1.

Introduc on to Computer Architecture

 Defini on: Computer architecture is the conceptual design and fundamental opera onal
structure of a computer system.

 Purpose: To op mize performance, cost, and energy consump on while mee ng func onal
requirements.

 Components:

o Hardware: CPU, memory, I/O devices.

o So ware: Opera ng systems, compilers.

2. Basic Concepts

1. Von Neumann Architecture:

o Single memory for instruc ons and data.

o Sequen al execu on of instruc ons.

o Components: CPU, memory, input/output.

o Limita on: Von Neumann bo leneck (slow data transfer between CPU and memory).

2. Harvard Architecture:

o Separate memory for instruc ons and data.

o Parallel data and instruc on processing.

o Common in embedded systems.

3. Components of a Computer System

1. Central Processing Unit (CPU):

o Control Unit (CU): Directs opera ons.

o Arithme c Logic Unit (ALU): Performs calcula ons and logical opera ons.

o Registers: Small, fast storage loca ons.

2. Memory:

o Primary Memory: RAM (vola le), ROM (non-vola le).

o Secondary Memory: HDD, SSD.

o Cache Memory: Faster than RAM; stores frequently accessed data.

o Virtual Memory: Extends RAM using secondary storage.

3. Input/Output Devices:

o Interfaces between the computer and the external environment.

4. Buses:

o Data Bus: Transfers data.

 o Address Bus: Specifies memory loca ons.

o Control Bus: Coordinates ac vi es.

4. Instruc on Set Architecture (ISA)

1. Defini on: The part of computer architecture that is visible to the programmer, including the
instruc on set, data types, registers, addressing modes, etc.

2. Types:

o CISC (Complex Instruc on Set Computer): Large, complex instruc ons (e.g., x86).

o RISC (Reduced Instruc on Set Computer): Small, simple instruc ons (e.g., ARM).

5. Processor Performance Metrics

1. Clock Speed: Measured in GHz; indicates how many cycles per second a CPU can execute.

2. Instruc on Per Cycle (IPC): Number of instruc ons a CPU executes per clock cycle.

3. Throughput: Total work done in a given me.

4. Latency: Time taken to complete one task.

5. MIPS (Million Instruc ons Per Second): Performance measure.

6. Memory Hierarchy

 Registers: Fastest but smallest.

 Cache: Small, faster than RAM.

 Main Memory (RAM): Medium speed, larger size.

 Secondary Storage: Slowest but largest.

7. Pipelining

 Defini on: Technique for overlapping instruc on execu on.

 Stages: Fetch, Decode, Execute, Memory Access, Write-back.

 Hazards:

o Structural Hazards: Resource conflicts.

o Data Hazards: Dependencies between instruc ons.

o Control Hazards: Branch instruc ons.

8. Parallel Processing

1. Single Instruc on Single Data (SISD): Sequen al processing.

2. Single Instruc on Mul ple Data (SIMD): Executes same instruc on on mul ple data.

3. Mul ple Instruc on Mul ple Data (MIMD): Independent instruc ons on mul ple data
streams.
9. Input/Output Systems

1. Programmed I/O: CPU directly manages data transfer.

2. Interrupt-Driven I/O: CPU is interrupted when I/O is ready.

3. Direct Memory Access (DMA): Transfers data without CPU involvement.

10. Emerging Trends

1. Mul core Processors: Mul ple processing cores on a single chip.

2. GPUs: High-performance processors for parallel computa on.

3. Quantum Compu ng: Uses quantum bits (qubits).

4. Neuromorphic Compu ng: Mimics the human brain.

1. Von Neumann and Harvard Architectures

Von Neumann Architecture:

 Features:

o Single memory for instruc ons and data.

o Sequen al execu on of programs.

o U lizes a single bus system for transferring data and instruc ons.

 Advantages:

o Simplicity in design.

o Lower hardware cost.

 Disadvantages:

o Von Neumann bo leneck: CPU idle me increases due to the shared memory access.

Harvard Architecture:

 Features:

o Separate memory for instruc ons and data.

o Parallel execu on of instruc on and data fetches.

 Advantages:

o Faster due to simultaneous access.

o More efficient pipeline design.

 Applica ons: Commonly used in microcontrollers and DSPs.

2. Central Processing Unit (CPU)

Control Unit (CU):

 Fetches instruc ons from memory.

  Decodes instruc ons to determine opera on.

 Directs data flow and coordinates between components.

Arithme c Logic Unit (ALU):

 Performs arithme c opera ons (addi on, subtrac on, mul plica on, division).

 Performs logical opera ons (AND, OR, NOT, XOR).

Registers:

 Temporary storage loca ons inside the CPU.

 Types:

o General-purpose registers: Used by programs.

o Special-purpose registers: Include Program Counter (PC), Instruc on Register (IR),

and Status Register.

3. Instruc on Set Architecture (ISA)

CISC (Complex Instruc on Set Computer):

 Contains many specialized instruc ons, some of which may perform complex tasks.

 Reduces the number of instruc ons per program but increases CPU cycles per instruc on.

 Examples: Intel x86, IBM System/360.

RISC (Reduced Instruc on Set Computer):

 Uses fewer, simpler instruc ons.

 Focuses on op mizing instruc on execu on and pipelining.

 Examples: ARM, MIPS.

Comparison:

Feature CISC RISC

Instruc on Set Complex Simple

Execu on Time Longer per cycle Shorter cycles

Hardware Design Complex Simplified

4. Memory Hierarchy

Registers:

 Fastest memory, directly accessible by the CPU.

 Used for temporary storage and quick computa on.

Cache Memory:

 Small-sized but faster than RAM.

