapuzha (Ponnani):

○ Rises near Annamalai hills, drains an area of 5,397 sq. km, and
is Kerala's longest river.

● Periyar:

○ Second largest river in Kerala, with a catchment area of 5,243 sq.

km.

● Pamba:

○ Falls into Vembanad lake after a course of 177 km.

River Catchment Area (sq km)

Mahi 34,832

Sabarmati 21,674

Bharathapuzha 5,397

Periyar 5,247

Kalinadi 5,179

Dhandhar 2,770

Sharavati 2,029
River Origin / Source States / Region Catchment Area
(sq km)

Subarnrekha Chota Nagpur Jharkhand 19,296

plateau, Jharkhand

Baitarni Hills of Kendhujhar, Odisha 12,789

Odisha

Brahmani Confluence of Odisha 39,033

South Koel and
Sankh near
Rourkela, Odisha

Vamsadhara Southern part of Odisha, Andhra -

Odisha, flows Pradesh
through Andhra
Pradesh

Pennar (Northern) Nadidurga, Karnataka, Andhra 55,213

Karnataka Pradesh

Pennar (Southern) Keshav hills of Karnataka -

Karnataka

Palar Kolar district of Karnataka, Andhra 17,870

Karnataka Pradesh, Tamil
Nadu

Vaigai Hills of Varshanand Tamil Nadu -

hills of Madurai
River Regimes:

1. Himalayan River:

○ North Indian rivers originating from the Himalayas are perennial

due to glacier-fed water and rainfall during the monsoon,
resulting in minimal fluctuations in their regime.

○ South Indian rivers lack glacier sources, experiencing fluctuating

regimes controlled by varying rainfall across the Peninsular
plateau.

2. Discharge Measurement:

○ Discharge is the volume of water flowing in a river, measured in

cusecs (cubic feet per second) or cumecs (cubic meters per
second).

3. Ganga River Regime:

○ Minimum flow occurs from January to June, with maximum flow

in August or September, followed by a steady decline.

○ Exhibits a monsoon regime during the rainy season.

○ Significant differences exist in regimes between eastern and

western Ganga Basin:

■ The Ganga maintains substantial flow early in summer due

to snow melt before monsoon onset.

■ Mean maximum discharge at Farakka is around 55,000

cusecs, while the mean minimum is approximately 1,300
cusecs.

Peninsular Rivers Regime:

1. Narmada:

○ From January to July, Narmada exhibits very low discharge.

○ Discharge suddenly rises in August, reaching maximum flow.

○ October sees a remarkable decline similar to the rise in August.

○ At Garudeshwar, maximum flow reaches around 2,300 cusecs,

while minimum flow is a mere 15 cusecs.
 2. Godavari:

○ Minimum discharge occurs in May, while maximum is in

July-August.

○ Significant decrease in water flow follows August, though flow in

October and November surpasses that of January to May.

○ Mean maximum discharge at Polavaram measures 3,200

cusecs, with a mean minimum flow of only 50 cusecs.

Aspects Himalayan river Peninsular river

Place of origin Mountains covered with glaciers Peninsular plateau and

central highland

Nature of flow Perennial: Receive water from glaciers Seasonal: Dependent on

and rainfall monsoon rainfall

Type of drainage Antecedent and consequent leading to Super imposed,

dendritic pattern in plains rejuvenated resulting in
trellis, radial and
rectangular pattern

Nature of river Long course, flowing through the rugged Smaller, fixed course and
mountains experiencing headward erosion well-adjusted valleys
and river capturing.
In plains, meandering and shifting of
course.

Catchment area Very large basin Relatively smaller basin

Age of river Young and youthful, active, and Old rivers with graded
deepening in river valleys profile and have almost
reached their base level
● Important Drainage Patterns:

○ Dendritic: Resembling the branches of a tree, seen in the rivers

of the northern plain.

○ Radial: Originating from a central hill and flowing outward in all

directions, as seen in rivers from the Amarkantak range.

○ Trellis: Primary tributaries flow parallel to each other with

secondary tributaries joining at right angles.

○ Centripetal: Rivers discharge their waters from all directions into

a lake or depression.

● Namami Gange Programme: An integrated conservation program

aimed at effective pollution abatement, conservation, and rejuvenation
of the Ganges River. Key pillars include sewerage treatment
infrastructure, riverfront development, river surface cleaning,
biodiversity conservation, afforestation, public awareness, industrial
effluent monitoring, and Ganga Gram initiative.
CHAPTER 4: CLIMATE
Climate of India

● Monsoonal Climate Dominance: Characterizes the broad climate type

across India and South/Southeast Asia, marked by seasonal wind
reversal.

● Regional Variations: The Indian climate exhibits regional differences in

wind patterns, temperature, rainfall, season rhythms, and moisture
levels, leading to monsoon climate sub-types.

Regional Variations in Precipitation

● Himalayan Snowfall vs. Rainfall Elsewhere: Snow is exclusive to the

Himalayas, while the rest of India experiences rain.

● Extreme Rainfall in Meghalaya: Cherrapunji and Mawsynram, located

in the Khasi Hills, witness over 1,080 cm of rainfall annually.

● Sparse Rainfall in Rajasthan: Jaisalmer, for instance, receives less

than 9 cm of rain yearly.

● Ganga Delta and Odisha Coast: These areas face significant

rain-bearing storms in July and August.

● Coromandal Coast Dryness: Typically receives little to no rainfall

during July and August.

● Rainfall Seasonality Across India: The majority of India experiences

rain from June to September, whereas Tamil Nadu's coastal areas
receive rain at the onset of winter.

Factors Determining the Climate of India

1. Geographical Location and Relief :

○ India's placement and topographical features play a crucial role

in shaping its climate, influencing temperature variations, rainfall
distribution, and the impact of seasonal winds.

2. Air Pressure and Winds :

○ The climate is significantly affected by the patterns of air

pressure and the direction and strength of winds. These factors
 together determine the onset, duration, and intensity of the
monsoon seasons.

Detailed Insights into Climate Influences

● Impact of the Himalayas: Serve as a barrier to cold winds from

Central Asia, thereby influencing the temperature and precipitation
patterns in the subcontinent.

● Thar Desert's Role: Acts as a heat source, generating the

low-pressure area during summer that pulls in the monsoon winds from
the Indian Ocean.

● Coastal Influence: The proximity to the sea moderates temperatures in

coastal regions and influences the rainfall patterns due to the monsoon
winds.

● Western Ghats and Rainfall: Act as a barrier to the monsoon winds,

causing heavy rainfall on the windward side and creating rain-shadow
regions on the leeward side.

Seasonal Rhythms and Weather Phenomena

● Pre-Monsoon Season: Characterized by increasing temperature and

occasional thunderstorms, setting the stage for the monsoon.

● Monsoon Arrival and Withdrawal: The monsoon typically arrives in

early June in the southern tip of India and gradually covers the entire
country by mid-July, with withdrawal commencing in September.

● Post-Monsoon and Winter: Marked by a gradual decrease in

temperature and a shift in wind patterns, leading to varied weather
conditions across regions, including potential cyclonic activities in the
eastern coast.
Factors Related to Location and Relief Affecting India's Climate
Latitude

● Tropic of Cancer's Influence: Divides India into two climatic

zones—north of it lies in the subtropical and temperate zone, while the
south falls within the tropical zone.

● Temperature Variations :

○ Tropical Zone: Near the equator, it enjoys high temperatures

year-round with minimal variation daily and annually.

○ Sub-tropical and Temperate Zone: Further from the equator,

this area experiences a more extreme climate, with significant
daily and annual temperature fluctuations.

Himalayan Mountains

● Climatic Barrier: Acts as a shield against cold northern winds

originating near the Arctic Circle, which could otherwise plunge the
subcontinent into lower temperatures.

● Monsoon Capture: Traps the monsoon winds, forcing them to release

their moisture within India, hence playing a crucial role in defining the
monsoon season's precipitation patterns.

Distribution of Land and Water

● Geographical Setting: Surrounded by the Indian Ocean to the south

and enclosed by high mountain ranges to the north, India's geography
is pivotal in shaping its climate.

● Heating and Cooling Differential :

○ Land and sea absorb and release heat at different rates, creating
varying air pressure zones around the Indian subcontinent across
seasons.

○ This differential heating is a key factor in the seasonal reversal of

monsoon winds, crucial for India's rainfall patterns.
Distance from the Sea

● Coastal Climate: The extensive coastline affords coastal regions an

equable climate, with less pronounced temperature extremes due to
the moderating effect of the sea.

● Interior Climate Variability :

○ Far from the sea's moderating influence, the interior regions of

India experience more pronounced climate extremes.

○ Cities like Delhi, Kanpur, and Amritsar, located in the interior,

witness significant seasonal weather contrasts, illustrating the
stark difference in climate within the country.

Detailed Climate Impact

● Latitudinal Extent: India's vast latitudinal range incorporates diverse

climate zones, from the frosty peaks of the Himalayas to the tropical
warmth of Kerala.

● Himalayas as a Climate Modifier: Beyond protecting India from cold

winds, the Himalayas also influence the summer monsoon's path and
intensity, which is critical for agriculture.

● Land-Water Contrast :

○ Plays a pivotal role in forming the monsoon system. The

differential heating and cooling of the land and ocean surfaces
generate pressure differences, driving the monsoon winds.

○ This contrast also contributes to the formation of cyclones in the

Bay of Bengal and the Arabian Sea, especially during the
transition seasons.

Altitude

● Temperature Variation with Altitude: As altitude increases,

temperature decreases, leading to cooler conditions in mountainous
regions compared to plains at the same latitude.

● For instance, despite being on the same latitude, January temperatures

in Agra (a plain) average at 16°C, whereas in Darjeeling (a
mountainous area), it's much lower at 4°C. This is attributed to the
thinner air at higher elevations, which is less capable of holding heat.
Relief

● Impact of Physiography on Climate :

○ India's diverse topography influences temperature, air pressure,

wind direction and speed, and the distribution and amount of
rainfall.

○ During the monsoon season (June-September), the windward

sides of the Western Ghats and Assam receive substantial
rainfall. In contrast, the southern plateau, being on the leeward
side of the Western Ghats, experiences dry conditions.

Air Pressure and Wind

Understanding local climate variations in India necessitates a grasp of:

● Surface Air Pressure and Winds: The distribution at the Earth's

surface plays a pivotal role.

● Upper Air Circulation: This includes global weather controlling factors,

air masses, and jet streams.

● Western Disturbances and Tropical Depressions: Their inflow during

winter and the monsoon period respectively influences India's weather,
especially rainfall patterns.

Mechanism of Weather in the Winter Season

● Surface Pressure and Winds :

○ In winter, Central and Western Asia's pressure distribution

heavily influences India's weather.

○ A high-pressure center forms north of the Himalayas, driving air

flow from the north towards the Indian subcontinent, below the
mountain range. This results in the arrival of dry continental air
masses into India.

