Chapter Wise Study Notes BSC-I (311305) - AY - 202526
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bSC-I (311305)
TEACHING-LEARNING & ASSESSMENT SCHEME:
Specification Table: (Suggested for weightage to learning efforts & assessment purpose)
© ( Not for circulation … For Personal Use Only ) ©
Prepared By - Prof. Bapuso N. Pawar(Lecturer in Phy.VPPCI, Indapur)
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indly feel free to convey discrepancies & errors👇
bnp.ash@vppolytechnic.org
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( Page:2of69) (Basic Science (311305) - Physics) VP Polytechnic College, Indapur
Vidya Pratishthan’s
Polytechnic College, Indapur
Record No.:ACAD/R/40 Revision:00 DoI:01/03/2024
CHAPTER WISE STUDY NOTES
1. UNITS AND MEASUREMENTS
CO-1 : Use basic instruments to measure the physical quantities in various engineering
situations.
TLOs: (After studying this lesson, you will be able to -)
1.1) Explain physical quantities & its types with examples.
1.2) Differentiate between scalar & vector quantities with examples..
1.3) Apply dimensional analysis to check correctnessofequations&conversionofunitsin
different systems.
1.4) Estimate the errors in the measurement for the given problem.
1.5)Explaintheworkingofancientastronomicalinstrumentstomeasuredistance,timeand
hour angle.
1.6) Explain the procedure of measuring the dimension of a given object by using vernier
calipers and screw gauge
Physical quantity: A quantity which can be measured (quantified) is known as physical
quantity.(or)Any meaningful term which can be measuredis a physical quantity.
For example length, velocity, time etc. are physical quantities. But handsomeness, beauty,
happiness etc. are not physical quantities.
Time, Weight, Volume, Force, Speed, Area are some examples of physical quantities.
Unit: A unit is a standard in which a physical quantity ismeasured.Themeasurementof
physical quantity is explored by a number accompanied by a unit. e.g. 10 kg, 5 m.
Here, 10 → magnitude & kg → unit. and 5 → magnitude & m → unit
Requirements of unit:
i) The unit should bewell defined.
ii) It should beeasily reproducible.
iii) It should beinvariant (remain same) with spaceand time.
Measurementisusedbysocietyfortransactionsinbusinessandpracticalpurposes.Allthe
devices used by engineers for measurement have magnitude and units, hence
understanding of same is necessary for all branches of engineering
Measurement of a physical quantity consists of two parts -
The first part is a number knownasmagnitude.Ittellsushowmuch(amount)ofphysical
quantity is present in a given measurement.
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The secondpartisastandardusedformeasurementofthatparticularphysicalquantity.It
is known as a unit. It tells us which type of physical quantity is present in a given
measurement.
Scalar and Vector Physical Quantities:
1) Scalar physical quantity: A physical quantity having only magnitude is called scalar
physicalquantity.e.g.mass,electricchargeetc.(allfundamentalphysicalquantitiesexcept
length are scalars) (In case of length; distance→ scaler displacement → vector)
2) Vector physical quantity: A physical quantity having magnitude as well as direction is
called vector physical quantity. e.g. Force, Electric field, Momentum, Magnetic Moment,
Velocity, Acceleration etc.
Types of Physical quantities:
i) Fundamental Physical Quantities:
Definition:Thephysicalquantitywhichdoesnotdependonanyotherphysicalquantityfor
itsmeasurementiscalledFundamentalphysicalquantity.(or)Thephysicalquantitywhich
can be measured independentlyis called fundamentalphysical quantity.
I t means it cannotberesolvedfurtherintermsofanyotherphysicalquantity.Theunitsof
fundamental physical quantities are called fundamental units.
(T
able: Fundamental physical quantities & their units)
S. N. Physical quantity Unit Symbol
A. Fundamental physical quantities:
1. Length meter m
2. Mass kilogram Kg
3. Time second s
4. Electric current ampere A
5. Temperature kelvin K
6. Luminous intensity candela cad
7. Amount of substance mole mol
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.
S
Physical quantity Unit Symbol
N.
B. Supplementary physical quantities:
1. Plane angle radian rad
2. Solid angle steradian sr
There are a total 7 fundamental physical quantities & 2 supplementary physical quantities.
ii) Derived Physical Quantities:
Definition: The physical quantity which depends on the other physical quantities for its
measurement is called derived physical quantity. (or) Thephysicalquantitywhichcannot
be measured independentlyis called derived physicalquantity.
It means it can be derived from the combination of two or more fundamental quantities.
The units of derived physical quantities are called derived units.
Review Exercise: Answer the following questions.
1. State the difference between fundamental & derived physical quantities.
2. List fundamental physical quantities and their SI units in tabular form.
3. ‘Kelvin’ is a unit of ___
4. Electric current is measured in ___.
5. ‘Candela’ is a S.I.unit of ___.
(T
able: Derived physical quantities & their units)
S.
Derived Physical quantity Expression Unit
N.
1. Area (A) length x length m2
2. Volume (V) area x height m3
3. Velocity or Speed (v) displacement/time, distance/time m/s
4. Acceleration (a) velocity/time m/s2
5. Angular velocity (⍵) angular displacement/time rad/s
6. Angular acceleration (∝) angular velocity/time rad/s2
7. Density (⍴) mass/volume kg/m3
8. Momentum (P) mass x velocity kg.m/sorN.s
9. Force (F) mass x acceleration kg.m/s2o
rN
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10. Pressure (P) force/area N/m2 orPa
11. Work, Energy (W, E) force x displacement N.morJ
12. Impulse force x time N.s
13. Electric charge (Q) current x time A.sorC
14. Potential Difference (VAB) potential energy/charge V
15. Electric resistance (R) potential difference/current Ω
16. Frequency (f) 1/time period 1/sorHz
17. Power (P) work done/time taken J/sorW
Systems of Units: The complete set of base/fundamental units & derived units is known as
the system of units.
Different countries use different systems of units for measurement of physical quantity.
The following system of units are in used:
System of Units of Base Quantities
Common/ Alternative Name
Unit Length Mass Time
CGS centimeter (cm) gram (g) second (s) Gaussian (French) system
MKS meter (m) Kilogram (kg) second (s) Metric System (Old)
FPS foot (ft) pound (lb) second (s) British (Imperial) system
SI meter (m) Kilogram (kg) second (s) Metric System
The S.I. systems of units are now accepted worldwide for measurement.
The unit of time (i.e. second) is invariant (remains same) in all systems of units.
Prefixes and Multipliers:
Ameasurementisexpressedintermsofunits.However,sometimesitismoreconvenientto
express a measurement in terms of multiples and submultiples of a unit.
Forexample,ameterisaconvenientunittoexpressthelengthofatablebutitistoosmallto
express the distance between two cities. It is more convenient to express the diameter of
wire in millimeters and distance between two cities in kilometers.
Thus Multiples and Submultiples of units are expressed by means of prefixes. Each prefix
represents a multiplication factor in terms of a certain power of 10. Any measurement is
expressedinacompactandconvenientformbymakinguseofanappropriateprefixforthe
unit. Such an expression is called scientific notation. Some of the most commonly used
multiples and submultiples (prefixes)are listed below:
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Symbol Name Factor Symbol Name Factor
Y yotta 1024 y yokto 10-24
Z zetta 1021 z zepto 10-21
E exa 1018 a atto 10-18
P peta 1015 f femto 10-15
T tera 1012 p pico 10-12
G giga 109 n nano 10-9
M mega 106 μ micro 10-6
k kilo 103 m milli 10-3
h hecto 102 c centi 10-2
da deka 101 d deci 10-1
Review Exercise: Fill in the blanks.
1. 1 m = ___ cm 9. 1 cm2 = ___ m2
2. 1 g = ___ kg 10. 1 cm3 = ___ m3
3. 1 mm = ___ m 11. 1 hr = ___ s
4. 1 GHz = ___ Hz 12. 2π rad = ___O
5. 1 km = ___ m 13. 1 MW = ___ W
6. 1 pF = ___ F 14. 1 mg = ___ kg
7. 1 μm = ___ m 15. 1 μm = ___ cm
8. 1 nm = ___ m
Dimension of physical quantity:
The dimensions of a physical quantity are the powers to which the fundamental units of
mass, length and time must be raised to represent the given physical quantity.
Dimensional Formula:
The expression, showing which fundamental quantities represent dimensions of the
physical quantity is called the dimensional formula.
Uses (Advantages) of dimensional formula:
➔ To verify correctness of an equation
➔ To help in deriving the relationship between different physical quantities.
➔ For conversion from one system of units into another system for any given quantity
➔ To show how to express any physical quantity in terms of fundamental units
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Limitations (Disadvantages) of dimensional formula:
➔ Only addition and subtraction are allowed in dimensional formulas
➔ The value of dimensionless constant cannot be calculated by dimensional formula
➔ If a physical quantity depends on more than three factors, then relation among them
cannot be established
➔ It doesn’t tell whether the quantity is vector or scalar
(T
able: Dimensions of some commonly used physicalquantities)
Physical Quantity Unit Dimensional Formula
Fundamental physical quantities
Length m [L]
Mass kg [M]
Time s [T]
Temperature K [𝛳]
Electric current A [A]
Luminous intensity cd [J]
Amount of substance mol [mol]
Physical Quantity Unit Dimensional Formula
Derived physical quantities
Area m2 [L2M0 T0 ]
Volume m3 [L3M0 T0 ]
Density kg/m3 [L-3M1 T0]
Velocity m/s [L1M0 T-1]
Acceleration m/s2 [L1M0T-2]
Momentum kg.m/s [L1M1T-1]
Force kg.m/s2 [L1M1T-2]
Impulse N.s or ( kg.m/s ) [L1M1T-1]
Work / K.E. / P.E. N.m or ( Kg.m2/ s2) or J [L2M1T-2]
Power J/s or ( kg.m2/ s3) or W [L2M1T- 3]
Pressure / Stress N/m2 or ( kg/m.s2) or Pa [L-1M1T-2]
Electric charge A.s or C [L0M0 T1A1]
Electric resistance V/I or Ω or ( kg.m2/ A2.s3) [L2M1T- 3A- 2]
Electric Potential J/C or V or ( kg.m2/ A.s3) [L2M1T-3A- 1]
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Review Exercise : (Fill in the Blanks)
A) Physical Quantity B) Dimensional Formula
Area ___
Acceleration ___
Force ___
___ [L1M1T-1]
___ [L-3M1 T0 ]
___ [L-1M1T-2]
Power ___
Work ___
Electric charge ___
Significant Figures
The significant figures are a measure of accuracy of a measurement of a physical quantity.
Significantfiguresinameasurementarethosedigitsthatareknownreliablyplusthefirst
digit which is uncertain.
The Rules for determining the number of significant figures are as follows:
(i) All non-zero digits are significant.
e.g. the number33.2hasTHREEsignificant figuresbecause all digits are nonzero.
(ii) All zeros between nonzero digits are significant.
e.g. the number20,007hasFIVEsignificant figures
(iii) Leading zeros are not significant.
e.g. the number0.0085hasTWOsignificant figures
(iv) Trailing zeros are significant in a number with decimal points.
e.g. the number12.00hasFOURsignificant figures
(v) In addition and subtraction, we shouldretaintheleastdecimalplaceamongthevalues
operated on, in the result.
(vii) In multiplication and division, we should express the result with the least numberof
significant figures as associated with the least precise number in operation.
Rules to determine significant figures (Remember):
Condition Significant / Not Significant
all non-zero digits ( 1 to 9) count as significant
middle zeros (zeros between non-zero digits) count as significant
Trailing (Last) zeros in decimal number count as significant
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Review Exercise: A) Determine the no. of significant figures in following.
1. 4308 → ___ 2. 40.05 → ___ 3. 470,000 → ___
4. 4.00 → ___ 5. 0.00500 → ___ 6. 36.7 m → ___
7. 0.006606 s → ___ 8. 2002 Kg → ___ 9. 306,490,000 people → ___
10. 0.0082 →___ 11. 7.4220 → ___ 12. 0.046 → ___
B) Round of the following numbers up to the given significant figures. (given in bracket)
1. 53.214 (3) → ___ 2. 4.3062 (3) → ___ 3. 30.002 (3) → ___
4. 0.0001378 (3) → ___ 5. 18.066 (3) → ___ 6. 4.7475 (4) → ___
7. 12.378162 (4) → ___ 8. 53.4278 (2) → ___
Error:
The measured value of the physical quantity is usually different from its true value. The
result of every measurement by a measuring instrument contains some uncertainty.
