AS 201 CLIMATE AND BUILTFORM I

SYLLABUS

MODULE 1

Climate and Architecture: Climate, weather, components of climate, Global climatic factors
and context, elements of climate, measurements and data representations, Global climate
classifications (Koppen), Indian climate classification (SP 41)
NOTES
 Weather – Momentary state of atmospheric condition at a certain location
The weather of a place represents the state of the atmospheric environment over a brief
period of time. Factors affecting weather of a place include amount of solar radiation,
ambient temperature, humidity, precipitation, wind direction and velocity, sky condition
etc
 Climate – An integration in time of the physical state of the atmospheric
environment, characteristics of a certain geographic location.
Oxford Dictionary defines the term as “Region with certain conditions of temperature,
dryness, wind, light etc.”
The word “climate” comes from the Greek klima, which means the slope of the earth in
respect to the sun. The Greeks realized that climate is largely a function of sun
 Components of Climate

Figure 1Components of Climate

The Five components of Climate are

1. Atmosphere: The atmosphere is essentially the air that envelops the Earth's
surface. Measured in volume, the dry air of the atmosphere contains 78.08
percent nitrogen, 20.95 percent oxygen, 0.93 percent argon and 0.038
percent carbon dioxide. Although no concrete boundary defines the
atmosphere, it does not exert any visible effects on climate after about 75
miles above Earth's surface. Of all the five components of climate, the
atmosphere is the most dynamic and changeable. For instance, the heating
and cooling of air creates wind currents that carry water vapour and move
heat from one part of the Earth to another
 2. Hydrosphere: The fresh and salt waters of the earth, including lakes, rivers,
subterranean waters and oceans, make up the hydrosphere. The ocean
accounts for about 70 percent of the planet's surface. The waters of the
hydrosphere store and transport energy, break down minerals, store carbon
dioxide and, especially in the case of oceans, retain a massive amount of
heat. As this heat helps prevent drastic temperature changes, oceans serve
as the planet's climate regulators
3. Cryosphere: The Cryosphere is the ice on the earth's surface. This includes
ice sheets, glaciers, permafrost, sea ice and snow cover. In addition to storing
great amounts of water, the ice of the Cryosphere reflects solar radiation back
into space. Perhaps most importantly, the Cryosphere contributes to deep
ocean water circulation. As large ice volumes accumulate and melt, the
process causes variations in sea level.
4. Lithosphere: The lithosphere is the Earth's solid land. As the outermost shell
of the planet, the lithosphere includes soils, plains, mountains and anything
geologically connected to them. In comparison to the other four components,
the lithosphere exerts relatively little influence on climate, although the
composition of land and soil affects how radiation from the sun is either
absorbed or reflected back into the atmosphere. Additionally, the texture of
the lithosphere affects the impact of wind as it travels over the earth's surface.
The surface texture of the earth, for instance, creates rain shadow deserts
5. Biosphere: All of the living plants and animals on earth compose the
biosphere, including marine and terrestrial organisms. Living creatures exert a
huge influence on the uptake and release of greenhouse gases. The Earth's
plants store significant amounts of carbon dioxide, making them key players
in the carbon cycle. The biosphere also affects the planet's climate through
surface albedo, or the reflection of light. The large-scale texture of plant
growth in the biosphere influences the process of water transfer from land to
the atmosphere, just as it influences the travel of wind. Large forests
contribute to the creation of their own local climates..
 Global climatic factors and context
 Solar Radiation- Intensity of solar radiation reaching the upper surface of the
atmosphere is considered as a constant value (i.e.1395 W/sq. m.) termed as Solar
Constant.
Though it is considered as a constant quantity of solar radiation reaching the outer
atmosphere varies +/- 2 % due to variation in the output of the sun & +/- 3.5% due to change
in earth-sun distance.
From the outer atmosphere the solar radiation penetrates the atmosphere and reaches each
region of earth. Composition of atmosphere (Humidity, Presence of dust particles etc)
determines the amount of solar radiation reaching each region.
Quality of solar radiation reaching the earth’s surface is also important. To understand more
about this first let us try to understand the spectrum of solar radiation