  Located close to or inside the CPU.

 Divided into L1 (Level 1), L2, and L3 caches.

Main Memory (RAM):

 Medium-speed memory used to store ac ve data and instruc ons.

 Vola le: Data is lost when power is off.

Secondary Storage:

 Persistent storage (e.g., HDD, SSD).

 Used to store large volumes of data.

 Slowest in the hierarchy.

Virtual Memory:

 Extends RAM using storage devices.

 Implements paging and swapping techniques.

5. Pipelining

Stages:

1. Fetch: Retrieve the next instruc on from memory.

2. Decode: Interpret the instruc on.

3. Execute: Perform opera ons using the ALU or other components.

4. Memory Access: Read/write to memory.

5. Write-back: Save the result to a register.

Types of Hazards:

1. Structural Hazard: Occurs when hardware resources are insufficient.

o Solu on: Use separate buses or addi onal hardware.

2. Data Hazard: Arises due to data dependency between instruc ons.

o Solu on: Use forwarding or stalling.

3. Control Hazard: Occurs due to branch instruc ons.

o Solu on: Use branch predic on techniques.

6. Parallel Processing

Parallel processing allows mul ple instruc ons to execute simultaneously, improving performance.

Types:

1. SISD (Single Instruc on Single Data):

o One instruc on stream, one data stream.

 o Tradi onal uniprocessor system.

2. SIMD (Single Instruc on Mul ple Data):

o Single instruc on applied to mul ple data elements.

o Used in vector processors and GPUs.

3. MIMD (Mul ple Instruc on Mul ple Data):

o Independent instruc ons operate on mul ple data.

o Used in mul core processors and distributed systems.

7. Input/Output Systems

Programmed I/O:

 CPU ac vely manages I/O transfer, which blocks other tasks.

 Inefficient for high-speed devices.

Interrupt-Driven I/O:

 CPU is alerted when I/O devices are ready.

 Improves efficiency by allowing mul tasking.

Direct Memory Access (DMA):

 Bypasses CPU to transfer data directly between memory and I/O devices.

 Used for high-speed data transfers.

8. Emerging Trends in Computer Architecture

1. Mul core Processors:

o Mul ple cores on a single chip.

o Enables parallel task execu on.

2. GPUs (Graphics Processing Units):

o Designed for high-performance parallel processing.

o Widely used in gaming, AI, and scien fic compu ng.

3. Quantum Compu ng:

o Uses quantum bits (qubits) for massive parallelism.

o Poten al to solve complex problems faster.

4. Neuromorphic Compu ng:

o Mimics neural networks in the brain.

o Op mized for AI and machine learning tasks.

1. Introduc on to Input and Output Devices

 Defini on:

o Input Devices: Devices that send data to a computer for processing.

o Output Devices: Devices that receive processed data from the computer and present
it to the user.

 Purpose:

o Facilitate interac on between the user and the computer.

o Enable data transfer between the computer and external systems.

2. Input Devices

Defini on:

Devices that capture user data or signals and send it to the computer for processing.

Types of Input Devices:

1. Keyboard:

o Func on: Used for text and command input.

o Types: Mechanical, membrane, wireless, ergonomic keyboards.

2. Mouse:

o Func on: Poin ng device used to interact with graphical interfaces.

o Types: Op cal, laser, trackball, touchpad.

3. Touchscreen:

o Func on: Direct input by touch.

o Applica ons: Smartphones, tablets, ATMs.

4. Scanner:

o Func on: Converts physical documents into digital format.

o Types: Flatbed, handheld, 3D scanners.

5. Microphone:

o Func on: Captures audio input.

o Applica ons: Voice commands, recording, video conferencing.

6. Camera:

o Func on: Captures images or videos.

o Types: Webcam, DSLR, CCTV.

7. Game Controllers:
 o Func on: Input devices for gaming.

o Examples: Joys cks, gamepads, steering wheels.

8. Specialized Input Devices:

o Biometric Devices: Fingerprint scanner, facial recogni on.

o Sensors: Mo on detectors, temperature sensors.

3. Output Devices

Defini on:

Devices that display or reproduce processed data from the computer in a human-readable format.

Types of Output Devices:

1. Monitor:

o Func on: Displays visual output.

o Types:

 CRT (Cathode Ray Tube): Bulky, outdated.

 LCD (Liquid Crystal Display): Lightweight, energy-efficient.

 LED (Light Emi ng Diode): Improved brightness and clarity.

 OLED (Organic LED): High-quality visuals with deeper contrast.

2. Printer:

o Func on: Converts digital documents into physical copies.

o Types:

 Inkjet: High-quality prints; slower.

 Laser: Fast and efficient for bulk prin ng.

 3D Printer: Creates three-dimensional objects.

3. Speaker:

o Func on: Outputs sound.

o Applica ons: Entertainment, alerts, conferencing.

4. Projector:

o Func on: Displays visual content on large surfaces.

o Applica ons: Classrooms, presenta ons, home theaters.

5. Headphones/Earphones:

o Func on: Personal audio output devices.

o Types: Wired, wireless, noise-canceling.

 6. Plo er:

o Func on: Prints large graphics and technical drawings.

o Applica ons: Engineering, architecture.

7. Braille Display:

o Func on: Outputs text for visually impaired users.

o Applica ons: Accessibility tools.