This uncertainty is called an error.
The uncertainty in the measurement of physical quantity is called an error. (or) The
difference between measured value and true value is called an error.
Types of errors:
➔ Gross error: A gross error is a type of measurement error caused by human mistakes,
carelessness, or oversight during an experiment. It can be minimised by eliminating
human errors (implementing correct procedure, training observers, using well
maintained and calibrated instruments for measurement etc.)
➔ Random Error. This is also called chance error. It gives different results for the same
measurementstakenrepeatedly.TheseerrorsareassumedtofollowtheGaussianlawof
normal distribution (a bell curve).
➔ SystematicError.Thesystematicerrorsarethoseerrorsthattendtobeinonedirection,
either positive or negative.Errorsduetoairbuoyancyinweighingandradiationlossin
calorimetry are systematic errors. They can be eliminated by manipulation.
Types of systematic errors are:
● Observational errors (faulty experimental procedure)
● Instrumental errors (Calibration error, parallax error, zero error etc.)
● Environmentalerrors(suddenchangeinenvironmentalconditionslikevoltagespike,
noise etc.)
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Estimation of error in measurement:
Absolute error, Relative error & Percentage error:
A) Absolute Error: The magnitude of the difference between the true value & the
measurement value is called theabsoluteerrorofthemeasurement.i.e.theabsolutevalue
of the deviation is known as the absolute error.
Calculation of absolute error:
| ∆a1| = |amean - a1|
|∆a2| = |amean - a2|
‘’ ‘’
‘’ ‘’
|∆an| = |amean - an|
The absolute error |∆a| will always be positive.
Meanabsoluteerror:Thearithmeticmeanofalltheabsoluteerrorsiscalledmeanabsolute
error.It is represented byΔamean.
|∆𝑎1| +|∆𝑎2|+...+|∆𝑎𝑛|
Δamean = 𝑛
)RelativeError:Therelativeerroristheratioofthemeanabsoluteerror∆amean tothemean
B
value amean
Δ𝑎𝑚𝑒𝑎𝑛
Relative error=
𝑎𝑚𝑒𝑎𝑛
C) Percentage Error: The relative error expressed in percentageis called percentage error.
Δ𝑎𝑚𝑒𝑎𝑛
Percentage error(δ
a)= x 100% Percentage error(δ
a)= relative errorx 100%
𝑎𝑚𝑒𝑎𝑛
The combination of errors:
(i)Error of a Sum or Difference (addition or subtraction):
Rule:Whentwoquantitiesareaddedorsubtracted,theabsoluteerrorinthefinalresultisthe
sum of the absolute errorsin the individual quantities.
E.g. If Z = A + B or Z = A - B then error in measurement (ΔZ) is given by; ΔZ = ΔA + ΔB
(ii)Error of a Product or Quotient (multiplicationor division):
Rule: When two quantities are multiplied or divided, the relative error in the result is the
sum of the relative errorsin the multipliers.
Δ𝑍 𝐴
Δ 𝐵
Δ
E.g. If Z = A x B or Z = A÷ B then error in measurement is given by; = +
𝑍
𝐴
𝐵
(iii)Error in case of a measured quantity raisedto a power:
Rule: The relative error in a physical quantity raised to the power k is the k times the
relative errorin the individual quantity.
Δ𝑍 𝐴
Δ
E.g. If Z = Ak then error in measurement is givenby; = k x ( )
𝑍
𝐴
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Accuracy:
The ability of an instrument to measuretheaccuratevalueisknownasaccuracy.Inother
words,it is the closeness of the measured value toa standard or true value.
Precision:
The closeness of two or more measurements to each otheris
known as the precision.
Ancient Indian Astronomical Instruments of Bhaskaracharya:
In India people had started the use of the astronomical
instruments before 1000 BC. During this period one of the
prominent books Surya Siddhanta was written for
astronomical calculations. This book highlights the
calculations of positions of stars and planets.
Bhaskaracharya (1114–1185) was one of the prominent Indian mathematicians and
astronomers, who wrote the book ‘Siddhanta Shiromani’. In his book he wrote on his
astronomical observations of planetary positions, conjunctions, eclipses, cosmography,
geography, the mathematical techniques and given the references of many of the
instruments used by the astronomers before him.
A) Stick Machine of Bhaskaracharya: This machine
was known as Yasti Yantra (Yasti means a stick).This
instrument wasusedtomeasuretheanglebetweenthe
directionsoftwostars,heightsofterrestrialobjectslike
trees and mountains etc.
Thismachinehasastickpivotedtoaboard.Tousethis
machine one has to focus the top and bottom of the
object and draw the two lines on theboard.Withthese
two lines, two triangles are constructed and based on
their proportions, height of the objectiscalculated.Itis
to be noted here that there is no need to measure the distancebetweentheobjectandthe
observer. This instrument was also used for land surveys.
It is also known asDhi Yantra(means a machine tobe used with intelligence).
B) Chakra (Disc) Instrument: This machine is
known as Chakra Yantra which means disk
machine. The Chakra is a versatile instrument
that can be used for a variety of astronomical
calculations, such as determining the positions
of stars, the Sun, and the Moon. It consists of a
rotating disk with various markings, and it can
be aligned with the celestial sphere to make
measurements.
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C) Semicircular disk machine of
Bhaskaracharya (Chhapa Yantra; a modified
version of Dhanu Yantra): This machine is
known as chaapa Yantra (Chaapa means a
semicircle). Basically it was used for the
measurement of vertical angle. Theheightof
the terrestrial objects, diameter of earth,
diameterofmoon,circumferenceofearthand
distance between moon and the earth was calculated by Bhaskaracharya using this
instrument.
D) Water Clock (Ghati Yantra): A water clock was oftenused
formeasuringtimeintervals.Itinvolvedavesselthatallowed
water to flow at a constant rate, and the level of the water
could be used to mark time intervals.
VERNIER CALIPER: A vernier caliper is a length (diameter,
thickness) measuring instrument. It consists of a mainscale
and a sliding vernier scale that allows for measurements of
both external and internal diameters of an object.
Components of a Vernier Caliper:
Main Scale:The main scale is a graduated scale fixedalong the length of the caliper.
Vernier Scale:The vernier scale is a secondary scalethat slides alongside the main scale.
Jaws:Thecaliperhastwosetsofjaws–UpperjawsandLowerjaws.Thesejawsareusedto
holdanobjectwhosedimensionistobemeasured.Upperjawsareusedformeasuringinner
diameter while lower jaws are used forothermeasurementslikeouterdiameter,thickness
etc.
ApplicationsofVernierCaliper:Verniercaliperisusedtomeasurelength,thickness,depth,
inner and outer diameters of a given object.
𝑚𝑎𝑙𝑙𝑒𝑠𝑡𝑑𝑖𝑣𝑖𝑠𝑖𝑜𝑛𝑜𝑛𝑚𝑎𝑖𝑛𝑠𝑐𝑎𝑙𝑒(𝑚)
𝑆
Least count of vernier caliper (L.C.) =
𝑇𝑜𝑡𝑎𝑙𝑁𝑜.𝑜𝑓𝑑𝑖𝑣𝑖𝑠𝑖𝑜𝑛𝑠𝑜𝑛𝑣𝑒𝑟𝑛𝑖𝑒𝑟𝑠𝑐𝑎𝑙𝑒(𝑛)
Least count of vernier caliper (L.C.) = 0.1 / 10 = 0.01 cm or 0.1 mm.
Range of vernier caliper = 0.01 cm to 12.5 cm(or)0 to 12.5 cm.
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L.C. of vernier caliper (0.01cm)ismorethantheL.C.ordinaryscale(0.1cm).Hencevernier
caliper is more accurate than ordinary scale.
MICROMETER SCREW GAUGE: A Micrometer
ScrewGaugeisalsoalength(diameter,thickness)
measuring instrument.
Ascrewgaugeworksontheprincipleofascrewin
a nut. i.e. in
one rotation screw moves forward
throughadistanceequaltothepitchofthescrew.
Thedistancebetweentwosuccessivethreadsofa
screw is called its pitch.
𝑖𝑡𝑐ℎ𝑜𝑓𝑡ℎ𝑒𝑠𝑐𝑟𝑒𝑤(𝑃)
𝑃
Least count of screw gauge (L.C.) =
𝑜𝑡𝑎𝑙𝑁𝑜.𝑜𝑓𝑑𝑖𝑣𝑖𝑠𝑖𝑜𝑛𝑠𝑜𝑛𝑐𝑖𝑟𝑐𝑢𝑙𝑎𝑟𝑠𝑐𝑎𝑙𝑒(𝑁)
𝑇
Least count of screw gauge (L.C.) = 0.1 / 100 =0.001cm or 0.01mm.
Range of screw gauge =0.001 cm to 2.5 cm(or)0 to2.5 cm.
ince the L.C. of screw gauge (0.001cm)ismorethanthatofverniercaliper(0.01cm)and
S
an ordinary scale (0.1 cm). Hence screw gauge is more accurate than vernier caliper and
ordinary scale.
pplicationsofMicrometerscrewgauge:Itisusedtomeasurelength,thickness,andouter
A
diameter of a given object more accurately than vernier caliper.
Zero Errors of Micrometer Screw Gauge:
( a)No zero error ( b)Positive zero error ( c) Negative zero error
No correction required Correction (Z) = C.D. x L.C. Correction (Z) = (100 - C.D.) x L.C.
T.R. = C.R. C.R. = T.R. — Z C.R. = T.R. + Z
ere, T.R. = Total reading = M.S.R. + (C.S.D. x L.C.)
H C.R. = Corrected reading
Z = zero error correction
-Scientific Vocabulary-
● Physical Quantity- A measurable quantity used todescribe physical phenomena
(e.g., length, mass).
● Unit- Standard quantity used to express a physicalquantity.
● Magnitude- The numerical value of a physical quantity.
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● Scalar Quantity- Quantity with only magnitude (e.g., mass, temperature).
● Vector Quantity- Quantity with both magnitude anddirection (e.g., velocity, force).
● Fundamental Quantity- Basic physical quantity thatcannot be broken down
(e.g., length, time).
● Derived Quantity- Quantity derived from two or morefundamental quantities
(e.g., velocity, area).
● C.G.S. System- Centimeter-Gram-Second unit system.
● F.P.S. System - Foot-Pound-Second unit system.
● M.K.S. System- Meter-Kilogram-Second unit system.
● S.I. System- International System of Units.
● Vernier Caliper- Precision instrument to measurelength, diameter, thickness.
● Micrometer Screw Gauge- Precision instrument tomeasure small lengths more accurately.
● Least Count (L.C.)- The smallest value that an instrumentcan measure accurately.
● Pitch (of screw)- Distance between two successivethreads of a screw.
● Dimensional Formula- Expression showing how a physicalquantity is derived from basic
quantities ( e.g., [ L1 M0 T-2 ] ).
● Dimension- Power to which the base units are raisedin a dimensional formula.
● Unit and Prefixes:
Prefix Factor Prefix Factor
Giga (G) 9 nano (n) -9
10 10
Mega (M) 6 micro (μ) -6
10 10
Kilo (k) 3 milli (m) -3
10 10
Hecto (h) 2 centi (c) -2
10 10
Deka (da) 1 deci (d) -1
10 10
● Error- Difference between the measured and truevalue.
● Absolute Error- Actual amount by which a measurementdeviates from the true value.
● Relative Error- Ratio of absolute error to truevalue.
● Percentage Error- Relative error expressed in percentage.
● Accuracy- Closeness of a measurement to the truevalue.
● Precision- Closeness of repeated measurements toeach other.
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● Systematic Error- Consistent error in one direction due to flawed equipment or method.
● Random Error- Unpredictable variation in measurements.
● Zero Error- Reading on a device when the measuredquantity is zero.
● Least Count Error- Error due to limitations in instrumentresolution.
● Significant Figures- Digits in a number that carrymeaning for its precision.
