The Internet:

In simplest terms, the Internet is a global network comprised of smaller networks that are interconnected
using standardized communication protocols. The Internet standards describe a framework known as the Internet protocol
suite. This model divides methods into a layered system of protocols.
These layers are as follows:
1. Application layer (highest) - concerned with the data(URL, type, etc.). This is where HTTP, HTTPS, etc., comes in.
2. Transport layer - responsible for end-to-end communication over a network.
3. Network layer - provides data route.
The Internet provides a variety of information and communication facilities; contains forums, databases, email, hypertext, etc.
It consists of private, public, academic, business, and government networks of local to global scope, linked by a broad array of
electronic, wireless, and optical networking technologies.

2. The World Wide Web:

The Web is a major means of access information on the Internet. It's a system of Internet servers that support specially
formatted documents. The documents are formatted in a markup language called HTML, or "HyperText Markup Language",
which supports a number of features including links and multimedia. These documents are interlinked using hypertext links and
are accessible via the Internet.
To link hypertext to the Internet, we need:
1. The markup language, i.e., HTML.
2. The transfer protocol, e.g., HTTP.
3. Uniform Resource Locator (URL), the address of the resource.

Issues in Internet and the Web :

1. Privacy and security: The internet and web are vulnerable to various security threats, such as hacking, identity theft, and
phishing attacks. These threats can compromise our personal information, such as login credentials, financial information,
and personal data.
2. Cyber bullying: The anonymity of the internet and web can lead to cyber bullying, where individuals are harassed or
threatened online. Cyber bullying can have severe consequences, including depression, anxiety, and suicide.
3. Online addiction: The internet and web can be addictive, and individuals can spend hours browsing social media or playing
online games, leading to neglect of other important aspects of their lives.
4. Disinformation: The internet and web are filled with inaccurate or false information, which can lead to misinformation,
propaganda, and conspiracy theories.
5. Digital divide: Access to the internet and web is not universal, and many individuals, particularly those in low-income areas
or rural communities, lack access to reliable and high-speed internet.
6. Online censorship: Some governments or organizations may censor or restrict access to certain websites or information,
limiting freedom of speech and expression.
7. Environmental impact: The internet and web consume a significant amount of energy, contributing to carbon emissions and
climate change.

ADDRESSING SCHEME IN THE INTERNET

An Internet Protocol address (IP address) is a numerical label assigned to each device (e.g., computer,
printer) participating in a computer network that uses the Internet Protocol for communication.

An IP address serves two principal functions: host or network interface identification and location
addressing.

IP versions -
Two versions of the Internet Protocol (IP) are in use: IP Version 4 and IP Version 6. Each version defines
an IP address differently. Because of its prevalence, the generic term IP address typically still refers to the
addresses defined by IPv4.

 Use of IPV4- Typical use: majority of current Wi-Fi and local networks, many legacy
systems still rely on IPv4.
 Use of IPV6- Internet of Things, Mobile & 5G Networks, Real-time & Multimedia
Traffic, Security-sensitive Applications
 Domain Name Server and IP addresses Mapping-

 Domain Name System is a decentralized system that translates human-readable domain names
(like www.facebook.com) into machine-readable IP addresses (like 192.0.2.1).

 This enables users to access websites and services without needing to memorize complex numerical
addresses.

Domain Name System (DNS) plays a crucial role in the functioning of the internet by mapping human-
readable domain names to IP addresses that computers use to identify each other on the network.
When you enter a web address in your browser, the DNS system resolves it to the corresponding IP
address, allowing your device to connect to the correct web server and load the website.

Key Components of DNS:

 Domain Names: Human-readable addresses (e.g., www.google.com).
 IP Addresses: Numeric addresses used by computers to identify each other (e.g., 172.217.3.110).
 DNS Records: Structured data that provides information about the domain name, such as IP address mappings.