Figure 2 Solar Spectrum

Wavelength of visible light varies from 380 to 700 nm. As spectral light penetrates across the
atmosphere the atmosphere absorbs shorter wavelengths and re radiate as longer
wavelengths. Hence the composition of spectral light varies with altitude due to the filtering
effect of the atmosphere
Some other factors affecting the intensity of solar radiation reaching different regions of the
earth are
 Tilt of earth’s axis –The earth’s axis of rotation is
tilted 23.5° from the plane normal to the plane of
the elliptical orbit. Rotation of earth on its own
axis takes 24 hours and Revolution of earth
through the elliptical Orbit takes 365 days 5
hours 48 minutes and 46 seconds

If the axis was not tilted equatorial region would

have received maximum intensity of radiation
throughout the year .Due to tilting, the area
receiving maximum radiation moves from 23.5°
N to 23.5° S. This is the main cause of seasonal Tilt of the axis
change

Solstice

 Summer Solstice -On 21st June areas along latitude 23.5 N are normal to the sun
rays and experience a zenith path of the sun, longest day is experienced. Areas
along latitude 23.5 S experience the shortest day and minimum radiation.
 Winter Solstice - On 21st December areas along latitude 23.5 S are normal to the
sun rays and experience a zenith path of the sun, longest day is experienced .Areas
along latitude 23.5 N experience the shortest day and
minimum radiation
 Equinoxes – On March 21st and September 23rd areas
along equator experience maximum radiation and equal
duration of day and night
 Cosine Law – Intensity of radiation falling on a tilted
surface is equal to the intensity of solar radiation falling
normally multiplied by the cosine of the angle of
incidence. Cosine Law
Ic = Ib x Cos β
 Atmospheric Depletion - Longer the path of radiation through the
atmosphere ,lesser the quantity of solar radiation reaching the earth’s surface
Atmospheric Depletion

 Duration of sunshine
 Global Wind Pattern
 Trade Winds - The Atmosphere rotates with the earth. As it is light in weight and
behaves as a fluid (held against earth’s surface by gravity and Friction) it has a
tendency to lag behind the earth’s rate of rotation where this rotation is the fastest
(equator). There is a slippage caused at the boundary layer between the earth and its
atmosphere caused by what is known as Coriolis force. The effect is experienced as
a wind blowing in a direction opposite to that of earth’s rotation Actual wind is the
resultant of thermal forces and the Coriolis forces North easterly winds north of
Equator and south easterlies south of equator. These are known as North East and
South East trade winds. A term coined by sailors
 Mid Latitude Westerlies - The origin of this wind was for a long time in dispute , but
it is now generally agreed that mid latitude westerlies can be explained by the law of
conservation of angular momentum. Total angular momentum of earth-atmosphere
system must remain constant – It is reduced at the equator by easterlies hence
should be compensated elsewhere by westerlies.
When the air is moving from 30 degree to 60 degree, the air velocity tend to increase
compared to the earth’s movement and hence the atmosphere will overtake the
earth’s surface
 Polar Winds- Towards the poles air flow patterns again comes under the influence of
thermal factors similar to that at equator. Poles receive the minimum solar radiation
and hence are the coldest. Air at the surface moves from the coldest to the slightly
warmer regions i.e. away from the poles. Velocity of air at poles is almost nil, the air
will lag behind the rotating earth as it moves from the poles. Hence The northerly is
deflected into north easterly and the southerly into south easterly polar winds
 Doldrums- The area where the air rises, where the northerly and southerly trade
winds meet, where the tropical front is formed is known as the Inter tropical
convergence zone(ITCZ).The area experiences calm conditions or light breezes of
irregular directions(referred by sailors as Doldrums)