● Rules of Rounding- Guidelines on how to limit digitsbased on precision requirements.
● Ancient instruments -
Instrument Purpose
Yasti Yantra Used to measure angles, height of objects.
Chakra Yantra Used for astronomical observations of celestial bodies.
Chaapa Yantra Used to measure vertical angles.
Ghati Yantra (Water Clock) Used to measure time intervals using water flow.
Numerical problems on estimation of errors:
1) In an experiment, a vernier caliper of least count 0.01 cm isusedformeasurement.The
radius of the sphere measured was 2.0 cm. Find the percentage error in measurement of
radius, area, and volume of the sphere?
Ans. i) The percentage in measuring the radius of the sphere = (∆r/r) x 100%
= (0.01/2.0) x 100% =0.5%
ii) The percentage error in measuring the area of the sphere:
A = 4π r2 … 4π being constant are not considered incalculation
Percentage error in calculation of r2 = n (∆r/r) x100% = 2 (0.01/2) x 100% =1%
iii) The percentage error in measuring the volume of the sphere:
V = (4/3) π r3 … (4/3) π being constant are not consideredin calculation
Percentage error in r3 = n (∆r/r) x 100% = 3 (0.01/2)x 100% =1.5%
2) Find the percentageerrorinmeasuringthedensityofthewoodcube.Whenthemassof
the block is 50 ± 0.1g , and the length of the cube is 2 ± 0.01 cm.
Ans. Density of the wooden block is given as density = (mass /volume)
Volume of the block is V = L3
The percentage error in density = (∆m/m) x 100% + 3 x (∆l/l) x 100%
= (0.1/50) x 100% + 3 x (0.01/2) x 100% = 0.2 + 1.5 =1.7%
Reference:
1.Physics Textbook part 1, J. V. Naralikar, A.W.Joshiet al 11th NCERT New Delhi ISBN81-7450-508-3
2. A learning manual for Basic Science (22102) - First Semester Diploma in Engineering and
Technology - Learning Manual Development Team - MSBTE
E learning websites:
● http://hyperphysics.phy-astr.gsu.edu/hbase/hframe.html
●https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Unit_of_measurement
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UNIT EXERCISE
Attempt following questions in subject notebook & get it checked from your subject teacher
before given deadline.
➔ 02 Marks Questions (Short Answer)
1) Define scalar and vector quantities with two examples each.
2) Define fundamental & derived physical quantities with two examples each.
3) What is meant by the dimensional formula? Write the dimensional formula for force.
4) What is the least count of vernier calipers and micrometer screw gauge?
5) The temperature of the water measured by a student using a laboratory thermometer is
420C
. The thermometer has a least count of 0.50C
.Find percentage error in the
measurement.
➔ 03 Marks Questions (Short Answer)
1) Match the following:
Physical quantity S.I. Unit
a) Force i) m/s
b) Velocity ii) Kelvin
2
c) Temperature iii) Kg.m/s or newton (N)
iv) Coulomb
2) Match the following:
Prefix Multiplier value
-9
a) centi (c) i) 10
3
b) nano (n) ii) 10
-2
c) mega (M) iii) 10
6
iv) 10
3) Write the dimensional formula of the following.
i) Force ii) momentum iii) density
4) Round off the following up to the significant digit given in the bracket next to them.
i) 500.455 [ 5 ] ii) 124.7215 [ 4 ] iii) 0.00546 [ 2 ]
5) Complete the following.
3 3
i) 10 cm = ___ m ii) 6 µF = ___ F iii) 22 cm = ___m
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COURSE TITLE: BASIC SCIENCE COURSE CODE: 311305 SEM: FIRST
2. ELECTRICITY, MAGNETISM & SEMICONDUCTORS
CO-2 : Apply the basic principles of electromagnetics to solve given engineering problems.
TLOs: (After studying this lesson, you will be able to -)
2.1) Understand the concept of electric field, electric potential and potential difference.
2.2) Understand basic terms like magnetic lines of force, magnetic field, magnetic field
intensity, magnetic induction etc.
2.3) Understand the concept of current electricity and the heating effect of electric current.
2.4) Find net resistance in series and parallel combination.
2.5) Understand band formation in solids and subsequent classification of solids as
conductor, semiconductor and insulator.
2.6) Analyze I-V characteristics of the PN junction diode and its application in the rectifier.
2.1) Electrostatics
Concept of electric charge:
The concepts of electricity and magnetism are the foundation of engineering and
technology. All devices like Electric motors, electrical equipment, transportation devices
need knowledge and understanding of electricity and magnetism. Moreover, electronic
gadgets such as mobiles, computers, power supplies, electronic circuits, sensors require
understanding of semiconductors.
Electricfieldandelectricpotential:Wehaveexperiencedthat,whenweremoveoursweater
inwinter,wehearacracklingsound,andthesweaterappearstosticktoourbody.Similarly
when dry hair is combed with a comb crackling sound is produced. This is because of
electric charges produced due to friction between two bodies.Duetofriction,electronsget
transferred from one substance to another substance, making them charged.
There are two types of charges: positive charge and negative charge. The substance
receiving electrons becomes negatively charged and the other which loses electrons
becomes positively charged.Charge is measured incoulomb.
Frictional electricity (definition): The electricity developed in the body when it is rubbed
with another body is called frictional electricity.
If electronsareremovedfromatomsofthebodythenthebodybecomespositivelycharged
and if electrons are added to the atoms of the body, it becomes negatively charged.
Iffewerelectronsareremovedfromthebodyitbecomeslesspositiveandifmoreelectrons
are removed from the body it becomes more positive.
It is a common experience that -
(i)Ifaglassrodisrubbedagainstsilkcloththenglassrodgetspositivelychargedandsilk
cloth gets negatively charged.
(ii) If an eboniterodisrubbedagainstapieceofwoolthentheeboniterodgetsnegatively
charged and wool gets positively charged.
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Principleofconservationofcharges(statement):Electricchargecanneitherbecreatednor
bedestroyedbutitcanbetransferredfromonepartofasystemtoanotherpartofasystem
so thattotal charge on an isolated system alwaysremains constant.
Electric charge: The property of a particle which produces electrical effects around it is
called a charge.
An object is said to be charged if it consists of either excess of electrons or shortage of
electrons.
➔ There are two types of charges in nature: positive charge and negative charge.
➔ Like (similar) charges repel each other and unlike (opposite) charges attract each other.
➔ The strength of charge is shown by a letter ‘Q’.
➔ The S.I.unit of electric charge is coulomb (C).
➔ The charge on electron (fundamental or elementary) charge is e = 1.6 x 10-19 C
2.1.2) Coulomb’s Inverse Square Law:
ThescientistCharlesAugustinCoulomb,in1785,statedalawgivingthenatureofforceand
magnitude of force between two electric charges.
Statement:itstatesthattheforceofattractionorrepulsionbetweentwoelectricchargesin
a given medium is -
i) directly proportional to the product of strength of two chargesi.e. 𝐹∝𝑄 . 𝑄 and
1 2
1
ii) inversely proportional to the square of the distance between them.i.e.𝐹∝
2
𝑑
Then according to Coulomb’s law ;
1
𝐹∝𝑄1. 𝑄2 and 𝐹∝
2
𝑑
Combining these we have,
𝑄1.𝑄2
𝐹∝
2
𝑑
𝑄1.𝑄2
𝐹 = 𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑡 2 … this constant of proportionality depends on nature of medium
𝑑
1 𝑄1.𝑄2
𝐹 = 4πε
2 Here, ε = permittivityof medium (ε = ε0 Korε = ε0 εr )
𝑑
where, ε0 = permittivity of free space (vacuum) =8.85 x 10-12 C2 /N.m2.
K or εr = relative permittivity or dielectric constant
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1 𝑄1.𝑄2
For air medium, above equation becomes, 𝐹 = 4πε0
2
𝑑
1 9
Substituting value ofε0 we get, 4πε0
= 9 x 10
𝑄1 .𝑄2
9
Hence, equation of F will be – F =9 x 10 2
𝑑
Unitcharge(1Ccharge):Iftwoequalstrengthchargesareplacedinair1mapartfromeach
9
other & if they exert a force of9x10 Noneachother,theneachchargeissaidtobeunit
charge or 1 C charge.
Factors affecting electrostatic force:
(i) Strength of charge (Q)
(ii) Distance between two charges (d)
(iii) Dielectric constant of medium in which charges are placed (K)
(iv) Permittivity of medium in which charges are placed
Dielectric constant or Relative permittivity of a medium (K):
(D
efinition):Theratioofpermittivityofmediumtothepermittivityofvacuum(freespace)
is called dielectric constant or relative permittivity of a medium.(or)
It is also defined as the ratio of force between two charges separated by distance ‘d’ in
vacuum (free space) to forcebetweenthesametwochargeswhichareseparatedbysame
distance ‘d’ in the given medium.
ε 𝐹𝑣𝑎𝑐𝑢𝑢𝑚
K =
=
ε0 𝑚𝑒𝑑𝑖𝑢𝑚
𝐹
Dielectric: It is a material (substance) which does not allow current through it but shows
dielectriceffects.e.g.glass,paper,wooletc.(Whendielectricsareplacedinanelectricfield,
practicallynocurrentflowsinthembecause,unlikemetals,theyhavenolooselybound,or
free,electronsthatmaydriftthroughthematerial.Instead,electricpolarizationoccurs.The
positive chargeswithinthedielectricaredisplacedminutelyinthedirectionoftheelectric
field, and the negative charges are displaced minutely in the direction opposite to the
electric field. This slight separation of charge, or polarization, reduces the electric field
within the dielectric.)
Permittivity:It is the ability of the medium to permitelectric lines of force through it.
For air, K = 1 For other dielectric mediums, K > 1
For metals, K = ∞
Review Exercise:
1. State Coulomb’s law in electrostatics. Also write its mathematical equation.
2. What are the factors affecting electrostatic force?
3. State the principle of conservation of electric charge.
4. Define dielectric constant. Write its value for i) air medium, ii) metals iii) other
mediums.
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Electric field (E): The electric field is defined as the space around the charge in which
electric effects such as attraction or repulsion can be observed.
(or)
Anelectricfieldisdefinedastheregionsurroundingelectricchargeinwhichelectrostatic
force of attraction or repulsion is present.
Electric field of point charges:
Electriclineofforce:Theelectriclineofforceofa
charge is defined as the path alongwhichaunit
positive charge will move when placed in an
electric field of the charge.
Properties of electric lines of force:
1.Electriclinesofforcestartfrompositivecharge
andend at the negativecharge.
2. Electric lines of force never intersect each
other.
3. Electric lines offorcebecauseoftwocharges
arecurvedin nature.
4.Thedirectionoftheelectricfieldatapointisgivenbyatangentdrawntotheelectricline
of forceat that point.
5. The electric lines of force arealways normal tothe surface of a charged body.
6. The electric lines of force are present only on the outer surface of the charged body
becauseofforceofrepulsionbetweenthem.Theelectriclinesofforcearenotpresentinside
the charged body.
7. Electric lines of force can pass through an insulator but cannot pass through conductors.
8. Electric linesofforcearecrowded(closertoeachother)nearthechargewhereintensity
of electric field ‘E’ is maximum.
9. Electric lines of forcehaveatendencytocontractinlengthandtoexpandlaterally.(just
like stretched rubber cord)
eview Exercise:
R
1. Draw electric fields for - i) +ve charge ii) -ve charge iii) pair of charges.
2. Give any five properties of electric lines of force.
3. Define electric field.
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ElectricFlux(Ѱ)(Definition):Thetotal(net)electriclinesofforcewhichflowoutwardfrom
a positive charge is called as electric flux. (Or) The total number of electric lines of force
starting from a charge is called electric flux.
By definition, 1 C of electric charge gives rise to one electric flux.
Thus, electric flux is a measure of the overall size of the electric field.
2
S.I. unit of electric flux = V.m It also has unit N.m /C
ElectricFluxDensity(D):ElectricFluxdensityatapointisdefinedasthenumberofelectric
lines of force crossing unit area around a point held perpendicular to the electric lines of
force which pass through the center of area.
2
S.I. unit of electric flux density is C/m orN/C.
Near the charge, ‘D’ is maximum as well as ‘E’ is also maximum.