4. Combined Input and Output Devices

Some devices func on as both input and output:

1. Touchscreen: Acts as an input by touch and an output for visual display.

2. External Hard Drives: Data can be read (input) and wri en (output).

3. Fax Machine: Sends (input) and receives (output) documents.

4. Network Interface Devices: Facilitates data transmission between systems.

5. Factors to Consider When Choosing Input/Output Devices

1. Purpose: Choose devices based on the task (e.g., gaming requires specialized controllers).

2. Compa bility: Ensure the device is compa ble with the system.

3. Speed: Devices like SSDs for output storage provide faster performance.

4. Cost: Balancing performance and budget.

5. Accessibility: Specialized devices for users with disabili es.

6. Emerging Trends in Input/Output Devices

1. Voice Recogni on Systems: Used in AI assistants like Alexa and Siri.

2. Augmented Reality (AR) and Virtual Reality (VR):

o AR devices like HoloLens.

o VR headsets for immersive experiences.

3. Gesture-based Input: Kinect, Leap Mo on.

4. Hap c Feedback Devices: Provide tac le feedback in gaming and simula ons.

5. Wearable Technology: Smartwatches, fitness trackers.

1. Introduc on to Storage Devices

 Defini on: Storage devices are hardware components used to store digital data and
programs either temporarily or permanently.

 Purpose: To retain data for immediate or long-term use by the computer or user.
2. Classifica on of Storage Devices

Based on Vola lity:

1. Vola le Storage:

o Data is lost when power is off.

o Example: RAM.

2. Non-Vola le Storage:

o Data is retained even when power is off.

o Example: Hard Drives, SSDs, Flash Drives.

Based on Accessibility:

1. Primary Storage:

o Directly accessible by the CPU.

o Example: RAM, Cache.

2. Secondary Storage:

o Stores data persistently but slower than primary storage.

o Example: HDDs, SSDs.

3. Ter ary Storage:

o Used for archival and backup.

o Example: Tape drives.

4. Offline Storage:

o Requires manual connec on to access data.

o Example: Op cal Discs, External Drives.

3. Types of Storage Devices

Primary Storage Devices:

1. RAM (Random Access Memory):

o Temporary storage for ac ve data and processes.

o Vola le memory.

o Types:

 DRAM (Dynamic RAM): Requires constant refreshing.

 SRAM (Sta c RAM): Faster but expensive.

2. ROM (Read-Only Memory):

o Stores firmware.
 o Non-vola le.

o Types: PROM, EPROM, EEPROM.

3. Cache Memory:

o High-speed storage located near the CPU.

o Stores frequently accessed data for quick retrieval.

Secondary Storage Devices:

1. Hard Disk Drive (HDD):

o Mechanism: Magne c storage with spinning disks (pla ers).

o Features:

 High capacity.

 Slower compared to SSDs.

o Applica ons: Desktop PCs, servers.

2. Solid-State Drive (SSD):

o Mechanism: Flash-based memory with no moving parts.

o Features:

 Faster read/write speeds than HDDs.

 More durable but costlier.

o Applica ons: Modern laptops, gaming systems.

3. Hybrid Drives (SSHD):

o Combines SSD speed with HDD capacity.

4. Op cal Discs:

o Types:

 CD (Compact Disc): Stores ~700 MB.

 DVD (Digital Versa le Disc): Stores ~4.7 GB.

 Blu-ray Disc: Stores up to 50 GB.

o Applica ons: Media distribu on, backups.

5. Flash Storage:

o Mechanism: Non-vola le memory.

o Types:

 USB Flash Drives.

 Memory Cards (SD, microSD).

 o Applica ons: Portable storage, cameras, smartphones.

Ter ary and Offline Storage:

1. Magne c Tape Drives:

o Mechanism: Sequen al storage on magne c tapes.

o Applica ons: Data archiving and backups.

2. External Hard Drives:

o Portable versions of HDDs or SSDs.

o Used for addi onal or backup storage.

4. Characteris cs of Storage Devices

1. Capacity:

o Maximum data the device can store.

o Measured in MB, GB, TB, or PB.

2. Speed:

o Determines data read/write performance.

o SSDs are faster than HDDs; cache is the fastest.

3. Durability:

o SSDs are more shock-resistant than HDDs.

o Flash drives are less durable than SSDs.

4. Cost:

o HDDs: Low cost per GB.

o SSDs: Higher cost per GB.

5. Portability:

o Flash drives, memory cards, and external hard drives are portable.

o HDDs and SSDs inside desktops are less portable.

5. Emerging Trends in Storage Devices

1. Cloud Storage:

o Stores data on remote servers accessed via the internet.

o Examples: Google Drive, Dropbox, AWS.

o Benefits: Scalability, accessibility.

2. NVMe (Non-Vola le Memory Express):

o Faster SSDs with higher bandwidth and lower latency.

 3. 3D NAND Technology:

o Stacks memory cells ver cally for higher capacity and speed.

4. Quantum Storage:

o Explores quantum states for data storage (in research stages).

6. Storage Device Comparisons

Type Speed Capacity Cost Durability

HDD Moderate High Low Moderate

SSD High Moderate High High

Flash Drives Moderate Moderate Low Moderate

Op cal Discs Low Low Low High

Cloud Storage Variable High Subscrip on-based High

1. Introduc on to Networking

 Defini on: Networking is the prac ce of connec ng computers and devices to share
resources, data, and communica on.

 Purpose:

o Enable resource sharing (e.g., files, printers).

o Facilitate communica on (e.g., email, messaging).

o Support distributed processing.

2. Types of Networks

Based on Coverage Area:

1. PAN (Personal Area Network):

o Smallest network; connects devices within a few meters.

o Examples: Bluetooth, infrared connec ons.

2. LAN (Local Area Network):

o Covers a small geographical area, such as a building.

o High speed, low latency.

o Example: Office or school network.

3. MAN (Metropolitan Area Network):

o Covers a city or large campus.

o Example: City-wide Wi-Fi network.

