Computer Architecture is the conceptual design and fundamental operational structure of a
computer system. It defines how a computer system is organized and how it operates. Below
is a detailed breakdown of computer architecture, covering its major components,
classifications, and performance factors.
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🧠 1. Definition of Computer Architecture
Computer Architecture refers to the design, structure, and behavior of a computer system as
seen by a programmer. It includes:
Instruction Set Architecture (ISA): The interface between hardware and software.
Microarchitecture: The internal design of a processor (CPU).
System Design: Includes memory controllers, data paths, and peripheral interfaces.
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🏗️ 2. Components of Computer Architecture
A. Central Processing Unit (CPU)
The CPU is the brain of the computer and includes:
Arithmetic Logic Unit (ALU): Performs arithmetic and logical operations.
Control Unit (CU): Directs operations of the processor.
Registers: Small, fast memory inside the CPU for temporary data storage.
B. Memory Unit
Primary Memory (RAM, ROM)
RAM (Random Access Memory): Temporary, volatile.
ROM (Read-Only Memory): Permanent, non-volatile.
Secondary Memory
Hard Drives, SSDs, Optical Discs.
C. Input/Output (I/O) Devices
Input: Keyboard, mouse, scanner.
Output: Monitor, printer.
I/O is managed through I/O controllers and buses.
D. System Interconnection
Buses: Communication system that transfers data between components.
Data Bus: Transfers actual data.
Address Bus: Carries the address to/from which data is being sent.
Control Bus: Carries control signals.
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⚙️ 3. Types of Computer Architectures
A. Von Neumann Architecture
Common model.
Uses a single memory for both data and instructions.
Fetch-decode-execute cycle.
B. Harvard Architecture
Separate memories for data and instructions.
Allows simultaneous access, increasing performance.
C. RISC (Reduced Instruction Set Computer)
Small set of simple instructions.
Faster due to simpler instruction set (e.g., ARM).
D. CISC (Complex Instruction Set Computer)
Large set of complex instructions.
More powerful but can be slower (e.g., x86).
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🏎️ 4. Performance Factors
A. Clock Speed
Measured in GHz.
Determines how many cycles per second a CPU can perform.
B. Instruction Per Cycle (IPC)
Number of instructions a CPU can execute in one cycle.
C. Pipelining
Overlapping execution of instructions to increase throughput.
D. Cache Memory
Small, fast memory between CPU and RAM.
Levels: L1, L2, L3 caches.
E. Parallelism
Instruction-Level: Pipelining, superscalar execution.
Data-Level: SIMD (Single Instruction Multiple Data).
Task-Level: Multithreading, multicore processors.
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🖥️ 5. Modern Enhancements in Computer Architecture
Multicore Processors: Multiple cores on a single chip for better multitasking.
Hyper-threading: Simultaneous multithreading for better CPU resource utilization.
GPUs: Specialized processors for parallel data processing (graphics, AI).
AI Accelerators: TPUs (Tensor Processing Units), NPUs (Neural Processing Units).
Quantum Computing (emerging): Uses quantum bits for ultra-fast processing.
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📊 6. Instruction Set Architecture (ISA)
Defines the machine language instructions a computer can execute. Examples:
x86: Common in desktops/laptops.
ARM: Common in mobile and embedded devices.
MIPS, RISC-V: Used in academic and some embedded systems.
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🧪 7. Example CPU Cycle
1. Fetch instruction from memory.
2. Decode the instruction.
3. Execute using ALU or other components.
4. Memory Access (if needed).
5. Write Back result to register/memory.