Relation between electric flux density (D) & electric field intensity (E):
𝐷
D =ε k E or D =εk E (or) E =
0 ε0 𝑘
Electric flux density (D) isdirectly proportionalto the electric field intensity (E).
Intensityofelectricfield(E)-(Definition):Theintensityofelectricfieldatapointisdefined
as the force acting on unit positive charge imagined to be placed at that point.
𝑜𝑟𝑐𝑒(𝐹)
𝐹 1 𝑄1. 𝑄2 1 𝑄
Intensity of electric field (E)= = 4π ε 𝑘 2 = 4π ε 𝑘 2
𝐶ℎ𝑎𝑟𝑔𝑒(𝑄) 0 𝑑 𝑄2 0 𝑑
1 𝑄 𝑄
Intensity of electric field (E)=
4π
ε0 𝑘 𝑑2
=9 x 109 2 N/C
𝑘𝑑
S.I. unit of intensity of electric field isnewtonper coulomb (N/C or N.C-1)
CGS unitof intensity of electric field isdyne/statcoulomb.
𝑄
Physical significance of equation E = 9 x 10
9
2 :
𝑘𝑑
1. Electric field intensity is not same (not uniform) at all points inside an electric field.
2.Electricfieldintensityismaximumnearthechargeandgoesondecreasingwithdistance
away from the charge.
3. Electric field intensity depends onstrength ofthe charge.
4. Electric field intensity depends on themediumin which the charge is placed. (E∝1/K)
ElectricPotential(V):Theelectricpotentialatapointisdefinedastheamountofworkdone
in moving unit positive charge from infinity to that point.
V = W/Q The S.I. unit of electric potential is J/C or volt.
1 volt (1 V) definition: If 1 joule of work isdoneinmovingunit(1coulomb)positivecharge
from infinity to a point in an electric field then potential is called 1 volt potential.
( Page:22of69) (Basic Science (311305) - Physics) VP Polytechnic College, Indapur
Potential due to a point charge:
Consider a point charge +Q. Let ‘A be any point in the electric field of charge +Q.
Let ‘r’ be the distance of point ‘A’ from charge ‘Q’ & ε0 be permittivity of free space then
electric potential at point ‘A’ is given by …
1 𝑄 9
𝑄
V = 𝑘𝑑 = 9 x 10
4π
ε0 𝑘𝑑
Potential difference between two points:
Consider a point charge +Q. Let ‘A’ & ‘B’ be any points in the electric field of charge +Q.
Let‘d’bethedistanceofpoint‘A’fromcharge‘Q’&‘D’bethedistanceofpoint‘B’fromcharge
‘Q’.ε0 be permittivity of free space then P.D. between points ‘A’ and ‘B’ are given by …
1 𝑄 1
1 9
𝑄
1
1
VA B = 𝑘 ⎡ 𝑑 − ⎤ or VA B =9 x 10 ⎡
− ⎤
4π
ε0 ⎣ 𝐷 ⎦ 𝑘 ⎣ 𝑑 𝐷 ⎦
Potential of a sphere:
I tistheamountofworkdoneincarryingaunitpositivechargefrominfinitytothesurface
of a sphere.
1 𝑄 9
𝑄
Vs phere = 𝑘𝑑 = 9 x 10
4π
ε0 𝑘𝑑
otential of earth: The earth is a fairly spherical body and its radius ‘R’ is very large
P
compared with the amount of charge & permittivity of the medium.
Hence we can write distance (d or R = ∞). Substituting the value of ‘R’ is the equation of
potential we get …
9
𝑄 9 𝑄
VE arth = 9 x 10 = 9 x 10 =0.Therefore earth is a body of zero (low) potential.
𝑘𝑑 𝑘∞
Earthing is preferred in manyelectricalequipmentwhichgiveswaytoleakageofcurrent
(charges) from equipment (high potential) to earth (zero or low potential) thus electrical
shock can be avoided.
Quantity S. I. unit Quantity S. I. unit
Electric charge (Q) Coulomb (C) Electric Flux Density (D) C/m2 or N/C
Electric Field Intensity (E) N/C or V/m Electric Potential (V) Volt (V)
Electric Flux (Ѱ) V.m or N.m2/C
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2.2) Magnetism
A certain form of an ironorecalledmagnetitehasapropertyofattractingiron.Thisoreis
known as magnetic oxide of iron (Fe3O
4) .
The pieces of magnetite are known as natural magnets.
Metalssuchasiron,nickel,cobaltcanbemagnetizedbydifferentmethodswhicharecalled
artificial magnets.
Artificial magnets can be prepared in different shapes such as …
Bar magnet, magnetic needle, horse shoe magnet, cylindrical magnet, circular magnetetc.
Artificial magnets are stronger than natural magnets & their strength can be increased.
Properties of magnet:
i) It attracts iron, nickel, cobalt, steel etc.
ii) It always rests in a north-south direction when suspended freely.
iii)Likepolesofamagnet(N-NorS-S)repeleachotherwhileUnlikepolesofamagnet(N-S)
attract each other.
iv) Magnets always exist in dipole. (Magnetic monopole do not exist)
Magnetic Field: The space surrounding the magnet where its effect can be observed is
called the magnetic field. (or)
The space surrounding the magnet where the magnetic force ofattractionorrepulsionis
present is called the magnetic field.
The strength of the magnetic field at a point is inversely proportional to the square of
distance from the magnet.
Retentivity: The ability of material to remain magnetized after removal of magnetizing
force is called retentivity.
Magnetic Field Intensity (H): Magnetic field intensity at a point in a magnetic field is
defined as the force acting on a unit north pole placed at that point.
Magnetic field intensity is avector quantity.
S. I. unit = tesla (T)
C.G.S. unit = gauss
1 tesla = 1 N/A.m
1 𝑚
H = 𝑑
π
4 µ0 µ𝑟
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Here,µ0 = permeability of air &µ𝑟 = relative permeability
d = distance between two poles & m1 = m =magneticpole strength & m2 = 1 (unit north pole)
S.I. unit of H = N/Weber or A/m or N/m2T
Magnetic lines of force:
Magnetic lines of force are defined as a pathalongwhichtheunitnorthpolewillmovein
the magnetic field.
Properties of magnetic lines of force:
1) Magnetic lines of force are closed curves.
2) They start from the north pole and end on the south pole outside the magnet.
3) The tangent drawn to the curvedpartofthemagneticlineofforceatanypointgives
the direction of the magnetic field at that point.
4) They never intersect with each other.
5) Magnetic lines of force in the same direction repel each other.
6) Magnetic lines of force are not affected by non-magnetic material.
7) Inauniformmagneticfield,magneticlinesofforceareparalleltoeachotherandthey
are equidistant.
8) Magneticlinesofforcehavetendencytocontractalonglength&expandlaterally.(i.e.
they have longitudinal tension & lateral pressure)
Magnetic field of a bar magnet:
Magnetic Flux (ɸ) : Total number of magnetic lines of force passing normally through a
given area is called magnetic flux.
S.I. unit of ɸ =Weber (Wb)
C.G.S. unit of ɸ =maxwell
1 Wb = 1 x 108 maxwell
Magnetic Flux Density or Magnetic Induction (B): Magnetic flux density at a point in a
magnetic field is defined as the magnetic flux per unit area at that point.
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ɸ
Hence, B =
𝐴
S.I. unit of B =Wb/m2 or tesla or N.m/A
1 tesla = 1 Wb/m2
1 tesla = 104 gauss
Relation between Magnetic Flux Density (B) & Magnetic Field Intensity (H):
B∝H
𝐵
= Constant
𝐻
B =µH =µ0 µ
𝑟 H
2.3) Current Electricity
Almost all metals are goodconductorsofelectricityandwood,plastic,andrubberarepoor
(bad) conductors (also called as insulators) of electricity.
➔ Electric current (I):The rate of flow of an electriccharge is called electric current.(or)
The amount of electric charge flowing through an electric circuit in one second is called
electric current.
It is denoted by ‘I’.
The S.I. unit of electric current is ampere (A).
One ampere (1 A): A current is said to be 1 A if charge of1Ccrossesapointintheelectric
circuit in one second (1 s).
➔ Resistance (R): The property of material to oppose the flow of an electric current is
called resistance.
It is measured in ohms (Ω).
One Ohm (1 Ω): If a P. D. of 1 volt is applied across a conductor & it produces current of 1
ampere through it then resistance of conductor is said to be one ohm (1 Ω).
➔ Factors affecting resistance of a conductor:
(i) Length of the conductor (L) →increaseswithincreasein length of conductor
(ii)Cross-sectionalareaoftheconductor(A)→ decreases with increase in cross-sectional
area of the conductor.
(iii) Temperature → increaseswithincreasein temperature.
(iv) Material of the conductor
R ∝ L and
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R ∝ 1/A
Hence, R ∝ L/A
R = (constant) . L/A
R = ⍴ . L/A
Here, ⍴ is constant called specific resistance or resistivity.
➔ Specific resistance or Resistivity (⍴) : Theresistanceofaconductorhavingunitlength
and unit cross-sectional area is called specific resistance or resistivity.
Equation:⍴ = R . A/L
S.I. unit of specific resistance (⍴) is ohm-meter (Ω.m)
➔ Conductivity or Specific resistance (σ): The reciprocal of specific resistance (or
resistivity) is called conductivity.
Conductivity (σ) = 1/⍴
-1 -1
S.I. unit of conductivity is (ohm-meter) i.e. (Ω.m) or siemen/m (S/m)
Conductivity of conductorsdecreaseswith temperature.
➔ Conductance (G): The reciprocal of resistance is called conductance.
S.I. unit of conductance (G) = mho (Ω-1)
Ohm’s law (Statement): If the physical state of conductor (material, length, area,
temperature etc.) remains same then current flowing through the conductor is directly
proportional to the P. D. applied across it.
(Or) If the physical state of conductor (material, length, area, temperature etc.) remains
same then the ratio of P. D. to current is always constant.
V∝ I
V = constant x I
𝑉
= constant (Resistance, R)
𝐼
➔ Law of series resistances (statement): The law of series combination of resistances
states that the equivalent (or effective) resistance of resistances connected in series
combination is equal to the algebraic sum of individual resistances.
Rs = R1 + R2 + R3 + … + Rn
➔ Law of
Parallel
resistances (statement): The law of parallel combination of resistances states that the
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reciprocal of equivalent (or effective) resistance of resistances connected in parallel
combination is equal to the sum of reciprocal of individual resistances.
1 1 1 1
1
=
+
+ + … +
𝑅𝑃 1
𝑅 2
𝑅 3
𝑅 𝑅𝑛
For two resistances connected in parallel -
𝑅1 𝑥𝑅2
RP =
(𝑅1 +𝑅2)
Important points to remember related to series & parallel combination of resistances:
1. In series combination, effective resistance (Rs) is always greater than highest of
individual resistances.
2. Series combination is used to increase resistance in the circuit or to decrease (limit)
currentin the circuit.
3.In series combination,currentthrough each resistanceremains same.
4.InParallelcombination,effectiveresistance(RP)isalwayslessthanlowestofindividual
resistances.
5. Parallel combination is used to decrease resistance in the circuit or to increase (raise)
currentin the circuit.
6. Inparallelcombination,voltage dropacross eachresistor remains same.
7.In household wiringparallel combinationis used. …(IMP)
Heating effect of electric current: The production of heat due to flow of electric current
through a resistor is called heating effect of electric current.
Electriclamp,electricsolderinggun,electriciron,electricheater,andelectricovenaresome
examples of heating effect of electric current.
Joule’s law (Statement): It states that the amount of heat generated (H) due to flow of
electric current through a resistor is directly proportional to …
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i) square of electric current (I2)
ii) resistance (R)
iii) time for which current flows (t)
H ∝ I2
H ∝ R
H ∝ t
Combining these we get,H ∝ I2 R t
H =(I2 R t ) / J
Here J = (I2 R t ) / H called Joule’s constant (Joule’smechanical equivalent of heat)
J = 4.2 J/Cal
Or J = (V I t ) / H
Applications:
1. Electric heater
2. Electric soldering (flux)
3. Electric Oven
2.4) Semiconductors
Band theory of solids:
In an atom, electrons in the inner shells are boundtothenucleusandhencecalledbound
electrons.The electrons in the outermost orbit arecalled valence electrons.