○ These continental winds meet the trade winds in north-western

India, creating a variable contact zone that can extend to the
middle Ganga valley, thus affecting the weather over a large part
of north-western and northern India with dry north-western winds.
Detailed Climate Dynamics

● Altitude and Relief's Role in Climate Diversification: The

temperature decrease with altitude and the relief's impact on rainfall
distribution underscore the complex interplay between India's
topography and its climate.

● Mountains not only contribute to cooler temperatures but also affect

rainfall patterns, with windward slopes receiving more precipitation than
leeward areas.

● Air Pressure and Wind Systems :

○ The dynamics of air pressure and wind patterns, including the

influence of upper air circulation and seasonal disturbances
(western disturbances in winter and tropical depressions during
the monsoon), are crucial for understanding India's varied
climate.

○ These factors together create a mosaic of weather conditions

across the country, affecting everything from agriculture to daily
life.

Jet Stream and Upper Air Circulation

● Jet Streams Location: Situated in the lower troposphere,
approximately 3 km above the Earth's surface, jet streams are narrow
bands of strong winds in the upper levels of the atmosphere.

● Independence from Surface Atmospheric Pressure: The formation

and behavior of jet streams are not influenced by atmospheric pressure
variations near the Earth's surface.

● Westerly Winds Across Asia: At altitudes between 9-13 km, westerly

winds prevail over Western and Central Asia, moving from west to east.
These are aligned roughly parallel to the Tibetan highlands and north of
the Himalayas.
 Map: Direction of Winds in India in Winter at the Height of 9-13 km

● Influence of Tibetan Highlands :

○ The Tibetan Plateau acts as a significant physical barrier that

influences the path of these jet streams, causing them to split into
two branches:

■ Northern Branch: Flows north of the Tibetan highlands.

■ Southern Branch: Moves eastward, south of the

Himalayas. This branch's mean position in February is at
25°N at the 200-300 mb pressure level.

● Impact on Winter Weather in India :

○ The southern branch of the jet stream plays a crucial role in

shaping India's winter weather conditions. Its flow and position
significantly affect temperature patterns, precipitation, and the
occurrence of weather disturbances during the winter months.
Detailed Insights into Jet Streams' Role

● Dynamic Nature: Jet streams exhibit variability in their speed,

direction, and altitude, influenced by factors such as the Earth's rotation
and the distribution of land and sea heating.

● Seasonal Variations: The position and strength of jet streams can

change with the seasons, impacting weather patterns globally and
within India. For example, the shift of the jet streams can influence the
timing and intensity of the monsoon.

● Interaction with Weather Systems :

○ Jet streams can steer cyclonic disturbances, including those

influencing India's weather, especially during the winter and
pre-monsoon seasons.

○ The interplay between jet streams and other atmospheric

phenomena, such as western disturbances, can lead to
significant weather events, including heavy rainfall and cold
waves.

Western Cyclonic Disturbance and Tropical Cyclones

Western Cyclonic Disturbances

● Origin and Path: These disturbances originate over the Mediterranean

Sea and enter the Indian subcontinent from the west and northwest
during winter, carried by the westerly jet stream.

● Temperature Indicator: A rise in night temperatures often signals the

approach of these cyclonic disturbances.

● Impact: Although less intense than tropical cyclones, they can cause
significant weather changes, including rain and snow in northern India,
which is vital for winter crops.

Tropical Cyclones

● Origin: Arise over the Bay of Bengal and the Indian Ocean,
characterized by high wind velocity and heavy rainfall.

● Affected Regions: Primarily impact the coastal areas of Tamil Nadu,

Andhra Pradesh, and Odisha.
 ● Destructiveness: These cyclones are particularly destructive, leading
to high wind damage and severe flooding due to torrential rains.

Mechanism of Weather in the Summer Season

Surface Pressure and Winds

● Seasonal Shifts: As the sun moves northward, there's a complete

reversal of wind circulation at both lower and upper levels over the
subcontinent.

● Inter Tropical Convergence Zone (ITCZ) :

○ By mid-July, the ITCZ, a low-pressure belt, shifts northward,

aligning roughly parallel to the Himalayas between 20°N and
25°N.

○ This shift corresponds with the withdrawal of the westerly jet

stream from the Indian region, marking a significant change in
weather patterns.

● Relation with ITCZ and Jet Stream: The northward movement of the
equatorial trough (ITCZ) and the retreat of the westerly jet stream are
interrelated events that signal the onset of the summer monsoon.

Southwest Monsoon

● Atmospheric Dynamics: The low pressure in the ITCZ attracts

maritime tropical air masses from the southern hemisphere. After
crossing the equator, these air masses move towards the low-pressure
area in a south-westerly direction.

● Monsoon Arrival: This moist air current, known as the southwest

monsoon, brings widespread rainfall to the Indian subcontinent, critical
for agriculture and replenishing water resources.

Jet Streams and Upper Air Circulation

● Tropospheric Patterns: The structure of pressure and wind patterns is

primarily established within the troposphere, the lowest layer of the
Earth's atmosphere.

● Easterly Jet Stream Dynamics :

○ An easterly jet stream is observed flowing over the southern part

of the Indian Peninsula in June.
 ○ Its presence is noted at around 15°N in August and extends up to
22°N in September, indicating a northward shift as the season
progresses.

○ Typically, this easterly jet stream does not move north of 30°N
latitude in the upper atmosphere, which helps to demarcate its
influence on the subcontinent's climate.

Easterly Jet Stream and Tropical Cyclones

● Guidance of Tropical Depressions: The easterly jet stream plays a

pivotal role in directing tropical depressions towards India, significantly
impacting the distribution of monsoon rainfall across the subcontinent.

● Rainfall Distribution: The paths followed by these depressions often

become zones of maximum rainfall, underlining their importance in the
monsoon system.

● Impact on Monsoon Rainfall :

○ The frequency, direction, and intensity of these depressions are

critical factors that influence the pattern of rainfall during the
southwest monsoon period.

○ Their interaction with the Indian landmass and the easterly jet
stream can enhance or diminish rainfall in different regions,
affecting agricultural productivity and water availability.

Understanding the Role of Jet Streams in Weather and Climate

● Jet Stream Influence: The easterly jet stream, along with other jet
streams, plays a crucial role in shaping weather patterns, including the
formation and steering of tropical cyclones and depressions.

● Monsoon Rainfall Dependency: The monsoon rainfall in India heavily

depends on the intricate dynamics between these upper-level winds
and tropical depressions, with the easterly jet stream being a significant
factor during the monsoon season.

● Climate Variability: The variability in the position and strength of the

jet streams, including the easterly jet stream, contributes to the
complex nature of the Indian monsoon, leading to variations in rainfall
distribution and intensity across the country.
The Nature of Indian Monsoon

The Indian Monsoon is a complex meteorological phenomenon that

significantly influences the South Asian region, particularly India, with its
onset, progress, and characteristics determining the agricultural calendar and
water resources management.

Understanding the nature of the monsoon involves examining key aspects

such as its onset, the rain-bearing systems it incorporates, and the
phenomena known as "breaks" in the monsoon.

Onset of the Monsoon

● Differential Heating: The primary mechanism behind the monsoon's

onset is the differential heating of the land and sea. During April and
May, as the sun moves directly over the Tropic of Cancer, the northern
landmass of the Indian subcontinent heats up significantly more and
faster than the surrounding ocean.

● Low-Pressure Formation: This intense heating results in the creation

of a strong low-pressure area over the northwestern part of the
subcontinent, while the Indian Ocean south of the landmass remains
relatively cooler and under higher pressure.

● Cross-Equatorial Winds: The difference in pressure causes the

southeast trade winds to cross the equator and get deflected towards
the Indian subcontinent due to the Coriolis effect, transforming into the
southwest monsoon winds.

● Path Across the Equator: These winds cross the equator between the
longitudes of 40°E and 60°E.

● Role of Jet Streams: The withdrawal of the westerly jet stream from
over the northern Indian plains and the south of the Himalayas is
closely linked with the shift of the ITCZ (Inter Tropical Convergence
Zone) to the north. The establishment of the easterly jet stream along
15°N latitude occurs after the western jet stream has moved away,
which is crucial for the monsoon's burst in India.

● Monsoon's Arrival: The southwest monsoon typically arrives on the

Kerala coast around June 1st, advancing rapidly to cover Mumbai and
Kolkata by the 10th to 13th of June. By mid-July, it extends over the
entire Indian subcontinent.
Rain-bearing Systems and Monsoon Rainfall

● Tropical Cyclones: These are significant rain-bearing systems of the

monsoon, with their frequency and paths directly affecting the
distribution of rainfall. The cyclones that develop in the Bay of Bengal
and the Arabian Sea can lead to intense rainfall events, particularly
along the eastern and western coasts of India.

● Relationship with Monsoon Rainfall: The occurrence and intensity of

tropical cyclones, along with other factors like the position of the ITCZ
and the presence of the easterly jet stream, play a pivotal role in
determining the spatial and temporal distribution of monsoon rainfall
across the Indian subcontinent.

Break in the Monsoon

● Phenomenon Description: Breaks in the monsoon refer to periods

when the usual rain-bearing winds weaken or are interrupted, leading
to dry spells across major parts of the monsoon region.
 ● These breaks can significantly impact agricultural activities and water
availability, making their prediction and understanding crucial for
effective monsoon management.

Two Main Branches of the Monsoon

● Arabian Sea Branch :

○ First Branch: Encounters the Western Ghats, leading to heavy

rainfall on the windward side, while the leeward side experiences
drier conditions due to the rain shadow effect.

○ Second Branch: Moves inland, affecting central India and

merging with the Bay of Bengal branch in the Ganga plains,
facilitating widespread rainfall.

○ Third Branch: Affects the Saurashtra Peninsula and Kachchh,

moving towards west Rajasthan and finally joining the Bay of
Bengal branch in Punjab and Haryana, influencing rainfall in the
western Himalayas.

● Bay of Bengal Branch :

○ Initial Direction: Strikes the coast of Myanmar and southeast

Bangladesh, with the Arakan Hills deflecting a significant portion
towards the Indian subcontinent.

○ Split and Distribution: Splits under the Himalayas' influence,

with one branch moving westward along the Ganga plains and
another ascending the Brahmaputra valley, causing widespread
rainfall.

○ Meghalaya Rains: A sub-branch impacts the Garo and Khasi

hills, with Mawsynram on the Khasi hills receiving the highest
average annual rainfall globally.

Regional Rainfall Variations

● Tamil Nadu's Dry Season: The Tamil Nadu coast remains dry during
this season due to its parallel orientation to the Bay of Bengal branch
and its positioning in the rain-shadow area of the Arabian Sea branch.
Characteristics of Monsoon Rainfall

Seasonal Nature

● Timing: Occurs from June to September, marking a distinct season

characterized by significant rainfall across much of India.

Influence of Topography

● Relief Impact: Rainfall distribution is heavily influenced by the

geographical features of the region.