During the course of the year the global wind pattern shifts from N to S and back again
(remaining broadly symmetrical to ITCZ).Location of ITCZ follows the maximum solar
heating .As this region shift between the Tropics ITCZ also shifts along. Hence seasonal
changes are experienced in wind patterns as well
Global Wind Pattern
Earth's Thermal Balance

 Earth’s Thermal Balance -Amount of heat absorbed by the earth each year is
balanced by a corresponding heat loss. which maintains the earths thermal balance
a – by long wave radiation to cold outer space ;b by evaporation =- the liquid water
changes to vapour and mixes with air ;c by convection air heated by contact with
warm earth’s surface rises up and dissipates to space
 Elements of Climate
1. Solar Radiation - Earth receives almost all its energy from sun in the
form of radiation. Quality and quantity of radiation are important factors
determining
the climate of
a place.
Amount of
solar radiation
reaching a
building /site
depends
upon the

location(latitude and longitude of the place) orientation of the site/ building

with respect to geographic N-S axis, Time of the day, Season [Link]
radiation is the most important weather variable that determines
Whether a place experiences high temperatures or is predominantly cold.

2. Winds - Winds are basically convention currents in the atmosphere

tending to even out the differential heating of various zones. The pattern
of air movement is modified by the earth’s rotation. At the region which
receives maximum solar radiation air gets heated up, expands, and its
pressure gets decreased. This causes the air to become lighter ,rise
vertically and move towards colder regions

 Temperature- The temperature of air in a shaded (but well ventilated) enclosure is

known as the ambient temperature; it is generally expressed in degree Celsius (ºC).
Ambient temperature of a place is affected by the terrain ,presence of
vegetation,waterbody etc
 3. Air Humidity

Absolute Humidity is the amount of

moisture present in the atmosphere per
unit mass/volume. (Unit: g/kg or g/cubic
meter)

Saturation Point Humidity is the maximum

amount of water vapour the air can hold at
a given temperature

Relative Humidity is the ratio of the actual

amount of moisture present to the amount
of moisture air can hold at a given
temperature expressed as a percentage.

RH= (AH/SH) x 100 (%)

If relative humidity is less that means the air can hold more moisture. This will enhance the
rate of perspiration (evaporation) from the body inducing a cooling effect. High humidity
accompanied by high temperature (as seen in regions of warm humid climate like Kerala)will
not allow perspiration(as the air is already saturated) and will lead to discomfort of the
occupant

4. Precipitation

Precipitation is the
collective term used for
rain, snow, hail, dew and
frost i.e. all forms of
water precipitated from
the atmosphere. Higher
Precipitation can lead to
faster deterioration of
materials and hence the
factor should be
considered with
importance

5.
Driving Rain - Intense rain associated with
strong winds. Driving rain on building facades
is one of the largest sources of moisture that
impacts durability of enclosures. Magnitude,
Duration, and frequency of driving rain are
crucial
 Driving rain index = annual rain fall (In m) X annual average wind velocity
(m/s)
Unit: m²/s
6. Sky Conditions - Described in terms of presence or absence of clouds.
Proportion of sky covered by clouds is expressed in %. The data can be
used in the design of roofs, overhangs ,shading devices

7. Vegetation- Presence /Absence and extent of Vegetation, Its spread,

area of leaf surface etc will affect the solar radiation reaching the earth,
the wind movement etc and hence the climate of a region.
  MEASUREMENT AND DATA REPRESENTATION

Measurement of climatic data

Meteorological stations across the world record climatic data .This data are available in
their respective websites or on request. Analysing these data can lead to inferences
regarding the appropriate strategies for climate responsive architecture of each region.