 4. WAN (Wide Area Network):

o Largest type; spans countries or con nents.

o Example: The Internet.

5. VPN (Virtual Private Network):

o Secure connec on over public networks.

o Used for privacy and remote access.

Based on Topology:

1. Star Topology:

o Central device (hub/switch) connects all nodes.

o Advantages: Easy to manage, scalable.

o Disadvantages: Single point of failure.

2. Bus Topology:

o All nodes share a single communica on line.

o Advantages: Simple, cost-effec ve.

o Disadvantages: Limited scalability, collisions.

3. Ring Topology:

o Devices are connected in a circular chain.

o Advantages: Easy fault detec on.

o Disadvantages: Failure in one node affects the en re network.

4. Mesh Topology:

o Each node is connected to every other node.

o Advantages: High reliability.

o Disadvantages: Expensive, complex.

3. Network Components

Hardware:

1. Network Interface Card (NIC):

o Connects a computer to a network.

o Types: Wired (Ethernet), wireless.

2. Switch:

o Connects devices in a LAN and manages data traffic efficiently.

3. Router:
 o Connects different networks and directs data packets.

4. Hub:

o Broadcasts data to all connected devices.

o Less efficient than switches.

5. Modem:

o Converts digital signals to analog and vice versa.

o Used for Internet access.

6. Access Point:

o Extends wireless network coverage.

7. Cables:

o Examples: Ethernet (Twisted Pair), Coaxial, Fiber Op c.

So ware:

1. Protocols:

o Rules for data communica on.

o Examples: TCP/IP, HTTP, FTP, SMTP.

2. Firewalls:

o Security so ware/hardware that filters network traffic.

4. Networking Protocols

1. TCP/IP (Transmission Control Protocol/Internet Protocol):

o Standard protocol for the Internet.

o Divided into layers:

 Applica on Layer: HTTP, FTP, SMTP.

 Transport Layer: TCP, UDP.

 Internet Layer: IP, ICMP.

 Link Layer: Ethernet, Wi-Fi.

2. HTTP/HTTPS (Hypertext Transfer Protocol/Secure):

o Used for web communica on.

3. DNS (Domain Name System):

o Translates domain names to IP addresses.

4. FTP (File Transfer Protocol):

o Used for transferring files.

 5. SMTP (Simple Mail Transfer Protocol):

o Used for email transmission.

5. Types of Communica on

1. Unicast: One-to-one communica on.

2. Broadcast: One-to-all communica on.

3. Mul cast: One-to-many communica on, but not to all.

4. Anycast: Data is sent to the nearest node in a group.

6. Network Security

1. Threats:

o Viruses, malware, phishing, DoS (Denial of Service) a acks.

2. Solu ons:

o Firewalls: Monitor and control network traffic.

o Encryp on: Protects data during transmission (e.g., SSL, TLS).

o Authen ca on: Verifies user iden ty (e.g., passwords, biometrics).

o VPNs: Ensure secure remote access.

o Intrusion Detec on Systems (IDS): Detect unauthorized access.

7. Network Devices

1. Ac ve Devices: Operate with electrical power.

o Examples: Routers, switches, hubs.

2. Passive Devices: No power required.

o Examples: Cables, connectors.

8. IP Addressing

1. IPv4:

o 32-bit address (e.g., 192.168.1.1).

o Limited to ~4.3 billion addresses.

2. IPv6:

o 128-bit address (e.g., 2001:0db8:85a3:0000:0000:8a2e:0370:7334).

o Provides a vast number of addresses.

3. Private IP:

o Reserved for internal networks (e.g., 192.168.x.x).

4. Public IP:
 o Assigned for devices on the Internet.

9. Networking Models

1. OSI Model (Open Systems Interconnec on):

o Layers:

1. Physical

2. Data Link

3. Network

4. Transport

5. Session

6. Presenta on

7. Applica on

o Helps standardize communica on.

2. TCP/IP Model:

o Simplified version of the OSI model with four layers:

 Applica on

 Transport

 Internet

 Network Interface.

10. Emerging Trends in Networking

1. 5G Networks:

o High-speed, low-latency communica on.

o Applica ons: IoT, autonomous vehicles.

2. Internet of Things (IoT):

o Connects devices like appliances, cars, and sensors.

3. SDN (So ware-Defined Networking):

o Centralized control over network traffic.

4. Cloud Networking:

o Use of cloud-based resources for networking.

5. Network Virtualiza on:

o Combines hardware and so ware into virtual resources.

6. AI in Networking:
 o AI-driven analy cs for op mizing network performance.

1. Introduc on to Opera ng Systems (OS)

 Defini on: An Opera ng System is system so ware that acts as an interface between the
user and computer hardware.

 Func ons:

1. Process Management: Handles crea on, scheduling, and termina on of processes.

2. Memory Management: Allocates and manages computer memory.

3. File System Management: Controls file storage and access.

4. Device Management: Manages hardware devices like printers and drives.

5. Security: Protects data and resources from unauthorized access.

6. User Interface: Provides a command-line interface (CLI) or graphical user interface

(GUI).

2. Types of Opera ng Systems

1. Batch Opera ng System:

o Processes jobs in batches without user interac on.

2. Time-Sharing OS:

o Allows mul ple users to use the system simultaneously.

3. Distributed OS:

o Manages a group of computers to appear as a single system.

4. Real-Time OS:

o Processes data in real- me.

o Example: Embedded systems.

5. Mul tasking OS:

o Runs mul ple processes simultaneously.

3. Overview of Windows, Linux, and Unix

Windows Opera ng System

1. Introduc on:

o Developed by Microso Corpora on.

o First released in 1985 as a GUI for MS-DOS.