DNS Work

The DNS process can be broken down into several steps, ensuring that users can access websites by simply typing a domain
name into their browser.
1. User Input: You enter a website address (for example, www.facebook.com) into our web browser.
2. Local Cache Check: Your browser first checks its local cache to see if it has recently looked up the domain. If it
finds the corresponding IP address, it uses that directly without querying external servers.
3. DNS Resolver Query: If the IP address isn’t in the local cache, your computer sends a request to a DNS resolver.
The resolver is typically provided by your Internet Service Provider (ISP) or your network settings.
4. Root DNS Server: The resolver sends the request to a root DNS server. The root server doesn’t know the exact IP
address for www.facebook.com but knows which Top-Level Domain (TLD) server to query based on the domain’s
extension (e.g., .org).
6. TLD Server: The TLD server for .org directs the resolver to the authoritative DNS server for www.facebook.com
7. Authoritative DNS Server: This server holds the actual DNS records for www.facebook.com, including the IP
address of the website’s server. It sends this IP address back to the resolver.
7. Final Response: The DNS resolver sends the IP address to your computer, allowing it to connect to the website’s
server and load the page.
 Site navigation in Building a website

Creating an effective site navigation system is a key part of building a successful website. It
helps users find what they’re looking for quickly and improves user experience (UX), SEO, and
accessibility.

Here’s a guide to site navigation for building a website:

Types of Website Navigation

1. Primary (Main) Navigation

 Usually placed at the top of the page (header).

 Contains links to the most important pages.

Examples:

o Home
o About Us
o Services / Products
o Blog / Resources
o Contact

2. Secondary Navigation

 Submenus under main navigation.

 For drilling down into specific categories or pages.

Example:
Under “Services” → Web Design, SEO, Content Creation

3. Footer Navigation

 Located at the bottom of the page.

 Includes links for legal pages and secondary content.

Examples:

o Privacy Policy
o Terms of Service
o Careers
o Sitemap
4. Sidebar Navigation

 Found on blogs, dashboards, or documentation sites.

 Useful for navigating categories or related content.

5. Breadcrumb Navigation

 Shows the user’s location within the website hierarchy.

 Helps with backtracking.

Example: Home > Blog > Category > Post Title

Header (Top Navigation)

├── Home

├── About

├── Services

│ ├── Web Design

│ ├── SEO

│ └── Hosting

├── Blog

└── Contact

Footer (Bottom Navigation)

├── Privacy Policy

├── Terms of Use

├── FAQ

└── Social Media Links

 Model and structure of a website

Creating a model and structure of a website involves planning how the content,
navigation, and layout will be organized. This is crucial for user experience (UX), SEO,
and scalability.

1. Website Model Overview

A website model is a high-level plan or blueprint that shows how different parts of your site are
connected and how users will interact with them.

Common Website Models:

Model Type Best For Description

Hierarchical A tree-like structure with a homepage and

Business, blogs, portfolios
Model subpages.

Linear Model Landing pages, storytelling sites Guides the user through content step-by-step.

Multiple interconnected pages; users choose their

Matrix Model Wikis, knowledge bases
path.

E-commerce, directories, Content is pulled from a database and structured by

Database-Driven
dynamic sites templates.

2. Basic Website Structure (Sitemap)

Here’s a typical structure for a small to medium-sized business website:

Home
├── About
│ └── Our Team
├── Services
│ ├── Web Development
│ ├── SEO
│ └── Consulting
├── Portfolio / Case Studies
├── Blog
│ ├── Categories
│ └── Posts
├── Contact
└── Legal
├── Privacy Policy
└── Terms of Service
 Model Components

A wireframe or visual model of your website includes:

 Header: Logo, navigation, call-to-action.

 Hero Section: Main message, image or video.
 Body: Main content area (text, images, services, etc.).
 Sidebar (optional): Search bar, categories, recent posts.
 Footer: Contact info, links, social media, copyright.

Web Server and Its Types

A web server is a system—either software, hardware, or both—that stores, processes, and delivers web content to users over the
Internet using the HTTP or HTTPS protocol.

Working of Web server

 Client Request: In the web browser (https://www.example.com/) the user enters a URL.
 DNS Resolution: To get the IP address of the requested domain, the browser contacts a Domain Name
System (DNS) server.
 Connecting to the Web Server: Using the obtained IP address the browser establishes a connection with the
web server.
 Processing Request: The web server receives the request and processes it.
 Serving the Response: The requested files(HTML, CSS, JavaScript, images ) are sent back to the client's
browser by the web server.
 Rendering the Web Page: Based on the received data the browser displays the web page to the user.