○ Western Ghats: Windward side receives over 250 cm of rainfall.

○ North-Eastern States: Heavy rainfall due to hill ranges and the

Eastern Himalayas.

Trend with Distance from Sea

● Decreasing Rainfall: A noticeable decline in rainfall amounts with

increasing distance from the sea, illustrated by varying rainfall
measurements from Kolkata to Delhi during the monsoon period.

Rainfall Pattern

● Wet Spells and Breaks: Characterized by intermittent wet spells

followed by rainless intervals, influenced by the movement and
frequency of cyclonic depressions originating in the Bay of Bengal.

Runoff and Soil Erosion

● Heavy Downpours: The intense nature of the rainfall can lead to

significant runoff and soil erosion, impacting land and agriculture.

Agrarian Significance

● Economic Impact: With over three-fourths of India's total rainfall

occurring during this season, the monsoon is critical to the agrarian
economy, despite its uneven spatial distribution.

Variability

● Delayed Onset and Early Retreat: The timing of monsoon rains can
significantly vary, affecting agricultural patterns and water availability.
Season of Retreating Monsoon

Timing and Transition

● October and November: Marked by the retreating monsoons as the

low-pressure trough moves southward, aligning with the sun's
southward shift.

Withdrawal Pattern

● Sequential Retreat: Begins in western Rajasthan by early September,

progressively withdrawing from the northwest towards the southern
parts of the country.

Climatic Conditions

● Temperature and Humidity: The period is characterized by clear

skies, rising temperatures, and high humidity, leading to the 'October
heat.'

Rainfall Distribution

● Dry in North, Rainy in East: Northern India experiences dry

conditions, while the eastern part of the Peninsula receives rain,
attributed to cyclonic depressions originating from the Andaman Sea.

Cyclonic Depressions

● Impact of Cyclones: These systems can be highly destructive,

especially for the densely populated deltas along the eastern coast,
contributing significantly to the rainfall on the Coromandal coast, with
less frequency in the Arabian Sea.

El-Nino and Indian Monsoon

El-Nino is a significant climate phenomenon with far-reaching impacts on

global weather patterns, including those affecting the Indian Monsoon.
Characterized by the irregular appearance of warm ocean currents off the
coast of Peru, El-Nino events disrupt standard atmospheric and oceanic
conditions, leading to various weather extremes such as droughts and floods.

Impact on Indian Monsoon

● Oceanic and Atmospheric Changes: The warm currents increase the

water temperature along the Peruvian coast, disrupting equatorial
atmospheric circulation and affecting weather systems globally.
 ● Monsoon Rainfall Forecasting: In India, the El-Nino phenomenon is
closely monitored for predicting long-range monsoon rainfall due to its
potential to alter the usual monsoon patterns, often leading to reduced
rainfall and drought conditions.

Effects of El-Nino

● Temperature Increase: A significant rise in the temperature of water in

the Eastern Pacific impacts evaporation rates and global atmospheric
circulation patterns.

● Ecological Impact: Reduced plankton levels due to warmer water

adversely affect marine life, particularly fish populations, highlighting
the broader ecological consequences of El-Nino events.

Cold Weather Season in India

Temperature

● Onset: The cold weather season begins by mid-November in northern

India, with December and January being the coldest months.

● Temperature Range: Mean daily temperatures in most parts of

northern India stay below 21°C, with significantly lower night
temperatures.

● Reasons for Excessive Cold :

1. Continental Climate: States like Punjab, Haryana, and

Rajasthan experience extreme cold due to their distance from the
sea, which would otherwise moderate temperatures.

2. Snowfall in Himalayas: Contributes to cold wave conditions in

the vicinity.

3. Cold Winds: From the Caspian Sea and Turkmenistan, these

winds bring cold waves, frost, and fog to northwestern India
around February.

● Peninsular Region: Lacks a well-defined cold weather season, with

minimal seasonal temperature variation in coastal areas due to the
sea's moderating influence and proximity to the equator.
Pressure and Winds

● Sun's Position: By December 22nd, the sun is directly over the Tropic
of Capricorn, affecting atmospheric conditions in the hemisphere.

● High Pressure in North: Feeble high-pressure conditions develop over

the northern plains, while South India experiences slightly lower air
pressure.

Wind Patterns:

● Winds flow from the northwestern high-pressure zone towards the

low-pressure areas over the Indian Ocean in the south.

● Due to a low pressure gradient, winds are light and slow, moving at
about 3-5 km/h, influenced by regional topography.

● Wind directions vary: westerly or north-westerly in the Ganga Valley,

northerly in the Ganga-Brahmaputra delta, and north-easterly over the
Bay of Bengal, free from topographical influences.

● Cyclonic Depressions: Originate over the east Mediterranean Sea,

traveling eastward across West Asia, Iran, Afghanistan, and Pakistan
before reaching northwestern India.

● These depressions pick up moisture from the Caspian Sea and the
Persian Gulf, augmenting their moisture content.

Rainfall during the Cold Weather Season

● General Characteristics: The winter monsoon winds, primarily dry and

originating from land, typically do not bring rainfall as they move
towards the sea, due to low humidity and anti-cyclonic circulation on
land reducing rainfall potential.

Exceptions Providing Rainfall

● Temperate Cyclones from the Mediterranean: These cyclones can

cause rainfall in regions such as Punjab, Haryana, Delhi, and western
Uttar Pradesh, albeit in small quantities. This rainfall is crucial for the
rabi crops.

○ Snowfall in Lower Himalayas: The same systems can lead to

snowfall in the lower Himalayas, vital for sustaining river flows
during the summer months.
 ● Geographical Variation in Precipitation :

○ Rainfall decreases from west to east across the plains and from
north to south in the mountainous regions.

○ Central India and the northern parts of the southern Peninsula

also receive winter rainfall occasionally.

● Northeast India Rainfall: Arunachal Pradesh and Assam experience

rainfall ranging from 25 mm to 50 mm during the winter months.

● Northeast Monsoon and Coastal Rainfall: During October and

November, the northeast monsoon, after picking up moisture from the
Bay of Bengal, delivers significant rainfall to the Tamil Nadu coast,
southern Andhra Pradesh, southeast Karnataka, and southeast Kerala.

Hot Weather Season

Temperature

● Sun's Movement: The apparent northward movement of the sun

towards the Tropic of Cancer in March initiates rising temperatures in
northern India.

● Summer Months: April, May, and June are considered the summer
months in north India, characterized by high temperatures.

● South India's Mild Climate: Unlike the north, the hot weather season
in South India is relatively mild due to the peninsula's geographical
situation and the moderating effects of the oceans, which help keep
temperatures lower than those in the north.

● Coastal vs. Interior Temperatures :

○ In coastal regions, the distribution of isotherms (lines connecting

points of equal temperature) running parallel to the coast
indicates that temperatures do not necessarily decrease from
north to south.

○ Instead, temperatures tend to increase moving from the coastal

areas to the interior parts of the country.
Pressure and Winds during the Hot Weather Season

Characteristics

● Heat and Pressure: The summer months bring excessive heat and a
drop in air pressure in the northern half of India, leading to the
formation of an elongated low-pressure monsoon trough.

● Monsoon Trough: Extends from the Thar Desert in the northwest to

Patna and the Chotanagpur plateau in the east-southeast.

● ITCZ and Wind Circulation: The location of the Inter Tropical

Convergence Zone (ITCZ) influences the surface circulation of winds,
which become south-westerly along the west coast and near West
Bengal and Bangladesh.

● South-Westerly Monsoon: Essentially 'displaced' equatorial

westerlies, their arrival by mid-June signifies the onset of the rainy
season.

Phenomena Associated with the Hot Weather Season

● Loo: In the core area of the ITCZ in the northwest, dry and hot winds
known as 'Loo' prevail during the afternoon, contributing to the intense
heat.

● Dust Storms: Common in May across Punjab, Haryana, Eastern

Rajasthan, and Uttar Pradesh, these storms offer a brief relief from the
heat through light rains and cool breezes.

● Local Storms: The meeting of dry and moist air masses can spark
intense local storms, featuring violent winds, heavy rainfall, and
sometimes hailstorms.

Famous Local Storms of the Hot Weather Season

● Mango Showers:

○ Pre-monsoon showers typical in Kerala and Karnataka's coastal

areas, aiding the early ripening of mangoes, hence the name
"mango showers."

● Blossom Shower:

○ Occurs in Kerala, marking the blossoming of coffee flowers.

 ● Nor'westers (Kalbaisakhi) :

○ Evening thunderstorms feared in Bengal and Assam, known

locally as "Kalbaisakhi" or "calamity of the month of Baisakh,"
beneficial for the cultivation of tea, jute, and rice.

○ In Assam, referred to as “Bardoli Chheerha.”

● Loo:

○ Hot, dry winds affecting the northern plains, with the most severe
conditions observed between Delhi and Patna.

Traditional Indian Seasons

In the Indian cultural context, the year is traditionally divided into six distinct
seasons, each spanning two months. This division reflects the varied climatic
phases experienced in north and central India, though it may not align
perfectly with the more uniform seasonal variations observed in the southern
part of the country.

Seasons and Corresponding Months

● Vasanta (Spring): March-April (Chaitra-Vaisakha) marks the beginning

of spring, characterized by moderate weather and the blossoming of
flowers.

● Grishma (Summer): May-June (Jiashtha-Asadha) brings the heat,

leading into the peak summer season.

● Varsha (Monsoon): July-August (Sravana-Bhadra) is defined by the

onset and continuation of the monsoon rains, vital for agriculture.

● Sharada (Autumn): September-October (Asvina-Kartika) sees a

retreat of the monsoon and the commencement of cooler temperatures.

● Hemanta (Pre-Winter): November-December (Margashirsha-Pusha)

introduces cooler weather, preluding the winter season.

● Shishira (Winter): January-February (Magha-Phalguna) is the coldest

part of the year, especially in the northern regions.

Distribution of Rainfall in India

India's annual rainfall averages about 125 cm, but its distribution varies widely
across different regions, reflecting the country's vast geographical diversity.
Areas of High Rainfall

● Western Ghats and Sub-Himalayan Areas: These regions experience

the highest rainfall, with parts of the Khasi and Jaintia hills in
Meghalaya receiving more than 1000 cm of rain, among the highest in
the world.

● Brahmaputra Valley: Rainfall here is substantial but less than 200 cm,
which is significant yet comparatively lower than the wettest areas.

Areas of Medium Rainfall

● Regions: Southern Gujarat, eastern Tamil Nadu, northeastern

Peninsula (including Odisha, Jharkhand, Bihar, and eastern Madhya
Pradesh), northern Ganga plain along the sub-Himalayas, and the
Cachar Valley and Manipur.

● Rainfall Range: These areas receive 100-200 cm of rainfall.

Areas of Low Rainfall

● Regions: Western Uttar Pradesh, Delhi, Haryana, Punjab, Jammu and

Kashmir, eastern Rajasthan, Gujarat, and the Deccan Plateau.