2. Key Features:

o User-friendly GUI.

o Wide so ware compa bility.

 o Support for mul tasking and mul processing.

o Built-in tools for networking and security (e.g., Windows Defender).

3. File System:

o FAT32, NTFS, exFAT.

4. Advantages:

o Ease of use for non-technical users.

o Vast so ware and hardware compa bility.

o Regular updates and support.

5. Disadvantages:

o Prone to malware and viruses.

o Resource-intensive.

o Proprietary (paid licenses).

6. Popular Versions:

o Windows XP, Windows 7, Windows 10, Windows 11.

Linux Opera ng System

1. Introduc on:

o Open-source, Unix-like OS developed by Linus Torvalds in 1991.

o Kernel-based system with mul ple distribu ons.

2. Key Features:

o Mul user and mul tasking.

o Command-line interface (CLI) with GUI op ons (e.g., GNOME, KDE).

o Open-source and customizable.

3. File System:

o Ext4, XFS, Btrfs.

4. Advantages:

o High security and stability.

o Free and open-source.

o Lightweight and efficient.

o Highly customizable for different use cases.

5. Disadvantages:

o Steeper learning curve for beginners.

 o Limited support for proprietary so ware.

6. Popular Distribu ons:

o Ubuntu, Fedora, Red Hat Enterprise Linux (RHEL), Debian, CentOS.

Unix Opera ng System

1. Introduc on:

o Developed in 1969 at Bell Labs by Ken Thompson, Dennis Ritchie, and others.

o Designed for mul user and mul tasking environments.

2. Key Features:

o Robust security and stability.

o CLI-focused with some GUI implementa ons.

o Portable and scalable.

3. File System:

o UFS (Unix File System).

4. Advantages:

o Highly secure and reliable.

o Suitable for servers and enterprise systems.

o Scalability for large networks.

5. Disadvantages:

o Complex for beginners.

o Limited so ware availability.

6. Popular Versions:

o Solaris, AIX, HP-UX, BSD Unix.

4. Comparison of Windows, Linux, and Unix

Feature Windows Linux Unix

Source Closed-source Open-source Closed-source (mostly)

User Interface GUI and CLI CLI with op onal GUI CLI with limited GUI

Security Moderate (prone to malware) High Very high

Stability Moderate High Very high

Cost Proprietary (paid) Free or paid (RHEL) Expensive

Customizability Limited Highly customizable Limited

Feature Windows Linux Unix

File Systems NTFS, FAT32, exFAT Ext4, XFS, Btrfs UFS

Usage Personal/Office Personal/Server/Cloud Server/Enterprise

5. Applica ons

Windows:

 Office work, gaming, personal use, enterprise so ware.

 Example: Microso Office, Adobe Suite.

Linux:

 Servers, cloud compu ng, programming, ethical hacking.

 Example: Web servers, Android development.

Unix:

 Enterprise systems, database servers, research.

 Example: Banking systems, scien fic compu ng.

6. Emerging Trends

1. Windows:

o Integra on with cloud services like OneDrive.

o Enhanced AI tools and automa on in Windows 11.

2. Linux:

o Increasing popularity in IoT, cloud compu ng, and supercomputers.

o Development of lightweight distros for edge compu ng.

3. Unix:

o Usage in legacy enterprise systems.

o Gradual migra on to Linux-based pla orms.

1. Introduc on to Data Representa on

 Defini on: Data representa on refers to the methods used to encode and store data in a
computer system.

 Purpose: Computers use binary (0s and 1s) to represent data, which includes numbers, text,
images, audio, and video.

2. Types of Data Representa on

A. Numerical Data Representa on

1. Decimal System:
 o Base 10 system using digits 0-9.

o Commonly used by humans.

2. Binary System:

o Base 2 system using digits 0 and 1.

o Used internally by computers.

o Example: 10(2)=2(10)10_{(2)} = 2_{(10)}10(2)=2(10).

3. Octal System:

o Base 8 system using digits 0-7.

o Used as a shorthand for binary.

o Example: 10(8)=8(10)10_{(8)} = 8_{(10)}10(8)=8(10).

4. Hexadecimal System:

o Base 16 system using digits 0-9 and le ers A-F.

o Commonly used in programming and memory addressing.

o Example: 1A(16)=26(10)1A_{(16)} = 26_{(10)}1A(16)=26(10).

5. BCD (Binary Coded Decimal):

o Each decimal digit is represented by its binary equivalent.

o Example: 47(10)=01000111(BCD)47_{(10)} = 01000111_{(BCD)}47(10)

=01000111(BCD).

6. Floa ng-Point Representa on:

o Used to represent real numbers (e.g., 3.14).

o Divided into three parts:

 Sign Bit: Indicates posi ve or nega ve.

 Exponent: Represents the scale of the number.

 Man ssa: Represents the significant digits.

B. Text Representa on

1. ASCII (American Standard Code for Informa on Interchange):

o Represents characters using 7 or 8 bits.

o Example: 'A' = 65 (decimal), 1000001(binary)1000001_{(binary)}1000001(binary).

2. Unicode:

o A universal encoding standard suppor ng mul ple languages and symbols.

o Examples:
  UTF-8: Variable-length encoding (1-4 bytes).

 UTF-16: Uses 2 or 4 bytes per character.

3. EBCDIC (Extended Binary Coded Decimal Interchange Code):

o Used in IBM mainframe systems.

o Represents characters with 8 bits.

C. Image Representa on

1. Bitmap (Raster Graphics):

o Images are stored as a grid of pixels.

o Each pixel has a color value represented in bits.

o Examples: BMP, PNG, JPEG formats.