Inanatom,electronshaveonlycertainpermissible(discrete)valuesofenergieswhichcan
be shown by energy levels. It is difficult to remove bound electrons from an atom but
valenceelectronscouldeasilyberemovedfromitsorbit.Thesevalenceelectronstakepart
in chemical reactions and bonding atoms together.
Insolids,atomsarecloselypacked.Thustheirenergylevelsarealsocloselypackedsothese
closely packed energy levels form a cluster or continuous band of energy.
The energy band corresponding to energies of valence electrons are called valence band
similarly the energy band corresponding to energies of free (conduction) electrons are
called conduction band.
(Or) The range of energies possessed by valence electrons is known as valence band and
range of energies possessed by conducting electrons is known as conduction band.
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Forbidden energy gap (Band Gap) ‘EG’: The energy gap between conduction band and
valence band is called forbidden energy gap or band gap.
Forsemiconductors,theforbiddenenergygap(EG)isverysmall(1eV).Forinsulators,itis
very large (5 eV) and for conductors, it is zero as conduction band and valence band
overlap with each other.
Energy band diagrams of conductor, semiconductor & insulator:
Semiconductor:Thematerialhavingconductivitylessthanconductorsandmorethanthat
of insulators is called semiconductor.
Semiconductors are classified as …
Intrinsic (Pure) semiconductor: A semiconductor such assiliconorgermaniuminitspure
form is called intrinsic semiconductor.
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Crystalline structure (electron dot structure) of intrinsic semiconductors:
Intrinsic semiconductors like silicon (Si) & germanium (Ge) have FOUR electrons in their
outermost (valence) shell hence they are calledtetravalentatoms.
Hencetheyshareeachvalenceelectronwiththeirfourneighboringatomstoformcovalent
bonds with them.
In an intrinsic semiconductor, electrons and holes are generated in pairs.
i.e. No. of electrons = No. of holes. At absolute zero temperature, all valence electrons are
tightly bound to the parent atom hence there are no free electrons available for current
conduction. Henceat absolute zero temperature, semiconductorsbehave like insulators.
Effectoftemperature:Astemperatureincreases,conductivityofsemiconductorsincreases
and resistivity decreases. Hence semiconductors are said to have negative temperature
coefficient of resistance.
Extrinsicsemiconductors:Toincreasecurrentcarryingcapacityofasemiconductor,asmall
amount of impurity is added to pure semiconductor.
The process of adding impurity to pure semiconductor is called doping.
Types of impurities:
A) Trivalent (acceptor) impurities: gallium, boron, indium, aluminum etc.
B) Pentavalent (Doner) impurities: arsenic, antimony, phosphorus etc.
N-typesemiconductor:Ifsuitablepentavalentimpurityisaddedtopuresemiconductor,itis
known asN-type semiconductor.
In N-type semiconductor, majority charge carriers are electrons and minority charge
carriers areholes.
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P-type semiconductor: If suitable trivalent impurity is added to pure semiconductor, it is
known asP-type semiconductor.
In P-type semiconductor, majority charge carriers are holes and minority charge carriers
areelectrons.
P-NJunctiondiode:IfP-typesemiconductorandN-typesemiconductorarejoinedtogether,
the arrangement is known as P-N junction diode. P-type region have high concentration of
holes while N-type region have high concentration of electrons. It can be shown as follows:
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When the P-N junction is formed, some electrons from N-region cross the junction and
diffuseintoP-region.SimilarlysomeholesfromtheP-regioncrossthejunctionanddiffuse
into the N-region. Thusrecombinationofholesandelectronstakesplacenearthejunction
and a charge depleted region called depletion layer is formed near the junction.
Accumulation of electrons and holes in depletion region develops aninternalelectricfield
(VB) in depletion region. It is calledBarrier potential(VB) .
The potential difference across the depletion region is called Barrier Potential.
Barrier potential of Si = 0.7 V & Barrier potential of Ge = 0.3 V.
I-V Characteristics of P-N Junction diode: Connecting P-N junction diode in a circuit is
known as biasing.
A) Forward biased P-N Junction Diode: If the positive terminal of the battery (power
supply)isconnectedtoP-side(Anode)&negativeterminalofthebatteryisconnectedto
N-side (Cathode) then the diode is said to be forward biased.
Inforwardbias,thewidthofthedepletionregiondecreases.Inordertoflowcurrentthrough
a diode in forward bias, the external appliedvoltagemustbegreaterthanbarrierpotential
(VB).
The minimum voltage required to
conduct current in the diode is called
knee voltage or cut-in voltage. Thus
kneevoltageforSi=0.7V&thatforGe
= 0.3 V.
B) Reverse biased P-N JunctionDiode:
If the negative terminal of the
battery(powersupply)isconnected
to P-side (Anode) & positive
terminal ofthebatteryisconnected
toN-side(Cathode)thenthediodeis
said to be reverse biased.
In reverse bias, the width of the
depletion region increases.
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A very smallcurrent(fewµA)flowsthroughthediodeinthereversebiasduetominority
charge carriers. This current is called leakage current.
If the reverse voltageisfurtherincreased,ataparticularvoltagemaximumcurrentflows
through the diode. This current is called saturation current and the reverse voltage at
which this current flows in the diode is called reverse breakdown voltage. (VRB).
Breakdown is of two types:Zener breakdown&Avalanchebreakdown.
Static and Dynamic resistance of the diode:
Static resistance:It is the resistance offered bythe diode in forward biasto d.c. signal.
Dynamic resistance:It is the resistance offered bythe diode in forward biasto a.c. signal.
As the operating voltage increases, the static & dynamic resistance goes on decreasing.
ectification: The process of converting A.C. signal into D.C. signal is known as
R
rectification.
Half wave rectifier means it allows half cycle of A.C. signal and blocks other half cycle.
P-N Junction diode as half wave rectifier:
For the 1s t (+ve) half cycle of A.C. signal,thediodebecomesforwardbiasedandallows+ve
halfcycle.Forthe2nd(–ve)halfcycleofA.C.signal,thediodebecomesreversebiasedandit
doesn’tallow-vehalfcycle.Henceinoutputwegetonly+vehalfcyclesasD.C.signalhence
with the help of P–N Junction diode, we can convert each half cycle of A.C. signal toD.C.
signal.
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Forthissetup,thesameprocessrepeatsbutthistimeall+vehalfcyclesareblockedand—ve
half cycles are allowed as shown in figure above.
Applications of P-N Junction diode:
● It is used as a rectifier in power supply.
● It is used as a wave shaper in clipping circuits of radar, computer, radios etc.
● Zener diodes are used in voltage regulators.
● Varactor diode in TV and Radios as tuner.
● Photo diodes are used in optical communications systems.
● Laser diodes are used in optical communication.
● Used as switches in digital logic circuits.
● Used in detector circuits. ● Used in demodulator circuits.
● Used in clamping circuits. ● Used as LEDs in display panels.
Numerical Problems:
-11
1) The distance between the electron and proton in the atom is 5.8 x 10 m. Calculate
−19
the electrostatic force between them. Given ∈r = 1and charge on electron = 1.6 x 10 C.
−19
Ans. given: ∈r = 1 and Q1 = Q2 = 1.6 x 10 C
𝑄1 .𝑄2 (1
−19
.6𝑥10
−19
)(1.6𝑥10 )
9
F =9 x 10 2 =9 x 109 −11 2
=6.84 x 10-8 N
𝑑 (5.8𝑥10 )
2)Achargedsphereof60µCisplacedintheair.Findtheelectricfieldintensityatapoint30
cm from the center of the sphere.
Ans. given: for air, ∈r = 1,
−6
Q = 60 µC = 60 x 10 C, d = 30 cm = 0.3 m
𝑄 (6
−6
0𝑥10 )
9
We have, E =9 x 10 2 =9 x 109 2 =6 x 106 N/C
𝑑 (0.3)
3) Calculate the potential at a point 10 cm away from a charge of 300 µC, in air.
Ans. given: for air, ∈r = 1,
−6
Q = 390 µC = 300 x 10 C, d = 10 cm = 0.1 m
𝑄 (3
00𝑥10 )
−6
9
We have, V =9 x 10 =9 x 109 =27 x 104 Vor 270 kV.
𝑑 (0.1)
2
4) A circular antenna of area 3 m is installed ata point. The plane of the area of antenna
0
is inclined at 47 with the direction of earth’s magnetic field. The magnitude of earth’s
magnetic field at a place is 40773.9 nT. Find magnetic flux linked with an antenna.
-9 0 0 0 2
Ans. given, B = 40773.9 nT = 40773.9 x 10 T, θ= 90 – 47 = 43 , A = 3 m
∅ = B A cosθ
-9 0
∅ = (40773.9 x 10 ) x 3 x cos(43 )
-6
∅ =89.47x 10 wb or ∅ = 89.47 µWb
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5) An electrical bulb is labeled 100 W, 240 V. Calculate: i)Thecurrentthroughthefilament
when the bulb works normally ii) The resistance of the filament used in the bulb.
Ans. given, P = 100 W, V = 240 V
𝑃 100
We have, I =
= =0.42 A
𝑉 40
2
𝑉 240
R =
= =571.4 Ω
𝐼 .42
0
- Scientific Vocabulary -
) Electrostatics :
A
Frictional electricity – electricity developed when a body is rubbed with another due to
electron transfer
Electric charge– property of a particle that produceselectrical effects
oulomb’s Law – force between two charges is directly proportional to the product of
C
charges and inversely proportional to the square ofthedistancebetweenthem(relationto
find out force acting between two electric charges)
ielectric constant (K) – ratio of permittivity of a medium to the permittivity of vacuum
D
(free space)
Dielectric– a material that does not conduct electricitybut allows electric field effects
Permittivity– ability of a medium to permit electriclines of force through it
Electric field (E)– region around a charge whereelectric effects are felt
Electric line of force– path along which a unit positivecharge moves in an electric field
Electric flux (Ѱ)– total electric lines of forcefrom a positive charge
Electric flux density (D)– number of electric linesof force per unit area
Electric field intensity (E)– force on a unit positivecharge at a point in an electric field
lectric potential (V) – work done in moving a unit charge from infinity to a point in an
E
electric field
otentialdifference(VAB)–differenceinelectricpotentialbetweentwopointsinanelectric
P
field
Potential of Earth– considered zero due to its largesize and ability to absorb charge
B) Magnetism
Magnetism– property of materials like magnetite toattract iron
Natural magnets– naturally occurring magnetic materialslike magnetite
Artificial magnets– man-made magnets like bar, horseshoe, cylindrical types
Magnetic field– region around a magnet where itseffect is observable
Retentivity– ability of a material to remain magnetized
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Magnetic field intensity (H)– force on a unit north pole at a point
Magnetic lines of force– path traced by unit northpole in magnetic field
Magnetic flux (ɸ)– total magnetic lines of forcethrough a given area
Magnetic flux density (B)– magnetic flux per unitarea
C) Current Electricity
Electric current (I)– rate of flow of electric charge
Resistance (R)– opposition offered by material toflow of electric current
Specific resistance (ρ)– resistance of a conductorof unit length and unit area
Conductivity (σ)– reciprocal of resistivity, indicatesability to conduct electricity
Conductance (G)– reciprocal of resistance
hm’s Law – current is directly proportional to voltage when physical state of conductor
O
remains constant ( I ∝ V ) (used to determine unknown resistance in the electric circuit)
eriesresistance–totalresistance(equivalentresistanceinseriescombination)isthesum
S
of individual resistances
arallel resistance – the reciprocal of total resistance (equivalent resistance in parallel
P
combination), is the sum of reciprocals of individual resistances
eating effect of electric current – heat produced when current flows through resistor
H
(depends on square of current, time for which current flows & resistance of conductor)
2 2
Joule’s Law– heat produced is proportional to I Rt( H ∝ I Rt )
D) Semiconductors
Band theory– explains electrical properties basedon energy bands in solids
Valence band– energy band of valence electrons
Conduction band– energy band of free (conduction)electrons
Forbidden energy gap (Eg) – energy gap between valenceand conduction band
Semiconductor– material with conductivity betweenconductors and insulators
Intrinsic semiconductor– pure semiconductor likesilicon or germanium
Extrinsic semiconductor– doped semiconductor to increaseconductivity
Doping– process of adding impurity to a pure semiconductor
N-type semiconductor– doped with pentavalent impurity,electrons are majority carriers
P-type semiconductor– doped with trivalent impurity,holes are majority carriers
PN junction diode– combination of P-type and N-typesemiconductor
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Depletion layer– region near junction depleted of charge carriers
Barrier potential (VB)– potential difference acrossthe depletion layer
Forward bias– P-side connected to positive, allowscurrent (acts like closed switch)
Reverse bias– P-side connected to negative, blockscurrent (acts like open switch)
Knee voltage– minimum voltage to start conductionin forward bias
Leakage current– small current in reverse bias dueto minority carriers
Breakdown voltage (VRB)– voltage at which large reversecurrent flows
Half wave rectifier– circuit that converts AC toDC using a diode
UNIT EXERCISE
➔ 02 Marks questions.