● Rainfall Range: Rainfall in these areas varies between 50-100 cm.

Areas of Inadequate Rainfall

● Regions: Parts of the Peninsula (especially Andhra Pradesh,

Karnataka, and Maharashtra), Ladakh, and most of western Rajasthan.

● Rainfall Range: These areas receive less than 50 cm of rainfall,

making them among the driest regions in the country.

● Snowfall: Primarily occurs in the Himalayan region, contributing to the

region's water resources.

Variability of Rainfall

Rainfall in India is characterized by significant variability, which affects

agricultural practices, water availability, and overall climate resilience.

This variability is measured using the coefficient of variation (C.V.), reflecting

deviations from mean rainfall values.
Variability Patterns

● Low Variability (<25%): Observed in regions with annual rainfall over

100 cm, including the western coasts, Western Ghats, northeastern
Peninsula, eastern plains of the Ganga, north-eastern India,
Uttarakhand, Himachal Pradesh, and southwestern Jammu and
Kashmir.

● High Variability (>50%): Found in areas with less than 50 cm of annual

rainfall, such as western Rajasthan, northern Jammu and Kashmir, and
interior parts of the Deccan Plateau, indicating a significant risk of
drought.

● Moderate Variability (25-50%): Applies to the rest of India, where

annual rainfall ranges between 50-100 cm.
Köppen's climatic classification system
Köppen's climatic classification system, which is widely used to categorize the
world's climates based on temperature, precipitation, and their seasonal
patterns, divides India into various climatic regions reflecting its diverse
climatic conditions.

Climatic Regions of India According to Köppen's Scheme

● Amw: Monsoon with Short Dry Season

○ Location: West coast of India, south of Goa.

 ○ Characteristics: Characterized by a pronounced monsoon
season with a brief dry period, receiving heavy rainfall, especially
during the monsoon months.

● As: Monsoon with Dry Summer

○ Location: Coromandal coast of Tamil Nadu.

○ Characteristics: Experiences monsoon rains with a dry summer

season, reflecting the influence of the northeast monsoon.

● Aw: Tropical Savannah

○ Location: Most of the peninsular plateau and areas south of the

Tropic of Cancer.

○ Characteristics: Marked by distinct wet and dry seasons, with

most rainfall occurring during the monsoon period.

● BShw: Semiarid Steppe Climate

○ Location: Northwestern Gujarat, parts of western Rajasthan, and

Punjab.

○ Characteristics: Receives relatively low rainfall, leading to

semiarid conditions suitable for extensive pastoralism and some
agriculture.

● BWhw: Hot Desert

○ Location: Extreme western Rajasthan.

○ Characteristics: Characterized by very low precipitation, making

it one of the driest regions in India.

● Cwg: Monsoon with Dry Winter

○ Location: Ganga plain, eastern Rajasthan, northern Madhya

Pradesh, and most of Northeast India.

○ Characteristics: Experiences a dry winter season followed by a

wet monsoon season, with significant variation in rainfall
distribution throughout the year.

● Dfc: Cold Humid Winter with Short Summer

○ Location: Arunachal Pradesh.

 ○ Characteristics: Known for cold, humid winters and short, mild
summers, receiving considerable precipitation.

● E: Polar Type

○ Location: Jammu and Kashmir, Himachal Pradesh, and

Uttarakhand.

○ Characteristics: Encompasses areas with cold climates

throughout the year, with temperatures often below freezing,
especially at higher altitudes.

Monsoon and Economic Life of India

The monsoon plays a pivotal role in shaping the economic life of India,
particularly because of its profound impact on agriculture, which is the
backbone of the country's economy.

Here's how the monsoon influences various aspects of economic life:

Agricultural Dependence

● Majority Livelihood: Approximately 64% of India's population relies on

agriculture for their livelihood, which in turn is heavily dependent on the
southwest monsoon.

● Crop Growth: The entire subcontinent, barring the Himalayas, enjoys

temperatures conducive to crop cultivation year-round, with the
monsoon facilitating diverse agricultural activities.

Regional Crop Varieties

● The variability and regional differences in monsoon rains allow for the
cultivation of a wide range of crops across different parts of the country,
enhancing agricultural diversity.

Challenges of Variability

● Droughts and Floods: The unpredictable nature of monsoon rains can

lead to extreme weather conditions, causing either droughts or floods,
thereby affecting agricultural output and livelihoods.

● Soil Erosion: Heavy monsoon bursts can lead to significant soil

erosion, impacting land fertility and agricultural productivity.
Benefits of Winter Rainfall

● The winter rainfall, especially in northern India, brought by temperate

cyclones, is crucial for the cultivation of rabi crops, highlighting the
importance of seasonal variations in precipitation.

Global Warming and Its Effects

Human-induced activities, notably large-scale industrialization and the

emission of greenhouse gases such as carbon dioxide, methane,
chlorofluorocarbons, and nitrous oxide, contribute significantly to global
warming.

Projected Changes

● Temperature Increase: A projected global temperature rise of about

2°C by the year 2100, leading to various environmental and
socio-economic changes.

● Sea-Level Rise: An expected average increase in sea level by 48 cm

by the end of the twenty-first century, exacerbating flood risks.

● Agricultural and Ecological Shifts: Changes in climate conditions will

likely alter agricultural patterns, ecosystem dynamics, and the
prevalence of diseases like malaria.

Interesting Points on Climatic Phenomena

Inter Tropical Convergence Zone (ITCZ)

● A key feature influencing monsoon dynamics, the ITCZ's shift plays a

critical role in initiating the southwest monsoon over the Indian
subcontinent.

Southern Oscillation and Monsoon Forecasting

● The intensity of the southwest monsoon and its oscillation patterns can
be gauged by comparing atmospheric pressures between Tahiti and
Darwin, aiding in monsoon forecasting by the Indian Meteorological
Department (IMD) using 16 indicators.
CHAPTER 5: NATURAL VEGETATION

Natural Vegetation in India:

Natural vegetation in India varies significantly based on climate and soil

conditions, allowing individual species to adapt over time. The variation in
natural vegetation across India can be observed in different regions:

1. Himalayan Region:

○ Characterized by temperate vegetation.

 2. Western Ghats and Andaman Nicobar Islands:

○ Abundant in tropical rainforests.

3. Deltaic Regions:

○ Dominated by tropical forests and mangroves.

4. Desert and Semi-Desert Areas (Rajasthan):

○ Known for cacti, various bushes, and thorny vegetation.

Classification of Forests in India:

Based on predominant vegetation types and climatic regions, Indian forests

can be classified into the following groups:

1. Tropical Evergreen and Semi-Evergreen Forests:

○ Characterized by dense, lush foliage throughout the year, found

mainly in regions with high rainfall.

2. Tropical Deciduous Forests:

○ Marked by the shedding of leaves during a particular season,

prevalent in areas with both high and moderate rainfall.

3. Tropical Thorn Forests:

○ Notable for their abundance of thorny vegetation, typically found

in regions with low rainfall.

4. Montane Forests:

○ Thrive in mountainous regions, characterized by a variety of

vegetation zones based on altitude.

5. Littoral and Swamp Forests:

○ Found in coastal areas and wetlands, characterized by specific

adaptations to the saline environment.

Tropical Evergreen Forest:

● Regions:

○ Found in the western slope of the Western Ghats, hills of the

northeastern region, and the Andaman and Nicobar Islands.
 ● Climatic Conditions:

○ Thrive in warm and humid areas with an annual precipitation

exceeding 200 cm and mean annual temperature above 22°C.

● Characteristics:

○ Well-stratified with layers from ground shrubs and creepers to

short, structured trees and tall varieties.

○ Trees reach heights of 60 m or more.

○ No specific time for leaf shedding, flowering, and fruition,

resulting in a perennial green appearance.

● Tree Species:

○ Rosewood, mahogany, aini, ebony, among others.

Tropical Semi-Evergreen Forest:

● Regions:

○ Found in less rainy parts of evergreen regions.

● Characteristics:

○ Combination of evergreen and moist deciduous trees with

undergrowing climbers providing an evergreen aspect.

● Tree Species:

○ White cedar, hollock, kail, etc.

Historical Exploitation:

● The British recognized the economic value of Indian forests, leading to

extensive exploitation.

○ Oak forests in Garhwal and Kumaon were replaced by pine

(chirs) for laying railway lines.

○ Forests cleared for introducing tea, rubber, and coffee

plantations.

○ Timber used for construction due to its heat insulation properties.

● Commercial use replaced protective forest management practices

during British rule.
Tropical Deciduous Forest:

● Overview:

○ Also known as monsoon forests, they are the most widespread

forests in India, covering regions with rainfall between 70-200
cm.

● Moist Deciduous Forests:

○ Found in regions with rainfall between 100-200 cm.

○ Predominant in northeastern states along the Himalayan foothills,

eastern slopes of the Western Ghats, and Odisha.

○ Tree Species: Teak, sal, shisham, hurra, mahua, amla, semul,

kusum, sandalwood.

● Dry Deciduous Forests:

○ Cover vast areas where rainfall ranges between 70-100 cm.

○ Transition to moist deciduous forests in wetter margins and to

thorn forests in drier margins.

○ Found in rainier areas of the Peninsula and plains of Uttar

Pradesh and Bihar.

○ Parkland landscape in higher rainfall regions of the Peninsular

plateau and northern Indian plain, with teak and other trees
interspersed with grass patches.

○ Characteristics: Trees shed leaves completely during the dry

season, giving the forest a grassland appearance.

○ Tree Species: Tendu, palas, amaltas, bel, khair, axlewood, etc.

Tropical Thorn Forest:

● Regions:

○ Grows in areas receiving less than 50 cm of rainfall.

○ Includes semi-arid areas of southwest Punjab, Haryana,

Rajasthan, Gujarat, Madhya Pradesh, and Uttar Pradesh.
 ● Characteristics:

○ Plants remain leafless for most of the year, resembling scrub

vegetation, with a variety of grasses and shrubs.

○ Tree Species: Babool, ber, wild date palm, khair, neem, khejri,
palas.

● Undergrowth:

○ Tussocky grass grows up to 2 m in height.

Montane Forest:

● In mountainous regions, temperature decreases with increasing

altitude, leading to changes in natural vegetation.

● The Himalayan ranges exhibit a succession of vegetation from tropical

to tundra, varying with altitude.

● Mountain forests are categorized into two types: northern mountain

forests and southern mountain forests.

Northern Mountain Forest:

● Deciduous forests found in the foothills of the Himalayas.

● Wet temperate forests between 1,000-2,000 m altitude.

○ Predominance of evergreen broadleaf trees like oak and

chestnut.

● Well-developed pine forests between 1,500-1,750 m altitude.

○ Chir Pine is a valuable commercial tree.

○ Deodar, highly valued for construction, mainly in the western

Himalayan range.

○ Chinar and walnut sustain famous Kashmir handicrafts.