1. Temperature - Measured in degree Celsius most often

with a Mercury Thermometer.
Dry Bulb Temperature (DBT) is the value taken in shade
the thermometer is mounted in a Stevenson screen (a
wooden louvered box) at a height of 1.2 to 1.8 m above
the ground.
Readings are taken at specified times of the day. (Or if a
max. and min. thermometer is used, one daily reading can give the max. and
min, temperatures reached in the past 24 hours. A Thermograph, based on a
bimetallic strip, can give a continuous graphic recording of temperature variation)

Some of the important data which can help in analysing the climate are Monthly mean
temperature(average of a month),Monthly mean maxima(Average of a month’s maximum
temperature),Monthly mean minima(Average of a month’s minimum temperature),Monthly
extreme maxima(highest recorded temperature of a month) and Monthly extreme
minima(lowest recorded temperature of a month)

2. Humidity- Measured using Wet and dry bulb hygrometer-it

Consist of 2 mercury thermometers mounted side by
side .First one measures DBT .The bulb of second one is
covered with a moist wick. Moisture evaporating will give a
cooling effect, thus reading of Wet bulb thermometer will be
less than DBT. If the air is dry, evaporation will be faster. In
case of 100 % RH, DBT and WBT will be identical as there
will be no evaporation. Plotting DBT and WBT on a
Psychrometric chart Relative humidity can be found out.

Some of the important data which can help in analysing the climate are Monthly
mean humidity(average of a month),Monthly mean maxima(Average of a month’s
maximum humidity),Monthly mean minima(Average of a month’s minimum
humidity),Monthly extreme maxima(highest recorded humidity of a month) and
Monthly extreme minima(lowest recorded humidity of a month)

3. Precipitation- Measured using rain gauge (Unit: mm/unit of time i.e. mm/month,
mm/day).Values indicating total precipitation of each month of the year would
show the pattern of dry and wet seasons. Maxima and Minima for a year would
give deviations from the average i.e. an indication of the reliability of rains.
 Prediction of flooding & design of surface drainage can be done from maximum
rainfall for any 24 hr. period.
4. Solar radiation – Sunshine Recorder measures the duration of sunshine and
pyranometer measures the quantity of solar radiation.( Unit : MJ/ sq. m day)

5. Wind –Anemometer measures wind velocity, Wind

wane shows wind direction and Anemograph
continuously record wind velocity and directional
changes.

Unit of wind velocity m/s ;Free wind velocity recording can

be done at a height of 10 m in open flat country and a height between 10m to 20 m in
urban area o avoid obstructions

Data Representation

1. Sun path diagram

Understanding the movement of sun will help architects to design buildings which
respond to the context better .When we plot a sun path diagram for a site we
consider the site as a point on the earth’s surface .From any point on the earth we
can observe sun’s movement across the [Link] movement will be different for
each latitude. In the northern hemisphere the sun’s path has a deflection towards the
south and vice versa
The figure shown shows the sun path diagram for 8 degree North Latitude. The figure
is obtained by plotting the sky dome into a 2 dimensional plane. The figure has 4
types of lines-Concentric circles known as altitude lines, radial lines known as
azimuth lines, also the lines showing time of the day and time of the year.
From the diagram for any particular date and time we can find the corresponding
altitude and azimuth angles. Overlaying this figure over the site under consideration
we can understand the path traversed by sun across the particular site
 To find out the extent of penetration of direct rays into a building, on the plan of the
building use the azimuth angle to
draw the sunrays through the east
and south (till noon-in southern
hemisphere) and west and south
windows(after noon- in southern
hemisphere and on the section, draw
rays using altitude
angle .Overlapping these figures will
give the extent of penetration at the
particular date and time. By plotting
several such figures across the year
an architect will be able to understand the pattern of penetration of sun’s rays into a
building
2. Wind Rose Diagram –

Wind rose diagram is a graphical representation of the wind direction and velocity for
a particular region. The graph shows 16 cardinal directions. The concentric circles
represent the percentage of wind in a particular direction. The figure shown is the
wind rose diagram for Trivandrum. From the figure we can see that predominant
winds are from West of North West. From the figure we can also read that more than
30%of the total wind is from WNW direction. The colour coding shows the velocity of
winds in each direction

3. Bioclimatic Chart

A Graphical preliminary analysis tool to analyse climatic data and decide on appropriate
strategies developed by Victor Olgyay