Types of Web Servers

Apache Web Server
Nginx Web Server
Microsoft IIS (Internet Information Services)
LiteSpeed Web Server
Apache Tomcat Web Server

Web Browser and How does it Work

 The web browser is an application software used to explore the World Wide Web (WWW).
 It acts as a platform that allows users to access information from the Internet by serving as an interface between the
client (user) and the server.
 The browser sends requests to servers for web documents and services, then renders the received HTML content,
including text, images, links, styles, and scripts.
Working

 When a user accesses a website by typing a URL like https://geeksforgeeks.org into the browser, the browser
first contacts a DNS (Domain Name System) server to translate the domain name into an IP address, such
as 52.85.142.233.
 After obtaining the IP address, the browser sends a request to the corresponding web server.
 The web server processes this request and responds with the required content,
including HTML, CSS, images, and scripts.
 The browser then uses this content to display the webpage to the user.
 A browser helps us find information anywhere on the internet. It is installed on the client's computer and requests
information from the web server; such a type of working model is called a client-server model.
 The browser receives information through HTTP protocol. In which transmission of data is defined. When the
browser received data from the server, it is rendered in HTML to user-readable form and, information is displayed on
the device screen.

Two-Tier & Three-Tier Architecture in Web Application

Two -Tier and Three-Tier Architectures are widely used for web applications, enterprise systems, and database management.

 Two-Tier Architecture consists of a client and a database layer, making it simple and efficient for small-scale
applications but lacking scalability and security due to direct database access.

 Three-Tier Architecture introduces an intermediary application layer, enhancing security, modularity, and scalability,
making it ideal for enterprise and web-based applications.

 While Two-Tier is suitable for standalone systems, Three-Tier is widely used in cloud computing, banking, and e-
commerce platforms.

What is Two-Tier Architecture?

Two-Tier Architecture is a client-server model where the application is divided into two layers:
1. Client Layer – The user interface (UI) or application logic that interacts with the user.
2. Database Layer – The backend where data is stored, retrieved, and managed.
In this architecture, the client directly communicates with the database without an intermediary application server.

Real-Time Uses of Two-Tier Architecture

 Small business applications – Direct database interactions reduce infrastructure complexity.

  Local network-based applications – Used in schools, small offices, and standalone software.
 Personal desktop applications – Software like MS Access and small accounting tools follow this model.

Advantages of Two-Tier Architecture

 Faster communication between client and database.
Easier to develop and maintain due to fewer layers.
Suitable for small-scale applications with limited users.

Disadvantages of Two-Tier Architecture

Not scalable – Difficult to handle a large number of concurrent users.
Security concerns – Direct database access increases security risks.
Poor maintainability – Changes in the database structure may require changes in the client application.

What is Three-Tier Architecture?

Three-Tier Architecture is a modular software design pattern that divides the application into three layers:

1. Presentation Layer (Client Layer) – User interface, handles user interactions (e.g., web browser, mobile app).
2. Application Layer (Business Logic Layer) – The intermediary that processes data, applies business rules, and manages security.
3. Data Layer (Database Layer) – The backend that stores and retrieves data.
Real-Time Uses of Three-Tier Architecture
 E-commerce platforms – Amazon, Flipkart, and Shopify use this model for better scalability.
 Banking and financial applications – Secure transactions require separate business logic.
 Enterprise software solutions – ERP, CRM, and cloud-based applications rely on a three-tier approach.
 Web applications – Most modern web and mobile applications follow this architecture.

Advantages of Three-Tier Architecture

✔ Better security – Data access is restricted through the business logic layer.
✔ High scalability – Can handle thousands of concurrent users efficiently.
✔ Improved maintainability – Modular design allows easy updates and modifications.
✔ Load balancing – Business logic can be distributed across multiple servers for better performance .

Disadvantages of Three-Tier Architecture

Higher complexity – More components lead to a more complicated setup.
Increased development cost – Requires more resources and skilled developers.
Performance overhead – Additional layers can lead to latency compared to a two-tier model.

Comparison between Two-Tier and Three-Tier Architecture

Feature Two-Tier Architecture Three-Tier Architecture

Number of
2 (Client, Database) 3 (Client, Application, Database)
Layers

Scalability Limited scalability Highly scalable

More secure (business logic layer adds

Security Less secure (direct DB access)
protection)

Better performance for large-scale

Performance Faster for small applications
applications

Development
Low Higher due to added complexity
Cost

Difficult (client tightly coupled Easier (modular design allows independent

Maintainability
with DB) updates)

Small businesses, standalone Enterprise applications, cloud-based

Use Cases
applications platforms