● Between 2,225-3,048 m altitude:

○ Appearance of blue pine and spruce, with temperate grasslands

in some areas.

● Between 3,000-4,000 m altitude:

○ Transition to Alpine forests and pastures.

 ○ Presence of silver firs, junipers, pines, birch, rhododendrons, etc.

○ Extensive use of pastures for transhumance by tribes like

Gujjars, Bakarwals, Bhotias, and Gaddis.

● At higher altitudes, mosses and lichens form part of the tundra

vegetation.

Southern Mountain Forest:

● Thicker vegetation cover on southern slopes of the Himalayas due to

higher precipitation compared to drier north-facing slopes.

Southern Mountain Forests:

● Found in three distinct areas of Peninsular India: the Western Ghats,

the Vindhyan, and the Nilgiris.

● Closer to the tropics, with elevations around 1,500 m above sea level.

● Vegetation ranges from temperate in higher regions to subtropical in

lower regions of the Western Ghats, particularly in Kerala, Tamil Nadu,
and Karnataka.

● Temperate forests are referred to as Sholas in the Nilgiris, Anaimalai,

and Palani hills.

● Economically significant forest species include magnolia, laurel,

cinchona, and wattle.

● Similar forests found in the Satpura and Maikal ranges.

Littoral and Swamp Forests:

● India boasts a diverse range of wetland habitats, with approximately

70% dedicated to paddy cultivation.

● Total wetland area in India is 3.9 million hectares.

● Chilika Lake (Odisha) and Keoladeo National Park (Bharatpur) are

protected as water-fowl habitats under the Ramsar Convention.

● Wetlands in India are categorized into eight groups:

○ Reservoirs of the Deccan Plateau in the south, along with

lagoons and other wetlands of the southwest coast.
 ○ Vast saline expanses of Rajasthan, Gujarat, and the Gulf of
Kachchh.

○ Freshwater lakes and reservoirs from Gujarat eastwards through

Rajasthan (Keoladeo National Park) and Madhya Pradesh.

○ Delta wetlands and lagoons along India's east coast (Chilika

Lake).

○ Freshwater marshes of the Gangetic Plain.

○ Floodplains of the Brahmaputra, marshes, and swamps in the

hills of northeast India and the Himalayan foothills.

○ Lakes and rivers of the montane region of Kashmir and Ladakh.

○ Mangrove forests and other wetlands of the Andaman and

Nicobar Islands.

Mangroves:

● Habitat:

○ Grow along coastlines in salt marshes, tidal creeks, mud flats,

and estuaries.

● Species:

○ Comprise several salt-tolerant plant species.

● Ecological Features:

○ Crisscrossed by creeks of stagnant water and tidal flows,

providing shelter to a diverse range of bird species.

● Significant Locations:

○ Highly developed in:

■ Andaman and Nicobar Islands.

■ Sundarbans of West Bengal.

○ Other areas of significance:

■ Mahanadi, Godavari, and Krishna deltas.

Forest Cover in India (Updated):

● Forest Area vs. Forest Cover:

○ Forest area: Notified and recorded forest land regardless of the

presence of trees, based on State Revenue Department records.

○ Actual forest cover: Area occupied by forests with canopy,

determined through aerial photographs and satellite imagery.

● Indian State of The Forest Report 2019:

○ Total forest and tree cover: 24.56% of the total geographical area
of the country.

● Top States by Forest Cover:

○ Madhya Pradesh has the largest forest cover, followed by

Arunachal Pradesh, Chhattisgarh, Odisha, and Maharashtra.

● Top States by Percentage of Forest Cover:

○ Mizoram (85.41%), Arunachal Pradesh (79.63%), Meghalaya

(76.33%), Manipur (75.46%), and Nagaland (75.31%).

● Mangrove Cover:

○ Total mangrove cover: 4,975 sq. km, with an increase of 54 sq.

km observed.

● Increase in Forest Cover (2019 Assessment):

○ Total increase: 5,188 sq. km.

■ Increase in Forest Cover: 3,976 sq. km.

■ Increase in Tree Cover: 1,212 sq. km.

● Top States with Increase in Forest Cover:

○ Karnataka (1,025 sq. km), Andhra Pradesh (990 sq. km), and
Kerala (823 sq. km).

● Bamboo Area:

○ Estimated at 16 million sq. km, showing an increase of 0.32

million sq. km compared to the 2017 report.
 ● Carbon Stock:

○ Total carbon stock in the country's forests: 7,124.6 million tonnes,

with an increase of 42.6 million tonnes compared to the 2017
assessment.

Forest Conservation:

● Forests hold intricate interrelationships with life and the environment,

providing numerous direct and indirect benefits to the economy and
society.

● Forest Policy 1988:

○ Emphasizes sustainable forest management to conserve and

expand forest reserves while meeting local community needs.

● Policy Targets:

○ Bringing 33% of geographical areas under forest cover.

○ Maintaining environmental stability and restoring forests where

ecological balance was disturbed.

○ Conserving the natural heritage, biological diversity, and genetic

pool of the country.

○ Mitigating soil erosion, desertification, floods, and droughts.

○ Increasing forest cover through social forestry and afforestation

on degraded lands.

○ Enhancing forest productivity to provide timber, fuel, fodder, and

food to rural populations dependent on forests.

● People's Movement:

○ Encourages a massive people's movement, involving women, to:

■ Promote tree planting.

■ Stop deforestation.

■ Reduce pressure on existing forests.

Region Percentage Cover of Forest

High Concentration > 40%

Medium Concentration 20-40%

Low Concentration 10-20%

Very Low Concentration < 10%

Social Forestry:

Social forestry involves the management and protection of forests and

afforestation on barren lands to contribute to environmental, social, and rural
development. The National Commission on Agriculture (1976) classifies
social forestry into three categories:

1. Urban Forestry:

○ Involves the raising and management of trees on public and

privately owned lands in and around urban centers.

○ Examples include green belts, parks, roadside avenues,

industrial and commercial green belts.

2. Rural Forestry:

○ Emphasizes the promotion of Agro-forestry and Community

forestry.

○ Agro-Forestry:

■ Involves raising trees and agricultural crops on the same

land, including waste patches.

■ Combines forestry with agriculture to produce food, fodder,

fuel, timber, and fruit simultaneously.

○ Community Forestry:
 ■ Involves raising trees on public or community land, such as
village pastures, temple land, roadside areas, canal banks,
strips along railway lines, and school premises.

■ Aims to provide benefits to the community, allowing people

from landless classes to participate in tree raising.

3. Farm Forestry:

○ Refers to the process where farmers grow trees for commercial

and non-commercial purposes on their farmlands.

○ Forest departments of various states distribute tree seedlings

free of cost to small and medium farmers.

○ Utilizes various lands such as margins of agricultural fields,

grasslands, pastures, areas around homes, and cow sheds for
raising trees under non-commercial farm forestry.

Wildlife in India:

● India is home to about 4-5% of all known plant and animal species on
Earth.

● Threats to wildlife include:

1. Industrial and Technological Advancement:

○ Rapid increase in exploitation of forest resources.

2. Land Clearance:

○ Clearing of lands for agriculture, human settlement, roads,

mining, reservoirs, etc.

3. Resource Exploitation:

○ Pressure on forests due to lopping for fodder and fuelwood, and

removal of small timber by local people.

4. Grazing:

○ Adverse effects of domestic cattle grazing on wildlife and habitat.

5. Hunting and Poaching:

○ Historical hunting as a sport by the elite, leading to the killing of

hundreds of wild animals.
 ○ Rampant commercial poaching.

6. Forest Fires:

○ Incidence of forest fires.

Wildlife Conservation in India:

● In 1972, the Wildlife Act was enacted, providing the legal framework for
conservation and protection of wildlife.

○ Objectives:

■ Protection of endangered species listed in the Act's

schedule.

■ Legal support for conservation areas such as National

Parks, Sanctuaries, and closed areas.

● Collaboration with UNESCO's 'Man and Biosphere Programme' for

effective conservation of flora and fauna.

● Conservation Schemes:

○ Project Tiger:

■ Objective: Maintain viable tiger populations for scientific,

aesthetic, cultural, and ecological values, and preserve
areas of biological importance.

○ Project Elephant:

■ Launched in 1992 to assist states with free-ranging wild

elephant populations, ensuring the long-term survival of
viable elephant populations.

○ Crocodile Breeding Project, Project Hangul, and Himalayan

Musk Deer Conservation:

■ Launched by the Government of India to conserve various

species and their habitats sustainably.
Biosphere Reserve:

A Biosphere Reserve is a unique and representative ecosystem of terrestrial

and coastal areas internationally recognized within UNESCO's Man and
Biosphere (MAB) Programme.

BIOSPHERE RESERVES MAP (COURTESY: INDIAN EXPRESS)

 ● Total Biosphere Reserves:

○ There are a total of 11 biosphere reserves recognized under

UNESCO's MAB Programme.

Nilgiri Biosphere Reserve:

● Establishment:

○ Established in September 1986, it is the first biosphere reserve.

● Area and Coverage:

○ Encompasses the sanctuary complex of Wayanad, Nagarhole,

Bandipore, and Mudumalai.

○ Includes the entire forested hill slopes of Nilambur, the Upper

Nilgiri plateau, Silent Valley, and the Siruvani hills.

○ Total area: Approximately 5,520 sq. km.

● Vegetation:

○ Encompasses unspoiled areas of various natural vegetation

types, including dry scrubs, dry and moist deciduous,
semi-evergreen and wet evergreen forests, evergreen sholas,
grasslands, and swamps.

● Fauna:

○ Houses the largest known population of two endangered animal

species: the Nilgiri Tahr and the Lion-tailed macaque.

○ Hosts the largest south Indian population of elephants, tigers,

gaurs, sambars, and chitals.

○ Supports a significant number of endemic and endangered plant

species.

● Topography:

○ Exhibits extremely varied topography.

Nanda Devi Biosphere Reserve:

● Location:

○ Situated in Uttarakhand, covering parts of Chamoli, Almora,

Pithoragarh, and Bageshwar districts.

● Forest Types:

○ Major forest types are temperate.

● Flora:

○ Includes silver weed and orchids like latifolie and rhododendron.

● Fauna:

○ Rich biodiversity, including species like snow leopard, black bear,

brown bear, musk deer, snowcock, golden eagle, and black
eagle.

● Major Threats:

○ Collection of endangered plants for medicinal use.

○ Forest fires.

○ Poaching.

Sundarbans Biosphere Reserve:

● Location:

○ Situated in the swampy delta of the river Ganga in West Bengal.

● Area and Composition:

○ Spreads over a vast area of 9,630 sq. km, consisting of

mangrove forests, swamps, and forested islands.

● Fauna:

○ Home to the Royal Bengal tigers, known for their swimming

abilities.

○ Preys include chital deer, barking deer, wild pig, and macaques.
 ● Mangrove Forests:

○ Characterized by Heritiera fomes, a species valued for its timber.