For this the monthly statistical data for temperature and humidity is collected. Two points
are plotted for each month. The first point is plotted to indicate the minimum temperature
and maximum relative humidity. The second point is plotted to indicate maximum
temperature and minimum relative humidity. These two points are joined using a line. For
each month a different colour is used to plot the lines

The chart indicates a comfort zone where no strategy is required to achieve occupant
comfort. If the lines passes through this zone designer need not use any special
strategy. Depending upon the region of the graph through which the line passes,
appropriate strategies can be adopted
 4. Psychrometric Chart-
A Psychrometric chart for a given
region will give information about
temperature, humidity (relative and
absolute) of that region. The chart
shows temperature vs humidity and can be
used to express human comfort ,design
strategies and energy requirements for
those strategies
5. Rain Rose Diagram

Rain rose diagram is a graphical

representation of the driving rain of a
region. The graph shows 16 cardinal directions. The
concentric circles represent the percentage of driving rain
towards a particular direction.

6. Bar Charts

Represent and compare

climatic data .Appropriate Representation will help to
analyse the data better and arrive at appropriate
solutions. The bar chart shown in the figure shows actual
rain fall of an year as well as the normal rainfall for the
previous few years.

7. Representation of data on Maps

The figure shows temperature isopleths marked on

the map of India. Similarly humidity data, rainfall
data vegetation data etc can be represented on
maps of different regions

 Global Classification of Climate-Koppen

Koppen climate classification is one of the most widely

used climate classification systems. It was first
published by Russian German climatologist Wladimir Koppen in 1884 which he himself
modified several times. Later G0erman climatologist Rudolf Geiger collaborated with
Koppen on changes to the classification system, which is thus sometimes called the Koppen
Geiger climate classification system

Its categories are based on the annual and monthly averages of temperature and
precipitation - System had to be global, so input data had to be simple. Boundaries of
climate regions should coincide with boundaries of vegetation (ecosystem) regions. The
Köppen climate classification was developed based on the empirical relationship between
climate and vegetation.

The Koppen classification divides climates into five main climate groups indicated by 5
alphabets

 A – Tropical
 B-Dry
 C-Temperate
 D-Continental
 E-Polar

Each climate is described by a combination of maximum of 3 letters. The Second Letter

indicate the seasonal precipitation type while the third letter indicates the level of heat.

 Indian Climate Classification-SP 41

According to IS: 3792 -1978 India may be divided into

  Hot And Arid

 Hot And Humid

 Warm And Humid

 Cold

In India many regions alternatively experience 2 or 3 types of climates during the course of
the year with varying intensity and duration. Such regions are said to have composite
climate.

 Hot and Arid -Mean daily maximum DBT 38 degree Celsius or more during the
hottest month; Relative Humidity 40% or less during the hottest month ; Altitude not
more than 500 m above mean sea level ; Some of the places having hot and arid
climate are Agra,Jaipur,Newdelhi,Varanasi etc
 Hot and Humid - Mean daily maximum DBT above 32 degree Celsius or more
during the hottest month; Relative Humidity 40% or more during the hottest month;
Altitude not more than 500 m above mean sea level; Some of the places having hot
and humid climate are Ahmedabad,Calcutta,Calicut,Vishakhapattanam etc
 Warm and Humid - Mean daily maximum DBT 26 to 32 degree Celsius or more
during the hottest month; Relative Humidity 70% or less during the hottest month;
Altitude not more than 100 m above mean sea level; Some of the places having
warm and humid climate are Cochin,Trivandrum,Guwahatti etc
 Cold- Mean daily maximum DBT 6 degree Celsius or less during the coldest month;
Relative Humidity 70% or less during the hottest month; Altitude more than 1200 m
above mean sea level; Some of the places cold climate are
Darjeeling,Mussorie,Oottacamund,Srinagar

Reference

1. Manual of tropical housing and building, Koenisberger

2. [Link] Accessed on 10-09-2017
3. [Link] Accessed on 10-09-2017