1) Define electric field and electric flux.
2) State Coulomb’s law and write its mathematical formula.
3) W
rite any two properties of magnetic lines of force. Draw magnetic field of bar
magnet.
4) State Ohm’s law. Write its mathematical formula. Define specific resistance.
5) State Joule’s law of heating. Write its mathematical formula.
➔ 03 Marks questions.
1) W
hat is a PN junction diode? Draw its symbol, forward and reverse biasing
characteristics.
2) Match the following:
Physical quantity S.I. Unit
a)conductivity i)Weber (Wb)
b)magnetic flux (ɸ) ii)Coulomb (C)
-1
c)specific resistance (⍴) iii)(Ω.m) or siemen/m (S/m)
iv)ohm-meter (Ω.m)
3) Write any three properties of magnets.
4) D
efine: i) magnetic flux(ɸ) ii) Magnetic Field Intensity(H)
iii) Specific resistance or Resistivity (⍴)
5) Write any three applications of p-n junction diodes.
Reference:
1.Engineering physics-R.K.Gaur, S.L.Gupta DhanpatRai Publications
2.Text book of physics for class XI & XII (Part-I,Part – II) NCERT New Delhi
3.A learning manual for Basic Science (22102)- FirstSemester Diploma in Engineering and
Technology - Learning Manual Development Team - MSBTE
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E learning websites:
●phet.colovado.edu ocw.mit.edu
● ●vlab.amrita.edu
●www.examfear.com ●www.khanacademy.org
COURSE TITLE: BASIC SCIENCE COURSE CODE: 311305 SEM: FIRST
3. THERMOMETRY & FIBER OPTICS
CO-3 : Use basic principles of thermometry and fiber optics to solve engineering problems..
TLOs: (After studying this lesson, you will be able to -)
3.1) To understand the different temperature scales like celsius, fahrenheit and kelvin scale and
interconversion between them.
3.2) To understand the properties of good and bad conductors of heat.
3.3) To apply Boyle’s law, Charle’s law & Gay-Lussac’s law in a given thermal system..
3.4) To understand the conditions of T.I.R. of light and to relate it to the functioning of optical fiber.
3.1) Heat & Temperature
Everyobjectismadeupofatomsandmolecules.Theseatomsandmoleculesinthebodyare
in continuous motion. These atoms and molecules are called particles. Particles in solids
possessvibrationalenergyandparticlesinliquidsandgasses(fluids)possesstranslational
energy. Thermal energy is the internalenergyassociatedwithrandommotionofparticles
within the object.
Heat or thermal energy is the sum of internal energies of all the particles of the body or
system. whereas temperature is the measure of average kinetic energy of molecules of
particles of a system.
Sunis thenatural sourceof heat energy.
Heat (Definition) : The energy which produces sensation of hotness or warmness in the
body is called heat
(or) The energy transferred from one body to another due to the temperature difference
between them is called heat.
(or) heat is defined as the sum of internal energies of all the particles of the body or system.
Units of heat: (➤IMP for Exam)
S.I. unit - joule (J)
C.G.S. unit - calorie (cal)
M.K.S. unit - kilocalorie (kcal)
1 kcal = 1000 cal = 4184 J (or 4200 J)
1 cal = 4.184 J (or 4.2 J)
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1Kilocalorie(definition):Theamountofheatrequiredtoincreasethetemperatureof1kgof
water by 1oC(i.e. from 14.5°C to 15.5°C) is called1 kcalheat.
1 Calorie (definition) : The amount of heat required to increase the temperature of 1 g of
water by 1oCis called1 calheat.
1
1 joule (definition) : The amountofheatrequiredtoincreasethetemperatureof gof
4.186
water by 1oCis called1 jouleheat.
Heat is an extensive property i.e. heat producedby1cupofboilingwaterisdifferentfrom
thatofboilingwaterinahugeboiler.(orheatrequiredtoboil1cupmilkandheatrequiredto
boil 5 liters of milk is different.) Heat can be measured by an instrument called a
calorimeter.
Heat is the cause and temperature is its effect.
Temperature(definition):Themeasureofdegreeofhotnessorcoldnessofabodyorsystem
is called temperature.
(or) Temperature is defined as the measure of average kinetic energy of particles in a
substance.
Temperature is measured by an instrument calledThermometer.
The S.I. unit of temperature is Kelvin.Other unitsare degree Fahrenheit and degree Celsius
Ifheatissuppliedtothebodyitstemperatureincreasesandifheatisremovedfromthebody
its temperature decreases.
Temperature is an intensive property i.e. 1 liter boiling water and 1000 liters of boiling
water has the same temperature i.e. 100oC.
Absolutezerotemperature(definition):Thetemperatureatwhichpressureandvolumeofa
gas theoretically becomes zero is called absolute zero temperature. (➤IMP for Exam)
Value of absolute zero temperature = — 273oC
= 0oK
. (➤IMP for Exam)
Temperature scales : To make a temperature scale, tworeferencescalledlowerfixedpoint
and upper fixed point are taken and then it is divided into different equal parts.
Lower fixed point (L.F.P.) → Melting Point of Ice at normal pressure
Upper fixed point(U.F.P.) → Boiling Point of water at normal pressure
SN Temperature scale Developed by L. F. P. U. F. P. Divided into
1) Celsius scale Anders Celsius 0oC
100oC 100 equal parts
2) Fahrenheit scale Gabriel Daniel Fahrenheit 32oF
212oF
180 equal parts
3) Kelvin scale Kelvin 273.15oK 373.15oK 100 equal parts
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Conversion relation betweenoC
,oF
andoK
:
Here, C = temperature inoC
F = temperature in0F
and K = temperature inoK
➔ Examples on temperature conversions: (➤IMP for Exam)
1) Convert 45oC temperature intooF
.
→ We have, C = (F - 32) / 1.8
∴ F = (C x 1.8) + 32
∴ F = (45 x 1.8) + 32 = 113oF.
Thus,45oC
= 113oF
2) Convert body temperature 98.6oF
intooC
.
→ We have, C = (F - 32) / 1.8
∴ C = (98.6 - 32) / 1.8
∴ C = 37oC
.
Thus,98.6oF
= 37oC
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3) Convert 320oK
intooC.
→ We have, C = K — 273 ∴ C = 320 — 273
∴ C = 47oC.
Thus,320oK
= 47oC
3.2) Modes of heat transfer
Heat is a form of energy.It always flows from hightemperature to low temperature.
There are three modes (ways, types) of transfer of heat.
1)Conduction(definition):Theprocessoftransferofheatfromhighertemperaturetolower
temperature without actual(bodily)movement of particlesis called conduction.
Heat is transferred through solids by the way of conduction only.
Whenoneendofametalrodisheated,theotherendalsogetsheatedaftersometime.This
heat transfer takes place by conduction.
Variable stateoftemperature:Thestateoftemperatureinwhichtemperatureofmetalrod
goes on increasing(varies w.r.t. time) is calleda variable state of temperature.
(or) The state of temperature in which the temperature in thermometer changes (varies)
w.r.t. timeis called a variable state of temperature.
In a variable state,heat absorbed by the body > heatgiven out by the body.
Steady state of temperature : The state of temperature in which temperature of metalrod
remains constant(remains steady w.r.t. time) is calleda steady state of temperature.
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(or)Thestateoftemperatureinwhichthetemperatureinthermometerremainssteadyw.r.t.
timeis called a steady state of temperature.
In steady state,heat absorbed by the body = heatgiven out by the body.
Goodconductorofheat:Amaterialthateasilytransfersheatenergybyconductioniscalled
good conductors of heat. All metals are good conductors of heat.
Thevalueofcoefficientofthermalconductivity(K) forgoodconductorsishighandvalueof
thermal resistance (R) islow.
Someexamplesofgoodconductorsandtheirvalueofcoefficientofthermalconductivity(K
)
is given below:
InsulatororBadconductorofheat:Amaterialwhichdoesnotconductheatenergythrough
them is called insulators or bad conductors of heat. Most liquids & gasses are bad
conductors of heat.
The value of coefficient of thermal conductivity (K) forbadconductorsislowandvalueof
thermal resistance (R) ishigh.
Someexamplesofbadconductorsandtheirvalueofcoefficientofthermalconductivity(K)
is given below:
Applications of conduction:
A) Good conductors:
➔ Good conducting material (like copper) is used as a heat sink in electronic circuits.
➔ The spiral tube covering the coil of the electric heater is made up of a good conductor.
➔ The condenser coil in the refrigerator is made up of copper (a good conductor).
➔ Davy’s safety lamp: lamp is covered by iron-gauze(good conductor of heat)
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B) Bad conductors:
➔ Ice box: bad conducting material like thermocol isused in the ice box.
➔ The handle of the cooker is made up of bad conducting material like plastic.
➔ Use of double walled flask (thermos flask)
➔ Iglue (a house of eskimo) is made up of double walls to avoid heat loss by conduction.
➔ Tea cup is made up of china clay (bad conductor)
Law of thermal conductivity: Thermal conductivity of a material means heat conducting
ability of a material.
Statement: Law of thermal conductivity states that the amount of heat flowing through a
metal rod having unit cross-sectional area, for unit time and unit temperature gradient at
steady state of temperature is -
i) directly proportional to cross-sectional area
[Q ∝ A ]
ii) directly proportional to temperature gradient
[Q ∝ (θ1 - θ1) /d ]
iii) directly proportional to time for which heat flows
[ Q ∝ t ]
Equation:
Here, ‘K’ is a constant of proportionality calledcoefficient of thermal conductivity.
Coefficientofthermalconductivity(K):Itisdefinedastheamountofheatflowingthrough
a metal rod of unit area, in one second for unit temperature gradient at steady state of
temperature.
(or) The coefficient of thermal conductivity is defined as the amount of heat conducted
throughmaterialinsteadystateoftemperaturethroughunitcross-sectionalareaofmaterial
of unit thickness with unit temperature difference between them.
Equation:
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Units:
S.I. unit → J/moK s (or) W/moK … J/s = watt (W)
MKS unit → kcal/moC
s
CGS unit → cal/cmoC
s
Temperature Gradient (T.G.) : The ratio of
change in temperature per unit length
of the rod is called temperature gradient.
Unit of T.G. →oC
/m oroK/m
Convection (definition) : The process of transfer of heat fromhighertemperaturetolower
temperature with actual(bodily)movement of particlesis called convection.
Convection takes place only in fluids (i.e. liquids & gasses).
e.g. heat transfer in water (boiling of water) takes place by convection.
Types of convections:
A) Freeornaturalconvection:Theconvectionthattakesplaceinfluidwhichisatrestis
called free or natural convection.
e.g. The still air in a closed room, The trade winds. Monsoons etc.
B) Forcedconvection:Theconvectionthattakesplaceinanexternallycontrolledsteady
stream of fluid which passes through the present fluid is called forced convection.
e.g. Ventilated cooling of room using exhaust fans.
Applications of convection:
➔ Room ventilation
➔ Formation of trade winds
➔ Formation of sea breeze (at day time - winds
blows from sea to land) & land breeze (at night
time - winds blows from land to sea)
➔ Gas filled coiled electric lamps
➔ Cooling system in automobile engines
Radiation: The process of transfer of heat from a body athighertemperaturetoabodyat
lower temperature in the form of electromagnetic waves without necessity of medium is
calledradiation.