Gulf of Mannar Biosphere Reserve:

● Area Covered:

○ Spans an area of 105,000 hectares along the southeast coast of

India.

● Components:

○ Comprises 21 islands featuring estuaries, beaches, nearshore

forests, sea grasses, coral reefs, salt marshes, and mangroves.

● Biodiversity:

○ Home to approximately 3,600 plant and animal species, many of

which are globally endangered.

○ Notable species include the Sea cow (Dugong dugon), which is

globally endangered.

○ Hosts six mangrove species endemic to Peninsular India, also

endangered.

Biosphere Reserve Location in the States/UT

Nilgiri Part of Wynad, Nagarhole, Bandipur and Mudumalai, Nilambur,

Silent Valley and Siruvani Hills (Tamil Nadu, Kerala, and
Karnataka)

Nanda Devi Part of Chamoli, Pithoragarh and Almora Districts in Uttarakhand

Nokrek Part of East, West and South Garo Hill Districts in Meghalaya

Manas Part of Kokrajhar, Bongaigaon, Barpeta, Nalbari, Kamrup and

Darang Districts in Assam
Sundarbans Part of delta of Ganges and Brahamaputra river system in West
Bengal

Gulf of Mannar Indian part of Gulf of Mannar extending from Rameswaram island
in the North to Kaniyakumari in the South of Tamil Nadu

Great Nicobar Southernmost island of Andaman and Nicobar Islands

Similipal Part of Mayurbhanj District in Odisha

Dibru-Saikhowa Part of Dibrugarh and Tinsukia Districts in Assam

Dehang Debang Part of Upper Siang, West Siang, and Dibang Valley Districts in
Arunachal Pradesh

Pachmarhl Part of Betul. Hoshangabad and Chhindwara Districts in Madhya

Pradesh

Khangchendzonga Part of North and West Districts in Sikkim

Agasthyamalai Part of Thirunelveli and Kanyakumari Districts in Tamil Nadu and

Thiruvananthapuram. Kollam and Pathanmthitta districts in
Kerala.

AchanakmarAmarkanta Part of Anuppur and Dindori Districts of Madhya Pradesh and

k Bilaspur district of Chhattisgarh

Kachchh Part of Kachchh. Rajkot. Surendranagar and Patan Districts in

Gujarat.

Cold Desert Pin Valley National Park and surroundings: Chandratal and
Sarchu and Kibber Wildlife sanctuary in Himachal Pradesh.
Seshachalam Seshachalam hill ranges in Eastern Ghatsen compassing part of
Chittoor and Kadapa Districts in Andhra Pradesh.

Panna Part of Panna and Chhattarpur Districts in Madhya Pradesh

Objectives of Biosphere Reserves

● Interesting points: Generally, an international convention is an

agreement among member states of the United Nations.
CHAPTER 6: SOILS
Soil, as the most significant layer of the Earth's crust, serves as a crucial
resource supporting various life forms and agricultural activities. Its formation
involves the interplay of several factors including weathering, gradation, and
human activities.

Understanding its composition and layers is vital for effective land

management and agriculture.

Formation of Soils:

● Soil is a mixture of rock debris and organic materials developed on the

Earth's surface.

● Agents of weathering and gradation act upon parent rock materials to

create a thin layer of soil.

● Factors influencing soil formation include relief, parent material,

climate, vegetation, other life forms, and time.

● Human activities significantly influence soil formation.

● Soil components include mineral particles, humus, water, and air.

Layers of Soils:

Soil is stratified into layers known as horizons, forming the soil profile.

1. Horizon A (Topsoil):

● The topmost zone where organic materials mix with mineral matter,
nutrients, and water, essential for plant growth.

● Rich in organic matter.

2. Horizon B (Subsoil):

● Transition zone between Horizon A and Horizon C.

● Contains matter derived from both above and below.

● Exhibits noticeable weathering of mineral matter, with some organic

content.

3. Horizon C (Parent Material):

● Composed of loose parent material.

 ● Represents the initial stage of soil formation, eventually contributing to
the formation of Horizon A and B.

4. Bedrock (Parent Rock):

● The rock layer beneath the soil horizons.

● Also known as parent rock or bedrock.

Classification of Soils in India:

India's diverse relief features, landforms, climatic realms, and vegetation

types have led to the development of various soil types across the country.

Ancient Classification:

● In ancient times, soils were broadly classified into two groups – Urvara
(fertile) and Usara (sterile).

16th Century A.D. Classification:

● Soils were classified based on inherent characteristics and external

features such as texture, color, slope of land, and moisture content.

● Texture-based classification identified main soil types as sandy, clayey,

silty, and loam.

● Color-based classification categorized soils into red, yellow, black, etc.

Soil Survey of India:

● Established in 1956, the Soil Survey of India conducted comprehensive

studies of soils across the country.

Classification by ICAR:

● The Indian Council of Agricultural Research (ICAR) classified Indian

soils based on their nature and character following the United States
Department of Agriculture (USDA) Soil Taxonomy.
Order Area (in thousand hectares) Percentage

Inceptisols 130,372.90 39.74%

Entisols 92,131.71 28.08%

Alfisols 44,448.68 13.55%

Vertisols 27,960.00 8.52%

Aridisols 14,069.00 4.28%

Utisols 8,250.00 2.51%

Mollisols 1,320.00 0.40%

Others 9,503.10 2.92%

Total 328,055.39 100%

Classification of Soil based on Genesis, Colour, Composition, and

Location:

· Alluvial soils

· Black soils

· Red and Yellow soils

· Laterite soils

· Arid soils

· Saline soils
· Peaty soils

· Forest soils
Alluvial Soils:

● Distribution:

○ Widespread in the northern plains and river valleys, covering

approximately 40% of the total area of India.

○ Found in deltas of the east coast and river valleys in the

Peninsular region.

○ Extend into the plains of Gujarat through a narrow corridor in

Rajasthan.

● Formation:

○ Depositional soils transported and deposited by rivers and

streams.

● Variability:

○ Vary in nature from sandy loam to clay.

○ Generally rich in potash but poor in phosphorus.

● Types in the Upper and Middle Ganga Plain:

○ Khadar: New alluvium deposited annually by floods, enriched

with fine silts.

○ Bhangar: Older alluvium deposited away from flood plains,

containing calcareous concretions (Kankars).

● Characteristics:

○ Alluvial soils in the lower and middle Ganga plain and the
Brahmaputra valley are loamier and more clayey.

○ Sand content decreases from west to east.

○ Colour varies from light grey to ash grey, depending on depth of

deposition, material texture, and maturity.

○ Intensively cultivated due to their fertility and suitability for a

variety of crops.
Black Soil:

● Distribution:

○ Covers most of the Deccan Plateau, including parts of

Maharashtra, Madhya Pradesh, Gujarat, Andhra Pradesh, and
some parts of Tamil Nadu.

○ Found in upper reaches of the Godavari and Krishna rivers and

the northwestern part of the Deccan Plateau.

● Characteristics:

○ Also known as 'Regur Soil' or 'Black Cotton Soil'.

○ Generally clayey, deep, and impermeable.

○ Swell and become sticky when wet, shrink when dried,

developing wide cracks during the dry season, leading to a form
of 'self-ploughing'.

○ Slow absorption and loss of moisture, retaining moisture for a

long time, aiding rain-fed crops during dry seasons.

● Chemical Composition:

○ Rich in lime, iron, magnesia, and alumina.

○ Contains potash but lacks phosphorus, nitrogen, and organic

matter.

○ Colour ranges from deep black to grey.

Red and Yellow Soil:

● Distribution:

○ Develops on crystalline igneous rocks in areas of low rainfall in

the eastern and southern part of the Deccan Plateau.

○ Found along the piedmont zone of the Western Ghats and parts
of Odisha, Chhattisgarh, and the southern parts of the middle
Ganga plain.

● Characteristics:

○ Reddish color due to wide diffusion of iron in crystalline and

metamorphic rocks; appears yellow when hydrated.
 ○ Fine-grained soils are fertile, while coarse-grained soils in dry
upland areas are poor in fertility.

○ Generally poor in nitrogen, phosphorus, and humus.

Laterite Soil:

● Derived from the Latin word 'Later', meaning brick.

● Develops in areas with high temperature and rainfall.

● Result of intense leaching due to tropical rains, leaving soils rich in iron
oxide and aluminum compounds.

● Poor in organic matter, nitrogen, phosphate, and calcium; rich in iron

oxide and potash.

● Not suitable for cultivation without the application of manures and

fertilizers.

● Red laterite soils in Tamil Nadu, Andhra Pradesh, and Kerala are
suitable for tree crops like cashewnut.

● Widely used as bricks for house construction.

● Mainly found in the higher areas of the Peninsular plateau, including

Karnataka, Kerala, Tamil Nadu, Madhya Pradesh, and hilly areas of
Odisha and Assam.

Arid Soils:

● Ranges from red to brown in color, generally sandy and saline in

nature.

● Some areas have high salt content, allowing for the extraction of
common salt through evaporation.

● Lacks moisture and humus due to dry climate, high temperature, and
accelerated evaporation.

● Insufficient nitrogen, normal phosphate content.

● Lower horizons occupied by 'Kankars' layers containing calcium,

restricting water infiltration but providing moisture for plant growth with
irrigation.
 ● Characteristically developed in western Rajasthan, exhibiting arid
topography.

● Poor in humus and organic matter.

Saline Soils:

● Also known as Usara soils.

● Contain higher proportions of sodium, potassium, and magnesium,

rendering them infertile and unsuitable for vegetative growth.

● High salt content primarily due to dry climate and poor drainage.

● Occur in arid and semi-arid regions, as well as waterlogged and

swampy areas.

● Widespread in western Gujarat, deltas of the eastern coast, and

Sundarbans areas of West Bengal.

● Saline soils in the Rann of Kutch receive salt deposits brought by the
Southwest Monsoon.

● Seawater intrusions in deltas contribute to saline soil formation.

Causes of Salinity:

● Intensive cultivation and excessive irrigation, especially in areas of the

green revolution, are leading to saline soil formation.

● Capillary action induced by excessive irrigation in dry climates results in

salt deposition on the soil surface.

● Farmers in regions like Punjab and Haryana are advised to add

gypsum to mitigate soil salinity.

Peaty Soil:

● Found in areas with heavy rainfall and high humidity, conducive to

abundant vegetation growth.

● Accumulation of dead organic matter results in high humus and organic

content, reaching up to 40-50%.

● Typically heavy and black in color; may also be alkaline in some

locations.
 ● Widely distributed in the northern part of Bihar, southern part of
Uttarakhand, and coastal areas of West Bengal, Odisha, and Tamil
Nadu.

Forest Soil:

● Formed in forested areas with ample rainfall.

● Soil structure and texture vary depending on the mountain

environment.

○ Loamy and silty on valley sides.

○ Coarse-grained in upper slopes.

● Snow-bound areas of the Himalayas experience denudation, resulting

in acidic soil with low humus content.