2. Vector Graphics:

o Represents images using geometric shapes like lines and curves.

o Resolu on-independent.

o Example: SVG format.

3. Color Models:

o RGB (Red, Green, Blue): Addi ve color model used in displays.

o CMYK (Cyan, Magenta, Yellow, Black): Subtrac ve color model used in prin ng.

o Grayscale: Represents intensity of light (black to white).

D. Audio Representa on

1. Analog to Digital Conversion:

o Sampling: Converts con nuous sound waves into discrete values.

o Quan za on: Maps sampled values to a finite range of numbers.

o Example: CD quality audio uses 44.1 kHz sampling rate and 16-bit depth.

2. File Formats:

o Uncompressed: WAV, AIFF.

o Compressed: MP3, AAC.

E. Video Representa on

1. Frames:

o A video is a sequence of images (frames) displayed in rapid succession.

o Frame rate: Number of frames per second (fps).

2. Compression:
 o Reduces file size using codecs (e.g., H.264, HEVC).

o Lossy: Reduces quality (e.g., MP4).

o Lossless: Retains original quality (e.g., AVI).

F. Data Representa on in Memory

1. Signed and Unsigned Numbers:

o Signed: Uses a sign bit (posi ve/nega ve).

o Unsigned: Only represents posi ve values.

2. Endianness:

o Li le Endian: Least significant byte stored first.

o Big Endian: Most significant byte stored first.

3. Two's Complement:

o Represents nega ve numbers in binary.

o Example:

 −5(10)=11111011(binary)-5_{(10)} = 11111011_{(binary)}−5(10)
=11111011(binary).

3. Importance of Data Representa on

1. Efficiency: Op mizes storage and processing.

2. Compa bility: Enables communica on between devices and systems.

3. Accuracy: Ensures correct data interpreta on.

4. Common Applica ons

 Binary: Programming, logic circuits.

 Hexadecimal: Memory addressing, debugging.

 ASCII/Unicode: Text processing, web development.

 Floa ng Point: Scien fic calcula ons, graphics.

 Audio/Video: Mul media applica ons.

1. Introduc on to the Internet

 Defini on: The Internet is a global network of interconnected computers that communicate
using standardized protocols.

 Purpose: Enables informa on sharing, communica on, and access to various services like
websites, emails, and cloud storage.

2. Key Components of the Internet

1. World Wide Web (WWW):

 o A collec on of web pages hosted on servers, accessed using browsers.

o Uses HTTP/HTTPS protocols.

2. Web Browser:

o So ware to access and display web pages (e.g., Google Chrome, Mozilla Firefox).

3. Web Server:

o Stores web content and responds to client requests.

4. Search Engines:

o Tools to find informa on on the web (e.g., Google, Bing).

3. Internet Protocols

1. HTTP/HTTPS (HyperText Transfer Protocol):

o Protocol for transferring web pages.

o HTTPS is secure (encrypted).

2. IP (Internet Protocol):

o Assigns addresses to devices (IPv4, IPv6).

3. DNS (Domain Name System):

o Converts domain names (e.g., www.google.com) to IP addresses.

4. FTP (File Transfer Protocol):

o Transfers files between computers.

5. SMTP/POP3/IMAP:

o Email communica on protocols.

6. TCP/IP:

o The fundamental protocol suite for data transmission.

4. Services of the Internet

1. Email:

o Enables communica on via electronic messages.

2. File Sharing:

o Sharing documents, images, and videos.

3. Social Media:

o Pla orms for interac on and sharing (e.g., Facebook, Twi er).

4. E-Commerce:

o Online shopping and transac ons (e.g., Amazon, eBay).

 5. Cloud Compu ng:

o Online data storage and so ware access (e.g., Google Drive, Dropbox).

6. Streaming:

o Real- me media access (e.g., YouTube, Ne lix).

5. Introduc on to Email

 Defini on: Email (Electronic Mail) is a method of exchanging digital messages over the
Internet.

 Purpose: Efficient and fast communica on for personal, educa onal, and business purposes.

6. Components of an Email System

1. Email Address:

o Unique iden fier (e.g., username@gmail.com).

o Format: username@domain.com.

2. Mailbox:

o Stores incoming and outgoing messages.

3. Email Client:

o So ware or web-based tools to access emails (e.g., Gmail, Outlook).

4. Email Server:

o Handles the sending, receiving, and storing of emails.

7. Email Protocols

1. SMTP (Simple Mail Transfer Protocol):

o Used for sending emails.

2. POP3 (Post Office Protocol):

o Downloads emails to a device, removing them from the server.

o Example: Offline access.

3. IMAP (Internet Message Access Protocol):

o Synchronizes emails between server and client, retaining messages on the server.

8. Structure of an Email

1. Header:

o Contains sender, recipient, subject, and mestamp.

2. Body:

o Main content of the email (text, images, links).

 3. A achments:

o Files sent along with the email (e.g., documents, images).

9. Advantages of Email

1. Speed: Instant communica on across the globe.

2. Cost-Effec ve: Free or low-cost service.

3. Convenience: Accessible from mul ple devices.

4. Record Keeping: Maintains a history of communica on.

5. A achments: Supports file sharing.

10. Disadvantages of Email

1. Spam and Phishing:

o Unwanted emails or fraudulent a empts to steal informa on.

2. Storage Limita ons:

o Limited inbox size on free services.

3. Security Risks:

o Emails can be intercepted or hacked.

4. Over-Reliance:

o Constant no fica ons may lead to distrac on.

11. Security in Internet and Email

1. Firewalls:

o Protect against unauthorized access.

2. Encryp on:

o Protects data during transmission (e.g., HTTPS).

