Ideal Gas Law
Gases are highly compressible in comparison to liquids. Changes in gas
density are directly related to changes in pressure and temperature.
p = absolute pressure (Pa or slug/(ft·s2) ρ = density (slug/ft3 or kg/m3)
R = gas constant T = absolute temperature (K or °R)
This is known as the ideal or perfect gas law or the equation of state for an
ideal gas. It closely approximates the behavior of real gases under normal
conditions (when gases are not approaching liquefaction).
Ideal Gas Law
Each gas has its own R:
Lambda = Λ = universal constant = 49700 ft·lbf/(slugmol·°R) =
8314 J/(kmol·K)
Mgas = Molecular weight (of air = 28.97 kg/kmol)
Compressibility of Fluids-Bulk Modulus
An important question to answer when considering the
behavior of a particular fluid is how easily can the volume
(and thus the density) of a given mass of the fluid be changed
when there is a change in pressure? That is, how compressible
is the fluid? A property that is commonly used to characterize
compressibility is the bulk modulus, defined as:
where dp is the differential change in pressure needed to create
a differential change in volume dV, of a volume V as shown in the
figure. The negative sign is included since an increase in pressure
will cause a decrease in volume.
Since a decrease in volume of a given mass, m = ρV, will result
in an increase in density, Ev can also be expressed as:
Compressibility of Fluids-Bulk Modulus
Large values of the bulk modulus indicate that the fluid is relatively
incompressible—that is, it takes a large pressure change to create a small
change in volume as is the case in liquids. This is why we can consider
liquids to be incompressible in most engineering applications.
Compression and Expansion of Gases:
When gases are compressed or expanded, the relationship between
pressure and density depends on the nature of the process. If the
compression or expansion takes place under constant temperature
conditions (isothermal process), then:
If the compression or expansion is frictionless and no heat is exchanged
with the surroundings (isentropic process), then:
Another Fluid Property
Surface Tension
At the interface between a liquid & a gas, or between
two immiscible liquids, forces develop in the liquid
surface which cause the surface to behave as if it were a
“skin” or “membrane” stretched over the fluid mass.
Although such a skin is not actually present, this
conceptual analogy allows us to explain several
commonly observed phenomena.
For example, small droplets of mercury will form into
spheres when placed on a smooth surface because the
cohesive forces in the surface of the droplet tend to hold
all the molecules together in a compact shape.
Surface Tension
The various types of surface
phenomena are due to unbalanced
cohesive forces acting on the liquid
molecules at the fluid surface.
Molecules in the interior of the fluid
mass are surrounded by molecules
that are attracted to each other
equally. However, molecules along the
surface are subjected to a net force
toward the interior.
The apparent physical consequence of
this unbalanced force along the
surface is to create the hypothetical
skin or membrane.
Surface Tension
A tensile force may be considered
to be acting in the plane of the
surface along any line in the
surface. The intensity of the
molecular attraction per unit length
along any line in the surface is
called the surface tension and is
designated by the symbol Υ
(gamma).
For a given liquid the surface
tension depends on temperature as
well as the other fluid it is in
contact with at the interface.
Surface Tension
The dimensions of Υ are F/L, with BG units of lb/ft and SI units of N/m.
Values of Υ of a clean air-water interface are shown in the figure and in
Table A.5. The value of Υ decreases as temperature increases.
Surface Tension
The pressure inside a drop of fluid can be calculated using the free-body
diagram shown in Figure. If the spherical drop is cut in half, the force
developed around the edge due to surface tension is 2πRΥ. This force
must be balanced by the pressure difference, Δp, between the internal
pressure, pi, and the external pressure, pe, acting over the circular area,
πR2. Thus,
We can use this result to predict the pressure increase
inside a soap bubble, which has two interfaces with air, an
inner & outer surface of nearly the same radius R:
Surface Tension
Pressure change across a curved interface due to surface
tension of interior of a liquid cylinder:
Surface Tension
A second important surface effect is the
contact angle θ, which appears when a liquid
interface intersects with a solid surface, as
shown in Figure.
The force balance would then involve both Y
and θ. If θ < 90°, the liquid is said to wet the
solid; if θ > 90°, the liquid is termed non-
wetting. For example, water is extremely
wetting to a clean glass surface, with θ ≈ 0°.
For a clean mercury–air–glass interface, θ =
130°.
The contact angle between the solid
surface and the 2-fluid interface is
measured from within the liquid to the gas.
Surface Tension-Example
Derive an expression for the change in height h
in a circular tube of a liquid with surface tension
Y and contact angle θ, as shown in Figure.
Surface Tension-Example
θ < 90° θ > 90°
Surface Tension-Example
Problem 1.70
Derive an expression for the capillary height change h
for a fluid of surface tension Y and contact angle θ
between two vertical parallel plates a distance W apart,
as in Fig. P1.70.
What will h be for water at 20 °C if W = 0.5 mm?
Problem 1.70