● Soils in lower valleys are fertile.

Soil Degradation:

● Decline in soil fertility and depth due to erosion and misuse.

● Main factor leading to depleting soil resource base in India.

● Degree varies according to topography, wind velocity, and rainfall.

Soil Erosion:

● Destruction of soil cover.

● Soil forming and erosional processes occur simultaneously, but balance

can be disturbed by natural or human factors.

● Wind and water are significant agents of erosion.

○ Wind Erosion: Significant in arid and semi-arid regions.

○ Water Erosion: More significant in regions with heavy rainfall

and steep slopes.

■ Sheet Erosion: Occurs on level lands after heavy

showers, removing finer and more fertile topsoil.

■ Gully Erosion: Common on steep slopes, leading to

deepening gullies that fragment agricultural lands and
make them unfit for cultivation.
 ■ Regions with many deep gullies or ravines are
termed badland topography.

■ Ravines widespread in the Chambal basin and found

in Tamil Nadu and West Bengal.

Reasons for Soil Erosion and Soil Degradation:

1. Soil Degradation in Indian Agriculture:

○ Salt lodged in lower soil profiles rises to the surface, destroying

fertility unless sufficient humus is present.

○ Chemicals can harden soil and reduce fertility over time.

2. Deforestation:

○ More pronounced effect on soil erosion in hilly regions.

○ Trees help bind soil with their roots, preventing erosion.

3. Over-grazing and Shifting Cultivation:

○ Disrupt natural land cover, leading to extensive erosion.

Soil Conservation:

● Methodology to maintain soil fertility, prevent erosion and exhaustion,

and improve degraded soil conditions.

Measures for Soil Conservation:

1. Slope Management:

○ Check open cultivable lands on slopes for farming; avoid

cultivation on slopes with gradients of 15-20%.

○ Terracing can be implemented in hilly areas.

2. Regulating Practices:

○ Educate villagers to regulate over-grazing and shifting cultivation

practices.

3. Structural Measures:

○ Implement contour bunding, contour terracing, regulated forestry,

controlled grazing, cover cropping, mixed farming, and crop
rotation to reduce erosion.
4. Gully Control:

○ Eliminate finger gullies with terracing.

○ Construct check dams in larger gullies to reduce water erosive

velocity.

5. Preventing Gully Extension:

○ Control headward extension of gullies with gully plugging,

terracing, or planting cover vegetation.

6. Sand Dune Protection:

○ Develop shelter belts of trees and promote agro-forestry to

protect cultivable lands from sand dune encroachment in arid and
semi-arid areas.

7. Government Initiatives:

○ The Central Soil Conservation Board, established by the

Government of India, has developed soil conservation plans
based on climatic conditions, land configuration, and social
behavior.
CHAPTER 7: NATURAL HAZARDS AND DISASTERS
Disasters, both general and natural, are events humanity consistently dreads
due to their unpredictable and often devastating nature.

These occurrences, driven by forces beyond human control, swiftly disrupt

lives and property, often with minimal warning.

Natural Hazards:

● Elements or circumstances in the natural environment with potential to

cause harm to people or property.

● Examples include ocean currents, steep slopes, unstable geological

features like those in the Himalayas, and extreme climatic conditions in
deserts or glaciated areas.

Natural Disaster:

● Sudden events causing widespread death, property loss, and social

disruption.

● Distinguished from hazards by their large scale and immediate impact,

often leaving communities with little to no control over the situation.

● Disasters are characterized by extensive destruction and damage,

rendering them unique in their societal and environmental impact.

Issues Regarding Disasters:

● Magnitude, intensity, frequency, and resultant damages of natural

disasters have escalated over time.

● Global concern is mounting to address the menace posed by these

disasters, aiming to minimize human and property losses.

● Patterns of natural disasters have undergone significant changes over

the years, necessitating adaptive responses from affected communities.

Natural Disasters and Hazards in India: India, with its vast and diverse
physical and socio-cultural landscape, faces various natural hazards.
Earthquakes:

● Among the most unpredictable and destructive natural disasters.

● Tectonic origin earthquakes are particularly devastating, with a wide

area of influence.

● Associated with volcanic eruptions, rockfalls, landslides, subsidence,

and impounding of dams.

● The Indian plate's movement towards the north and northeast,

obstructed by the Eurasian plate, leads to energy accumulation and
eventual earthquakes.

● Most vulnerable areas include Jammu and Kashmir, Ladakh, Himachal

Pradesh, Uttarakhand, Sikkim, Darjeeling subdivision of West Bengal,
and northeastern states.

● Earthquakes also occur in stable landmasses of the peninsular region,

like along the Bhima river near Latur and Osmanabad in Maharashtra.

Other Natural Disasters and Hazards in India:

● Blizzards: Particularly relevant in high-altitude regions.

● Thunderstorms: Frequent occurrences, often leading to lightning

strikes.

● Tropical Cyclones: Affect coastal regions, causing significant damage.

● Tidal Waves: Occur due to seismic activity or underwater landslides.

● Volcanic Eruptions: Primarily a concern in regions with active

volcanoes.

● Insect Infestations: Such as locusts, leading to agricultural

devastation.

● Drought: Periodic water scarcity affecting agricultural output.

● Floods: Regular occurrences in various regions, causing widespread

damage.

● Landslides: Particularly prevalent in hilly and mountainous regions.

● Storm Surges: Associated with tropical cyclones, leading to coastal

flooding.
 ● Tsunamis: Generated by underwater earthquakes or volcanic
eruptions.

● Soil Erosion: Impacts agricultural productivity and land stability.

● Hailstorms, Frosts, Heatwaves, Cold Waves: Seasonal weather

extremes affecting agriculture and human health.

Earthquake Zones in India:

National organizations such as the National Geophysical Laboratory,
Geological Survey of India, Department of Meteorology, and National Institute
of Disaster Management have divided India into five earthquake zones based
on risk levels.

1. Very High Damage Risk Zone:

○ Includes the northeastern states, areas to the north of Darbhanga

and Araria along the Indo-Nepal border in Bihar, Uttarakhand,
Western Himachal Pradesh (around Dharamshala), Kashmir
Valley in the Himalayan region, and Kutch (Gujarat).

○ Notable for experiencing some of the most devastating

earthquakes in India.

2. High Damage Risk Zone:

○ Encompasses the remaining parts of Jammu and Kashmir,

Ladakh, Himachal Pradesh, northern parts of Punjab, eastern
parts of Haryana, Delhi, western Uttar Pradesh, and northern
Bihar.

3. Moderate Damage Risk Zone:

4. Low Damage Risk Zone:

5. Very Low Damage Risk Zone:

The first two zones have witnessed significant seismic activity and have been
prone to devastating earthquakes.

Significant Locations in Each Zone:

● Very High Damage Risk Zone:

○ Northeastern states

○ Areas along the Indo-Nepal border in Bihar

○ Uttarakhand

○ Western Himachal Pradesh (around Dharamshala)

○ Kashmir Valley

○ Kutch (Gujarat)
 ● High Damage Risk Zone:

○ Remaining parts of Jammu and Kashmir

○ Ladakh

○ Himachal Pradesh

○ Northern parts of Punjab

○ Eastern parts of Haryana

○ Delhi

○ Western Uttar Pradesh

○ Northern Bihar

Atmospheric Terrestrial Aquatic Biological

Blizzards Earthquakes Floods Plants and Animals as

colonisers (Locusts, etc.)

Thunderstorms Volcanic Eruptions Tidal Waves Insect infestation-fungal,

bacterial and viral diseases
like bird flu, dengue etc.

Lightning Landslides Ocean

Currents

Tornadoes Avalanches Storm Surge

Tropical cyclone Subsidence Tsunami

Drought Soil Erosion

Hailstorms
Frosts, Heatwave,
or Loo, Cold wave
etc

Socio-Environmental Consequences of Earthquakes:

● Earthquakes become calamitous when they strike densely populated

areas, robbing populations of their material and socio-cultural gains
preserved over generations.

Effects of Earthquakes:

● Earthquakes have wide-ranging disastrous effects:

○ Surface seismic waves cause fissures on the earth's crust,

leading to the eruption of water and other volatile materials,
inundating neighboring areas.

○ Earthquakes trigger landslides, obstructing river and channel

flows, sometimes leading to reservoir formation.

○ Alterations in river courses due to earthquakes can cause floods

and other calamities in affected areas.

Earthquake Hazard Mitigation:

Mitigating the damages caused by earthquakes requires a proactive approach

towards disaster preparedness and mitigation rather than relying solely on
curative measures. Key strategies include:

1. Establishing Earthquake Monitoring Centers:

○ Setting up seismological centers for regular monitoring and fast

dissemination of information in vulnerable areas.

2. Utilizing Geographical Positioning System (GPS):

○ GPS can aid in monitoring the movement of tectonic plates,

providing valuable data for earthquake prediction and
preparedness.

3. Creating Vulnerability Maps:

 ○ Developing vulnerability maps of the country to disseminate risk
information among the population and educate them on
minimizing disaster impacts.

4. Modifying Building Designs:

○ Modifying house types and building designs in vulnerable areas,

discouraging construction of high-rise buildings, large industrial
establishments, and big urban centers in seismic zones.

5. Mandatory Adoption of Earthquake-Resistant Designs:

○ Mandating the adoption of earthquake-resistant designs and the

use of light materials in major construction activities in vulnerable
areas to enhance structural resilience.

Tsunami:

Tsunamis, also known as seismic sea waves or harbor waves, are generated
by abrupt movements of the seafloor due to earthquakes or volcanic
eruptions. Key characteristics and impacts of tsunamis include:

● Seismic Wave Characteristics:

○ Initially, seismic waves cause a single instantaneous vertical

wave, followed by a series of after waves oscillating between
high crest and low trough to restore water levels.

○ Speed of waves increases in shallow water, leading to greater

impact near the coast.

● Detection Challenges:

○ Tsunamis are difficult to detect in deep ocean waters due to their

long wavelengths and limited wave height.

○ Upon entering shallow water, tsunami wavelengths decrease

while periods remain constant, resulting in increased wave
height.

● Occurrence and Impact:

○ Tsunamis are frequently observed along the Pacific Ring of Fire,

affecting coastal regions of Alaska, Japan, Philippines, Southeast
Asia, Indonesia, Malaysia, Myanmar, Sri Lanka, and India.
Tropical Cyclones:

Tropical cyclones, also known as hurricanes or typhoons depending on the

region, are intense low-pressure systems occurring within the area between
30° N and 30° S latitudes, characterized by high-velocity winds.

● Size and Structure:

○ Horizontally extends up to 500-1,000 km and vertically from the

surface to 12-14 km.

● Energy Source:

○ Function as heat engines fueled by the release of latent heat

resulting from the condensation of moisture carried by winds over
oceans and seas.

● Initiating Conditions:

○ Large and continuous supply of warm and moist air capable of

releasing significant latent heat.