We receive heat (thermal) energy from the sun in the form of radiation.
In empty space (i.e. in vacuum) only radiation is possible.
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Applications of radiation:
➔ White colored clothes are preferred in summer.
➔ Dark colored clothes are preferred in winter.
➔ Heat radiators in cars, machines are painted black.
➔ Airplanes and ships are painted white.
➔ The polished outer surface of spacecraft reflects most of the heat radiated from the sun.
➔ The base of the cooking utensils are made black.
➔ Teapots have a bright shining surface.
(➤
IMP for Exam) Newton's law of cooling : Whenahotbodyiscooledinthesurrounding
(or air), the rate of loss of heat of a body is directly proportional to the temperature
difference between the body and its surrounding (or air).
Rate of loss of heat ∝ temperature difference between body & its surrounding
Equation :
Conditions or assumptions for Newton’s law of cooling:
i) Loss of heat due to conduction is negligible.
ii) Body cooling is in streamline air flow or forced convection.
iii) Temperature of the entire body should be uniform.
Graph of temperature(θ) vs time (t) i.e. Coolingcurve:
As the time (t)increases,therateoffalloftemperature(dθ/dt) decreases.orrateoffallof
temperature is inversely proportional to the time.
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3.3) Gas Laws
Gassesareverymuchsensitivetochangesinpressure,volumeandtemperature.Henceitis
very necessary to study the relation between pressure, volume & temperature of gasses.
NTP: - It is the normal temperature and pressure.At sea level the temp is0°C or 273°Kand
pressure is76 cm of Hgor 760 mm of Hg.
The relation between thermodynamic variables (P, V & T) are given by gas laws.
1) Boyle’s law: It gives the relation between P & V of fixed mass of gas at constant
temperature.
Statement:Boyle’slawstatesthatforfixedmassofgas,pressureisinverselyproportionalto
volume at constant temperature.
Equation:
P x V = constant
Here, P1 = initial pressure, P2 =final pressure, V1 = initial volume, V2 = final volume
Graph:
2) Charle’s law:It gives the relation between V &T of fixed mass of gas at constant pressure.
Statement: Charle’s law statesthatforfixedmassofgas,volumeisdirectlyproportionalto
temperature at constant pressure.
Equation:
V ∝ T … at constant P
𝑉
= constant
𝑇
ere, V1 = initial volume, V2 = final volume, T1 = initial temperature,
H
T2 = final temperature
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Graph:
3) Gay Lussac’s law: It gives the relation between P & T of fixed mass of gas at constant
volume.
Statement: Gay Lussac’s law states that for fixed mass of gas, pressure is directly
proportional to temperature at constant volume.
Equation:
P ∝ T … at constant V
𝑃
= constant
𝑇
Here, P1 = initial pressure, P2 = final pressure,T1 = initial temperature, T2 = final temperature
Graph:
According to Boyle’s law, for fixed mass of gas, the product of P & V is always constant.
According to Charle’s law, for fixed mass of gas, the ratio of V & T is always constant.
According to Gay Lussac’s law, for fixed mass of gas, the ratio of P & T is always constant.
Examples of Boyle’s law:
i) During respiration, our lungs make use of Boyle's law.
ii) Working of a Syringe is based on Boyle’s law.
iii) Spray paints work on the basis of Boyle’s law.
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Examples of Charle’s law:
i) Hot air balloons, Helium ballon
ii)UseofCharle’slawinbaking:YeastproducesCO2 gasandwhenwebakebread/cakeCO2
expands due to increasing temperature and gives fluffiness to our bread and cakes.
iii) Type pressure- low in winter (cold)
Examples of Gay Lussac’s law:
i) Heating of pressurized cans like aerosols or deodorants can explode because of Gay
Lussac’s law. Hence a warning is written on it to keep it away from the heat.
ii) Firing a bullet. When gunpowder burns, it creates a significant amount of superheated
gas. The high pressure of the hot gas behind the bullet forces it out of the barrel of the gun.
iii) A burning automobile tire bursts.
iv) In summer, the chances of tyre bursting increases.
Perfect gas equation:
According to Gay Lussac’s law, P ∝ T
Similarly, according to Charle’s law, V ∝ T
Combining these we have, P x V ∝ T
P x V = constant x T
If mass of gas is measured in Kg or gm then the constant used is ‘K’ called specific gas
constant.
P V = K T … general gas equation
Ifmassofgasis1kg-moleor1gm-molethentheconstanthasthesamevalueforallgasses.
Therefore, ‘K’ is replaced by ‘R’ called universal gas constant.
Hence the above equation becomes …
P V = R T … universal gas equation
Here, R = Universal gas constant (8314.91 J/oK
kg-mole)
Equation:
( Page:49of69) (Basic Science (311305) - Physics) VP Polytechnic College, Indapur
3.4) Fiber Optics
Light travels in the form of electromagnetic waves.
Light can travel through a transparent medium like glass. Inahomogenousmediumlight
follows a straight line path. (always travels in a straight line)
Reflection of light: When light is incident on a smooth&polishedsurfaceitbouncesback
and travels through the same medium. This phenomenon is called reflection of light.
Laws of reflection:
i) angle of incidence is equal to angle of reflection. (∠ i = ∠r)
ii) incident ray. reflected ray and normal all lie in the same plane.
Refractionoflight:Bendingoflightwhenittravelsfromoneopticallytransparentmedium
to another optically transparent medium is called refraction of light.
a) When light travels from rarer medium to denser medium, it bends towards the
normal.
b) When light travels from denser medium to rarer medium, it bends away from the
normal.
( Page:50of69) (Basic Science (311305) - Physics) VP Polytechnic College, Indapur
Laws of refraction:
i) incident ray. refracted ray and normal all lie in the same plane.
ii) Snell’s law: For a given pair of media, the ratio of sine of angle of incidence to sineof
angle of refraction is always constant.
Equation:
This constant is called refractive index of second medium w.r.t. first medium. (1μ2 ).
RefractiveIndex(μ):Theratioofsineofangleofincidencetothesineofangleofrefraction
is called refractive index.
Itcanalsobedefinedastheratioofvelocityoflightinair(Va) tovelocityoflightinmedium
(Vm) .
R.I. is the ratio of two similar quantities hence it has no unit. It is just a number.
It shows the light bending ability of the medium. More R.I. means more bending of light
through that medium.
Total Internal Reflection (T.I.R.):Iflightistravelingfromdensermediumtorarermedium
(i.e. from high R.I. to low R.I.) and if angle of incidence is greater than critical angle (𝚹c)
then only reflection of light takes place. This is called Total Internal Reflection (T.I.R.).
Critical angle (𝚹c) : It is defined as the angle of incidence at which angle of refraction
becomes 90o.
(or)Itisdefinedastheangleofincidenceatwhicharefractedraymovesalongtheinterface
(boundary) of two media.
Conditions of T.I.R. :
i) Light should travel from denser medium to rarer medium.
ii) The angle of incidence should be greater than critical angle (𝚹c)
( Page:51of69) (Basic Science (311305) - Physics) VP Polytechnic College, Indapur
For glass and air mediums, the value of critical angle is 41.8o.
Optical Fiber (Principle of working) :Optical fiberworks on the principle of total internal
reflection (T.I.R.)If light is traveling from densermedium to rarer medium (i.e. from high
R.I. to low R.I.) and if angle of incidence is greater than critical angle (𝚹c) then only
reflection of light takes place. This is called Total Internal Reflection (T.I.R.).
Conditions for propagation of light through optical fiber:
i) R.I. of core should be greater than R.I. of cladding. ( i.e. μcore > μclad)
ii) Angle of incidence should be greater than critical angle. ( i > 𝚹c)
Structure of Optical Fiber:
A) Core:Light signals are transmitted through the core.It is the innermost layer of
optical fiber. Its refractive index is slightly greater than cladding.
B) Cladding:The cladding keeps light signals withinthe core. It also provides some
strength to the core.
C) Protective Skin:It provides mechanical strength tothe optical fiber. It protects the
fiber from moisture.
Dimensions:
Length of fiber = about 1 km
Outer diameter = 0.1 mm to 0.15 mm
( Page:52of69) (Basic Science (311305) - Physics) VP Polytechnic College, Indapur
Core diameter = 5 μm to 600 μm
Cladding diameter = 125 μm to 750 μm
Thickness of protective skin = 30 μm to 50 μm
Many fibers are grouped together to form a cable called optical fiber cable (OFC).
Acceptance angle ( 𝚹a) : The maximum value of angleof incidence for which light will
propagate in the optical fiber is called acceptance angle.
Formula:
Acceptance cone:If acceptance angle ( 𝚹a) is rotatedaround core axis, a cone is formed. If
light is incident through this cone it propagates into the optical fiber. This cone is called an
acceptance cone.
Numerical aperture (N.A.) : Numerical aperture is defined as the sine of maximum acceptance
angle.
It shows the light gathering capacity of an optical fiber. Greater the magnitude of numerical
aperture, greater is the amount of external light the fiber will accept.
Equation :
(or) N.A. = Sin ( 𝚹a max)
Types of optical fibers :
Following are the types of optical fibers -
i) Single mode step index fiber ii) Multimode step index fiber
iii) Multimode graded index fiber
● Instep indexoptical fiber,R.I. remains uniformin the core medium.(➤
IMP for Exam)
● Ingraded indexoptical fiber,R.I. changes (decreases)as we move from the core axis
towards cladding.(➤
IMP for Exam)
Normally plastic optical fiber is preferred over glass because -
● used for shorter run ● easy to install ● less expensive
● higher attenuation ● nice withstand to stress ● lessweight
( Page:53of69) (Basic Science (311305) - Physics) VP Polytechnic College, Indapur
Insingle mode step indexoptical fiber, the path of propagation of light islinear (straight
line)
Inmultimode step indexoptical fiber, the path ofpropagation of light iszig-zag.
Inmultimode graded indexoptical fiber, the pathof propagation of light iscurved (i.e.
curled, coiled, helical etc.)
single mode step index multimode step index multimode graded index
Advantages of optical fiber communication over ordinary wired communication:
i)speedy communication(speed of light is more)
ii)electrically isolatedsince signal is carriedin the form of light
iii)high bandwidth(many signals can be carried throughsingle optical fiber cable)
iv)light weight and more flexiblethan ordinary copperwires
v)No inductive interference
vi)longer life, easy maintenance, temperature resistance
vii)cross talk immunity
Applications of optical fiber :
Used in communication systems -(for image transmission,date storage and transmission,
TV broadcasting, telephone signals, telex & fax signals etc.)
sed in medical equipment -(for inspection of internalbody parts, ophthalmology (eye
U
doctor), light guided surgery, endoscopy etc.)
●Used in internet & computer networking ●Used in space & automotive industry
●Used in military applications (network between army, navy & airforce)
Numerical Problems:
1 ) A window pane with glass material has a dimension 100 cm x 50 cm x 5 mm. The amount
0
of heat conducted in one hour is Q. Calculate Q if the temperature difference is 5 C between
0
outside & inside. given k for glass = 1 W/m/ K
2
Ans. given, A = 100 cm x 50 cm = 1 m x 0.5 m = 0.5 m
-3 0 0
d = 5 mm = 5 x 10 m, t = 1 hr = 60 x 60 = 3600 sec,(θ1 - θ1) =5 C, K = 1 W/m/ K
𝐾𝐴(θ1−θ2)𝑡 1𝑥0
.5𝑥(5)𝑥3600
=18 x 105 J
We have, Q = =
𝑑 −3
(5𝑥10 )
( Page:54of69) (Basic Science (311305) - Physics) VP Polytechnic College, Indapur
0 3 0
2) The volume of a gas at 20 C is 500 cm .What will be its volume at 80 C.
0 3 0
Ans. Given, T1 = 20 + 273= 293 K, V1 = 500 cm ,T2 = 80 + 273 = 353 K
V2 = ?
𝑉1 𝑉2 𝑉1 𝑇2 500𝑥
353
We have, = therefore, V2 = = =602.39 cm3
𝑇1 𝑇2 𝑇1 293
0 0
3) A gas at 20 C and pressure of 70 cm of Hg hasvolume 2.5 litres. Find its volume at 30 C
and pressure of 85 cm of Hg.