3. An virus So ware:

o Prevents malware a acks.

4. Spam Filters:

o Blocks unwanted emails.

5. Two-Factor Authen ca on (2FA):

o Adds an extra layer of login security.

12. Applica ons of Internet and Email

1. Educa on:

o Online courses, research, and communica on.

 2. Business:

o Email for professional communica on.

o Online mee ngs and collabora ons.

3. Healthcare:

o Telemedicine and sharing medical records.

4. Entertainment:

o Streaming, gaming, and social media.

5. Banking:

o Online transac ons and email no fica ons.

13. Emerging Trends

1. Cloud Email:

o Email services hosted on cloud pla orms (e.g., Google Workspace, Office 365).

2. AI Integra on:

o Smart email sor ng and response sugges ons.

3. IoT and Email:

o No fica ons from connected devices (e.g., smart home systems).

1. Introduc on to Websites

 Defini on: A website is a collec on of interconnected web pages hosted on a server,

accessible through the Internet using a web browser.

 Purpose: Websites are used to share informa on, provide services, and enable interac on
between users and organiza ons.

2. Components of a Website

1. Web Pages:

o Individual documents containing text, images, videos, and links.

o Formats: HTML, CSS, JavaScript.

2. Domain Name:

o Unique address used to access a website (e.g., www.google.com).

3. Hos ng:

o Websites are stored on web servers and made accessible via hos ng services.

4. Hyperlinks:

o Links that connect one web page to another.

5. Mul media:
 o Use of images, videos, audio, and anima ons to enhance user experience.

3. Types of Websites

1. Sta c Websites:

o Fixed content that doesn't change without manual edi ng.

o Example: Por olio websites.

2. Dynamic Websites:

o Content is generated dynamically based on user interac on.

o Example: Social media pla orms.

3. E-Commerce Websites:

o Designed for online shopping and transac ons.

o Example: Amazon, Flipkart.

4. Blogs:

o Regularly updated websites for sharing thoughts, ideas, or news.

o Example: WordPress blogs.

5. Por olio Websites:

o Showcases an individual’s or organiza on’s work.

o Example: Ar st or photographer por olios.

6. Government and Educa onal Websites:

o Provide public informa on and services.

o Example: Government portals, university sites.

4. Website Technologies

1. HTML (HyperText Markup Language):

o The standard language for crea ng web pages.

2. CSS (Cascading Style Sheets):

o Used to style and format web pages.

3. JavaScript:

o Adds interac vity and dynamic behavior to websites.

4. Web Frameworks:

o Tools for building websites (e.g., React, Angular, Django).

5. Introduc on to Web Browsers

  Defini on: A web browser is so ware that allows users to access and interact with websites
on the Internet.

 Purpose: Renders HTML documents and executes scripts for user interac on.

6. Examples of Popular Web Browsers

1. Google Chrome:

o Developed by Google; widely used for its speed and simplicity.

2. Mozilla Firefox:

o Open-source browser focused on privacy and customiza on.

3. Microso Edge:

o Successor to Internet Explorer; built on Chromium engine.

4. Safari:

o Developed by Apple; op mized for macOS and iOS.

5. Opera:

o Known for its speed and built-in VPN feature.

7. Key Features of a Web Browser

1. Address Bar:

o Allows users to enter URLs.

2. Rendering Engine:

o Interprets HTML, CSS, and JavaScript to display web pages.

3. Bookmarks:

o Saves frequently visited websites.

4. Extensions/Add-ons:

o Enhances browser func onality.

5. Private Browsing Mode:

o Prevents saving browsing history.

6. Tabs:

o Allows mul ple web pages to open simultaneously.

7. Developer Tools:

o Provides debugging and performance analysis features.

8. Components of a Web Browser

1. User Interface:
 o The visible part where users interact (e.g., address bar, menu).

2. Rendering Engine:

o Converts HTML and CSS into visual content.

o Examples: Blink (Chrome), Gecko (Firefox), WebKit (Safari).

3. Networking:

o Manages communica on between the browser and web servers.

4. JavaScript Engine:

o Executes JavaScript code (e.g., V8 for Chrome, SpiderMonkey for Firefox).

5. Data Storage:

o Stores cookies, cached files, and browsing history.

9. How Websites and Web Browsers Work Together

1. DNS Lookup:

o Converts the website's domain name into its IP address.

2. HTTP Request:

o Browser sends a request to the server to fetch the web page.

3. Rendering:

o The browser processes HTML, CSS, and JavaScript to display content.

10. Advantages of Websites

1. Global Reach:

o Accessible from anywhere with an Internet connec on.

2. Cost-Effec ve:

o Affordable way to share informa on and provide services.

3. Interac ve:

o Allows user engagement through forms, chats, and mul media.

4. Scalable:

o Easily updated and expanded.

11. Advantages of Web Browsers

1. User-Friendly:

o Simple interface for accessing online content.

2. Mul -Pla orm:

o Works on desktops, mobiles, and tablets.

 3. Secure:

o Provides encryp on (HTTPS) and privacy features.

4. Customizable:

o Extensions and themes enhance func onality.

12. Emerging Trends

1. Progressive Web Apps (PWAs):

o Websites that offer app-like experiences.

2. Voice Search Integra on:

o Browsers suppor ng voice commands (e.g., Google Assistant).

3. Improved Security:

o Enhanced an -phishing and malware protec on.

4. Web 3.0:

o Decentralized websites powered by blockchain.

1. Introduc on to Computer Virus

 Defini on: A computer virus is a type of malicious so ware (malware) designed to infect a
computer or network, replicate itself, and spread to other systems. It can cause harm by
damaging data, stealing informa on, or disrup ng system opera ons.