○ Presence of a strong Coriolis force preventing the filling of low

pressure at the center (absence near the equator inhibits cyclone
formation between 0° - 5° latitude).

○ Unstable atmospheric conditions throughout the troposphere,

fostering local disturbances conducive to cyclone development.

○ Absence of a strong vertical wind wedge, which would disrupt the

vertical transport of latent heat, is essential for cyclone formation.

Structure of the Tropical Cyclone:

● Large Pressure Gradients:

○ Characterized by significant pressure differences across the

system.

● Eye of the Storm:

○ The center of the cyclone typically consists of a warm and

low-pressure core, known as the eye of the storm.

○ Often cloudless and calm within the eye.

 ● High-Pressure Gradients:

○ Isobars are closely spaced, indicating high-pressure gradients.

○ Typically varies between 14-17mb/100 km but can reach as high

as 60mb/100km.

● Wind Belt Expansion:

○ Extends approximately 10-150 km from the center of the cyclone.

Spatial-Temporal Distribution of the Tropical Cyclone:

● Origin Locations:

○ Tropical cyclones in India primarily originate in the Bay of Bengal

in the east and the Arabian Sea in the west, owing to India's
peninsular shape.

● Monsoon Season Origins:

○ Cyclones typically form between 10°-15° north latitudes during

the monsoon season.

● Bay of Bengal Cyclones:

○ Most cyclones in the Bay of Bengal develop during October and

November.

○ Originating between 16°-2° N latitudes and to the west of 92° E.

Consequences of Tropical Cyclones:

Tropical cyclones in India, originating from the Bay of Bengal and the Arabian
Sea, have significant impacts on coastal areas, leading to:

● Severe Cyclonic Storms:

○ Coastal areas are often struck by severe cyclonic storms with

average velocities reaching 180 km/h.

○ Resultant abnormal rise in sea level, known as storm surge,

amplifies the impact.

● Storm Surge:

○ Generated by the interaction of air, sea, and land.

 ○ Cyclones create high horizontal pressure gradients and strong
surface winds, driving seawater inland.

○ Causes inundation of human settlements, agricultural fields, crop

damage, and destruction of structures.

Floods:

● Causes:

○ Occur when surface runoff exceeds the carrying capacity of river

channels and streams, leading to inundation of low-lying
floodplains.

○ Triggered by storm surges in coastal areas, prolonged

high-intensity rainfall, snowmelt, reduced infiltration rates, and
eroded material in water due to soil erosion.

● Characteristics:

○ Relatively slow occurrences, often within expected regions and

timeframes.

○ Frequent and equally disastrous floods occur in South,

Southeast, and East Asian countries, notably China, India, and
Bangladesh.

● Flood-Prone Areas in India:

○ Rastriya Barh Ayog (National Flood Commission) identified 40

million hectares of flood-prone land in India.

○ High flood-prone states include Assam, West Bengal, and Bihar.

○ Punjab and Uttar Pradesh are vulnerable to occasional floods.

○ Rajasthan, Gujarat, Haryana, and Punjab have experienced

increasing inundation due to flash floods in recent decades.

Spread of Floods by Humans:

Human activities such as indiscriminate deforestation, unscientific agricultural

practices, disturbances along natural drainage channels, and colonization of
floodplains and riverbeds contribute significantly to the increased intensity,
magnitude, and gravity of floods.
Consequences and Control of Floods:

Negative Impacts:

● Frequent inundation of agricultural land and human settlements with

serious consequences for the national economy and society.

● Destruction of valuable crops, physical infrastructure (roads, rails,

bridges), and human settlements.

● Displacement of millions of people and loss of livestock in floods.

Positive Aspect:

● Floods deposit fertile silt over agricultural fields annually, benefiting

crop growth.

● Majuli (Assam), the world's largest riverine island, showcases

successful paddy cultivation after annual floods in the Brahmaputra.

Solutions:

● Construction of flood protection embankments, dams, and afforestation

in flood-prone areas.

● Discouraging major construction activities in upper reaches of

flood-creating rivers.

● Removal of human encroachment from river channels and

depopulating floodplains.
Droughts:

Drought refers to an extended period characterized by water scarcity due to

inadequate precipitation, excessive evaporation rates, and over-utilization of
water from reservoirs and other storage systems, including groundwater.
Types of Drought:

1. Meteorological Drought:

○ Prolonged period of inadequate rainfall with uneven distribution

over time and space.

2. Agricultural Drought:

○ Also known as soil moisture drought, characterized by low soil

moisture levels detrimental to crop growth, leading to crop
failures.

○ Areas with over 30% of gross cropped area under irrigation are
excluded from this category.

3. Hydrological Drought:

○ Occurs when water availability in various storages and reservoirs

like aquifers, lakes, and reservoirs falls below levels replenished
by precipitation.

4. Ecological Drought:

○ Results in the failure of natural ecosystem productivity due to

water shortage, leading to ecological distress and ecosystem
damage.

Drought Prone Areas in India:

● Approximately 19% of the country's total geographical area and 12% of

its population suffer from drought annually.

● Around 30% of India's total area, affecting roughly 50 million people, is

identified as drought-prone.
Regional Division based on Severity:

1. Extreme Drought Affected Areas:

○ Most parts of Rajasthan, particularly areas west of the Aravali

hills (Marusthali) and Kachchh region of Gujarat.

○ Districts like Jaisalmer and Barmer receive less than 90 mm

average annual rainfall.

2. Severe Drought Prone Areas:

○ Parts of eastern Rajasthan, most parts of Madhya Pradesh,

eastern parts of Maharashtra, interior parts of Andhra Pradesh,
Karnataka Plateau, northern parts of interior Tamil Nadu,
southern parts of Jharkhand, and interior Odisha.

3. Moderate Drought Affected Areas:

○ Northern parts of Rajasthan, Haryana, southern districts of Uttar

Pradesh, remaining parts of Gujarat, Maharashtra (except
Konkan), Jharkhand, Coimbatore plateau of Tamil Nadu, and
interior Karnataka.

Consequences of Drought:

● Cascading Effects:

○ Crop failure leading to scarcity of food grains (akal), fodder

(trinkal), and water (jalkal), collectively referred to as "trikal," is
devastating.

● Human and Livestock Impact:

○ Large-scale death of cattle and other animals.

○ Human migration due to resource scarcity.

● Health Risks:

○ Water scarcity forces consumption of contaminated water,

leading to waterborne diseases like gastro-enteritis, cholera, and
hepatitis.
Steps to Improve Conditions:

● Provision of Essential Resources:

○ Distribution of safe drinking water, medicines, fodder, and water

for cattle.

○ Relocation of people and livestock to safer areas.

● Water Management:

○ Identification and utilization of groundwater potential through

aquifers.

○ Transfer of river water from surplus to deficit areas, considering

inter-linking of rivers, and constructing reservoirs and dams.

● Utilizing Technology:

○ Remote sensing and satellite imagery to identify potential river

basins for inter-linking and groundwater resources.

○ Implementation of rainwater harvesting to mitigate drought

effects.

Landslides:

● Characteristics:

○ Rapid sliding of large masses of bedrock.

○ Although less dramatic than earthquakes, volcanic eruptions,

tsunamis, and cyclones, landslides severely impact the natural
environment and national economy.

● Control Factors:

○ Largely influenced by highly localized factors such as geology,

slope, land-use, vegetation cover, and human activities.

● Zoning:

○ India is divided into zones based on past experiences, frequency,

and causal relationships with controlling factors, to monitor and
manage landslide risks effectively.
Landslide Vulnerability Zones:

1. Very High Vulnerability Zone:

○ Highly unstable areas like relatively young mountainous regions

in the Himalayas and Andaman and Nicobar Islands.

○ High rainfall regions with steep slopes in the Western Ghats and
Nilgiris.

○ Northeastern regions experiencing frequent ground-shaking due

to earthquakes.

○ Areas with intense human activities, particularly related to road

and dam construction.

2. High Vulnerability Zone:

○ Similar conditions to the very high vulnerability zone but with

differences in the combination, intensity, and frequency of
controlling factors.

○ Includes all Himalayan states and northeastern states except the

plains of Assam.

3. Moderate to Low Vulnerability Zone:

○ Areas with less precipitation like the Trans-Himalayan regions of

Ladakh and Spiti.

○ Regions with undulated yet stable relief and low precipitation

such as the Aravali range, rain shadow areas in the Western and
Eastern Ghats, and Deccan Plateau.

○ Occasional landslides occur due to mining and subsidence in

states like Jharkhand, Odisha, Chhattisgarh, Madhya Pradesh,
Maharashtra, Andhra Pradesh, Karnataka, Tamil Nadu, Goa, and
Kerala.

Consequences of Landslides:

● Relatively small and localized area of direct influence, but:

○ Roadblocks, destruction of railway lines, and channel blockages

due to rock-falls have far-reaching consequences.
 ○ Diversion of river courses due to landslides can lead to floods
and loss of life and property.

Mitigation:

● Adoption of area-specific measures:

○ Restriction on construction and developmental activities like

roads and dams.

○ Limiting agriculture to valleys and areas with moderate slopes.

○ Control on development of large settlements in high vulnerability

zones.

○ Promotion of large-scale afforestation programs and construction

of bunds to reduce water flow.

○ Encouragement of terrace farming, especially in northeastern hill

states where shifting cultivation is prevalent.

Disaster Management:

● Predictability of Cyclones:

○ Unlike earthquakes, tsunamis, and volcanic eruptions, cyclones

are relatively predictable in terms of time and location of
occurrence.

● Mitigation Measures:

○ Construction of cyclone shelters, embankments, dykes,

reservoirs, and afforestation to reduce wind speed can minimize
damages caused by cyclones.

Steps for Disaster Management:

1. Pre-disaster Management:

○ Generate data and information about disasters.

○ Prepare vulnerability zoning maps and spread awareness among

people.

○ Implement disaster planning, preparedness, and preventive

measures in vulnerable areas.
 2. During Disasters:

○ Conduct rescue and relief operations including evacuation,

construction of shelters and relief camps, and supply of water,
food, clothing, and medical aid on an emergency basis.

3. Post-disaster Operations:

○ Focus on rehabilitation and recovery of victims.

○ Build capacity to cope with future disasters.

Government Initiatives:

● Introduction of the Disaster Management Bill, 2005, and establishment

of the National Institute of Disaster Management are positive steps
taken by the Government of India.

Interesting Points:

● The Disaster Management Bill, 2005, defines disaster as a catastrophe,

mishap, calamity, or grave occurrence affecting any area, arising from
natural or man-made causes, or by accident or negligence. It results in
substantial loss of life or human suffering, damage to, and destruction
of, the environment, and exceeds the coping capacity of the affected
community.

● Establishment of the National Institute of Disaster Management in

India, participation in the Earth Summit at Rio de Janeiro, Brazil in
1993, and signing of the Sendai framework for disaster risk reduction in
2015 highlight global efforts in disaster management and risk reduction.