 Purpose: A virus’s primary objec ve is o en to replicate itself, spread, and cause harm, such
as data corrup on, system crashes, or unauthorized access to sensi ve informa on.

2. Characteris cs of Computer Viruses

1. Self-replica on:

o A virus replicates itself to spread to other files or programs.

2. Ac va on:

o A virus ac vates when certain condi ons or triggers are met, such as opening an
infected file or execu ng a malicious program.

3. Stealth:

o Some viruses hide their presence to avoid detec on by the user or an virus
so ware.

4. Payload:

o The payload is the part of the virus that causes harm, such as corrup ng files,
stealing data, or dele ng system components.

3. Types of Computer Viruses

1. File Infector Virus:

 o A aches itself to executable files and is ac vated when the file is run.

o Example: CIH (Chernobyl virus).

2. Macro Virus:

o Infects document files like Word or Excel by exploi ng macros.

o Example: Concept virus.

3. Boot Sector Virus:

o Infects the master boot record (MBR) of a computer's hard drive, making the system
unbootable.

o Example: Stone virus.

4. Polymorphic Virus:

o Changes its code or appearance to avoid detec on by an virus so ware.

o Example: Storm Worm.

5. Metamorphic Virus:

o Rewrites its code completely upon each infec on to avoid detec on.

o Example: ZMist virus.

6. Trojan Horse:

o Disguises itself as a legi mate program but performs malicious ac ons when
executed.

o Example: Zeus Trojan (used for financial the ).

7. Worm:

o Similar to a virus but does not require a host file. It spreads across networks and can
self-replicate.

o Example: Blaster Worm, Conficker Worm.

8. Ransomware:

o Encrypts user data and demands a ransom to restore it.

o Example: WannaCry, CryptoLocker.

9. Rootkit:

o Hides the presence of other malicious so ware and grants unauthorized access to
the system.

o Example: Hacker Defender.

4. Methods of Virus Propaga on

1. Email A achments:
 o Viruses are o en spread through infected email a achments.

2. File Sharing:

o Infected files shared via USB drives or network connec ons can spread viruses.

3. Malicious Websites:

o Visi ng compromised websites can lead to virus infec ons through drive-by
downloads.

4. Social Engineering:

o Viruses can be spread by tricking users into clicking on malicious links or

downloading harmful files.

5. Exploi ng Vulnerabili es:

o Viruses can exploit unpatched so ware vulnerabili es to infect a system.

6. Peer-to-Peer (P2P) Networks:

o Files shared on P2P networks may contain viruses that infect systems.

5. Effects of Computer Viruses

1. Data Corrup on:

o Viruses can damage or delete files, rendering them unusable.

2. Slow System Performance:

o Viruses consume system resources, slowing down the computer.

3. Loss of Data:

o Viruses may delete or encrypt files, leading to loss of important data.

4. Security Breach:

o Some viruses steal personal informa on or provide unauthorized access to a ackers.

5. System Crashes:

o Viruses may cause system instability, leading to frequent crashes and freezes.

6. Network Disrup on:

o Viruses can spread through networks, affec ng mul ple systems and causing
network disrup ons.

6. Preven ng Computer Viruses

1. Install An virus So ware:

o Use reliable an virus so ware to detect and remove viruses.

2. Regular So ware Updates:

o Keep the opera ng system and so ware up to date to fix security vulnerabili es.
 3. Email Cau on:

o Avoid opening a achments or links from unknown senders to prevent email-based

virus a acks.

4. Firewalls:

o Use a firewall to block unauthorized access to the system and prevent viral infec on.

5. Backup Data:

o Regularly back up important files to prevent loss in case of a virus a ack.

6. Download from Trusted Sources:

o Avoid downloading so ware or files from untrusted websites or P2P networks.

7. Use Strong Passwords:

o Strong passwords can prevent unauthorized access to your systems and accounts.

8. Educate Users:

o Train users to recognize suspicious ac vity and to avoid risky behavior (e.g., clicking
unknown links).

7. Detec ng Computer Viruses

1. An virus So ware:

o Detects viruses through signature-based detec on, heuris c analysis, and behavioral
analysis.

2. Scanning:

o Perform regular full system scans with updated an virus defini ons to detect any
malicious so ware.

3. Unusual System Behavior:

o Slow performance, unexpected pop-ups, or system crashes can indicate a virus

infec on.

4. File Integrity Monitoring:

o Monitoring changes to cri cal system files or applica ons can help detect virus
ac vi es.

8. Removing Computer Viruses

1. Use An virus So ware:

o Run a complete system scan to detect and remove the virus.

2. Safe Mode:

o Boot the computer into Safe Mode to prevent the virus from running and to remove
it.
 3. Manual Removal:

o Advanced users can remove a virus manually by iden fying and dele ng infected
files or registry entries.

4. System Restore:

o Restore the system to a point before the virus infec on, if possible.

9. Common Computer Virus Examples

1. ILOVEYOU Virus:

o A famous email-based virus that spread globally and caused widespread damage in
2000.

2. Melissa Virus:

o Spread through email and infected Microso Word documents in 1999.

3. Conficker Worm:

o A worm that spread through networks by exploi ng a vulnerability in Windows OS in

2008.

4. WannaCry Ransomware:

o A global ransomware a ack that encrypted data and demanded a ransom payment
in Bitcoin.p

10. Conclusion

 Viruses are a major threat to computer security, but with proper precau ons, such as using
an virus so ware, keeping systems updated, and exercising cau on online, they can be
avoided or removed.

 Staying informed about new threats is key to protec ng personal, corporate, and
government systems from malicious a acks.