0
Ans. given, T1 = 20 + 273 = 293 K P1 = 70 cm
0
V1 = 2.5 Litre T2 = 30 + 273 = 303 k
P2 = 85 cm V2 = ?
𝑃1𝑉1 𝑃2 𝑉2 𝑃1 𝑉1 𝑇2 70𝑥2.5 303
We have, = therefore, V2 = 𝑥
= 𝑥 =2.12 litre
𝑇1 𝑇2 𝑇1 𝑃2 293 85
4) Find the velocity of light in a glass whose refractive index is 1.5.
Ans. given,aμ
g = 1.5
8
Take Va = 3 x 10 m/s … speed of light in air, Vg = ?
We have,
8
=2 x 10 m/s
8
5) The speed of light in diamond is 1.2 x 10 m/s. Calculate refractive index of diamond.
8 8
Ans. given, Vd = 1.2 x 10 m/s, Take Va = 3 x 10 m/s … speed of light in air,
aμ
d = ?
We have, =2.5
0
6) A light ray enters the water medium making an angle of 60 with the water surface. If it
0
suffers a deviation of 15 in water, calculate refractive index of water.
0 0 0
Ans. given, i = 90 - 60 = 30
0 0 0
r = 30 - 15 = 15
Refractive index of water (μw) =
=1.93
( Page:55of69) (Basic Science (311305) - Physics) VP Polytechnic College, Indapur
7) Forsilicateglassopticalfiber,calculatethecriticalangleiftherefractiveindexofcoreis
1.55 and the refractive index of the cladding is 1.35.
Ans. Given: μcore = 1.55, μclad = 1.35, θc = ?
We have,
−1 µ𝑐𝑙𝑎𝑑 −1 1.35
θc = 𝑆𝑖𝑛 ⎡⎢ µ ⎤⎥ = 𝑆𝑖𝑛 ⎡ 1 .55 ⎤ =60.57
0
⎣ ⎦
𝑐𝑜𝑟𝑒 ⎣ ⎦
8) For a typical optical fiber, the refractive index of core is 1.48 and refractive index of
cladding is 1.46. Calculate the critical angle required.
Ans. Given: μcore = 1.48, μclad = 1.46, θc = ?
We have,
−1 µ𝑐𝑙𝑎𝑑 −1 1.46
θc = 𝑆𝑖𝑛 ⎡⎢ µ ⎤⎥ = 𝑆𝑖𝑛 ⎡ 1 .48 ⎤ =80.57
0
⎣ ⎦
𝑐𝑜𝑟𝑒 ⎣ ⎦
- Scientific Vocabulary -
Heat– energy transferred due to temperature difference between two bodies
Temperature– measure of average kinetic energy of particles in a system
Calorie (cal)– amount of heat required to raise the temperature of 1 gram of water by 1°C
Kilocalorie (kcal)– heat required to raise temperature of 1 kg of water by 1°C
bsolute zero temperature – theoretical temperature where volume and pressure of gas
A
become zero (0 K or –273°C)
elsiusscale–temperaturescalewith0°Casmeltingpointoficeand100°Casboilingpoint
C
of water
ahrenheitscale–temperaturescalewith32°Fasmeltingpointoficeand212°Fasboiling
F
point of water
Kelvin scale– absolute temperature scale with 0 K as absolute zero
Conduction–heat transfer in solids without movement of particles
Convection– heat transfer in fluids due to movement of particles
Radiation– heat transfer through electromagnetic waves without a medium
Good conductor of heat– material that easily allows heat transfer (e.g. metals like copper)
Insulator (Bad conductor)– material that resists heat transfer (e.g. plastic, thermocol)
Thermal conductivity (K)– measure of a material's ability to conduct heat
Temperature gradient (T.G.)– change in temperature per unit length of material
ewton’slawofcooling–rateofheatlossisdirectlyproportionaltotemperaturedifference
N
with surroundings
( Page:56of69) (Basic Science (311305) - Physics) VP Polytechnic College, Indapur
oyle’s law – pressure of a gas is inversely proportional to its volume at constant
B
temperature
harle’s law – volume of a gas is directly proportional to its temperature at constant
C
pressure
ay-Lussac’s law – pressureofagasisdirectlyproportionaltoitstemperatureatconstant
G
volume
Universal gas constant (R)– constant used in PV = RT equation for gases
(R = 8314.91 J/K·kg-mole)
Optical fiber– thin, flexible fiber used to transmit light signals over distances
otal Internal Reflection (T.I.R.) – phenomenon where light reflects entirely within a
T
medium when incidence angle > critical angle
Critical angle (θc) – minimum angle of incidence at which total internal reflection occurs
efractive index (μ) – ratio of speed of light inairtothatinamedium;indicatesbending
R
ability of light
cceptance angle (θa) – maximum angle of incidence for which light can enter and
A
propagate through fiber
cceptancecone–cone-shapedregionformedbyrotatingacceptanceangle,throughwhich
A
light can enter fiber
umerical aperture (N.A.) –sineofacceptanceangle;indicateslightgatheringcapacityof
N
fiber
Step index fiber– optical fiber with uniform refractive index in core
Graded index fiber– optical fiber where refractiveindex decreases from core to cladding
Single-mode fiber– allows only one path (straight) for light to travel
Multi-mode fiber– allows multiple paths for light (zig-zag or curved)
eferences
R
1.Engineering physics- R.K. Gaur, S. L.Gupta, Dhanpat rai Publication 10 (d)
2.Text book of physics for class XI & XII (Part I, Part –II)- NCERT New delhi
3.Physics standard XI, XII
4.A learning manual for Basic Science (22102)- First Semester Diploma in Engineering and
Technology - Learning Manual Development Team - MSBTE
( Page:57of69) (Basic Science (311305) - Physics) VP Polytechnic College, Indapur
UNIT EXERCISE
➔ 02 Marks questions.
1) Define heat and temperature. Write SI units of both.
2) What is absolute zero temperature? State its value in Celsius and Kelvin.
3) What is Total Internal Reflection (T.I.R.)? Write conditions for it.
4) Mention any two applications of optical fiber.
o o
5) Convert body temperature 98.6 F to C.
➔ 03 Marks questions.
1) State Boyle’s law, Charle’s law & Gay-Lussac’s law.
2) Explain the Celsius, Fahrenheit and Kelvin temperature scales with their fixed points.
3) Define conduction, convection, and radiation. Give one example of each.
4) Explain the structure of an optical fiber and the principle on which it works.
5) Describe Newton’s law of cooling.
THE END
( Page:58of69) (Basic Science (311305) - Physics) VP Polytechnic College, Indapur
Vidya Pratishthan’s
Polytechnic College, Indapur
Record No.:ACAD/R/40 Revision:00 DoI:01/03/2024
List of Assignments (SLA)
Program Code:AE, CE, CO, EJ and ME Semester:First
Course name:Basic Science, Physics Course code:311305
SN Title and Learning outcome of Assignment
1 Explain physical quantities and its types with examples.
i) Differentiate between scalar and vector quantities with examples.
2
ii) Apply dimensional analysis and conversion of units in different systems
3 Estimate the errors in the measurement for the given problem.
i) Explain electric field, potential and potential difference.
4
ii) Explain Coulomb’s law and Principle of Conservation of electric charge.
i) Explain magnetic intensity and flux with their units. ii) Apply laws of series and
5
parallel combination to the given electrical circuits.
i) Distinguish between conductors, semiconductors and insulators based on energy
6
bands. ii) Explain the I-V characteristics and applications of p-n junction diode.
7 Convert temperature in different temperature scales.
8 Compare different modes of heat transfer with examples (applications).
9 Inter-relate the characteristics of the three gas laws.
i) Explain total internal reflection in optical fiber.
10
ii) Differentiate between types of optical fiber with applications.
( Page:59of69) (Basic Science (311305) - Physics) VP Polytechnic College, Indapur
SLA Assignment No. 01
Learning outcome:Explain physical quantities and its types with examples.
Q. Answer the following questions.
1) Define fundamental & derived physical quantities with two examples each.
2)Match the following:
Physical quantity S.I. Unit
a) Force i) m/s
b) Velocity ii) Kelvin
2
c) Temperature iii) Kg.m/s or newton (N)
iv) Coulomb
3) Match the following:
Prefix Multiplier value
-9
a) centi (c) i) 10
3
b) nano (n) ii) 10
-2
c) mega (M) iii) 10
6
iv) 10
4) Round off the following up to the significant digit given in the bracket next to them.
i) 500.495 [ 5 ] ii) 124.7215 [ 4 ] iii) 0.00546 [ 2 ]
5) Complete the following.
3 3
i) 22 mm = ___ m ii) 18 µF = ___ F iii) 12 cm = ___ m
( Page:60of69) (Basic Science (311305) - Physics) VP Polytechnic College, Indapur
SLA Assignment No. 02
Learning outcome:i) Differentiate between scalar and vector quantities with examples. ii)
Apply dimensional analysis and conversion of units in different systems.
Q. Answer the following questions.
1) Define scalar and vector quantities with two examples each.
2)Write the dimensional formula of the following.
i) Force ii) momentum iii) density
3) Determine the no. of significant figures in following
1. 43080 → ___ 2. 40.050 → ___ 3. 470,000 → ___
4. 4.00 → ___ 5. 0.00500 → ___
4) Match the following:
Physical quantity Dimensional formula
a) Acceleration i)[L2M1T- 3]
b) Work ii)[L-3M1 T0 ]
c) Power iii)[L2M1T- 2]
d) Density iv)[L1M0 T-2]
( Page:61of69) (Basic Science (311305) - Physics) VP Polytechnic College, Indapur
SLA Assignment No. 03
Learning outcome:Estimate the errors in the measurement for the given problem.
Q. Answer the following questions.
1) What do you mean by an error? List different types of errors.
2)Define: i) absolute error ii) relative error iii) percentage error
3) Define: i) accuracy ii) precision
4) In an experiment, a vernier caliper of least count 0.01 cm is used for measurement. The
radius of the sphere measured was 2.0 cm. Find the percentage error in measurement of
radius, area, and volume of the sphere?
5) Find the percentage error in measuring the density of the wooden block. When the
mass of the block is 50 ± 0.1g , and the length of the block is 2 ± 0.01 cm.
( Page:62of69) (Basic Science (311305) - Physics) VP Polytechnic College, Indapur
SLA Assignment No. 04
Learning outcome:i) Explain electric field, potential and potential difference.
ii) Explain Coulomb’s law and Principle of Conservation of electric charge.
Q. Answer the following questions.
1)State the principle of conservation of electric charge.
2) What are the factors affecting electrostatic force?
3) State Coulomb’s law in electrostatics. Also write its mathematical equation.
4) A charged sphere of 60 µC is placed in the air. Find the electric field intensity at a point
30 cm from the center of the sphere.
5) Calculate the potential at a point 10 cm away from a charge of 300 µC, in air.
( Page:63of69) (Basic Science (311305) - Physics) VP Polytechnic College, Indapur
SLA Assignment No. 05
Learning outcome:i) Explain magnetic intensity and flux with their units.
ii) Apply laws of series and parallel combination to the given electrical circuits.
Q. Answer the following questions.
1)Write any two properties of magnetic lines of force. Draw magnetic field of bar magnet.
2) State Ohm’s law. Write its mathematical formula. Define specific resistance.
3) State Joule’s law of heating. Write its mathematical formula.
4) An electrical bulb is labeled 100 W, 240 V. Calculate: i) The current through the filament
when the bulb works normally ii) The resistance of the filament used in the bulb.
5) State law of series and parallel combination of resistances.
( Page:64of69) (Basic Science (311305) - Physics) VP Polytechnic College, Indapur
SLA Assignment No. 06
Learning outcome:i) Distinguish between conductors, semiconductors and insulators based
on energy bands.
ii) Explain the I-V characteristics and applications of p-n junction diodes.
Q. Answer the following questions.
1)Write any three applications of p-n junction diodes.
2) Draw energy band diagrams for: i) conductor ii) semiconductor iii) insulator.
3) List any three donor (pentavalent) and any three acceptor (trivalent) impurities.
4) Draw a circuit diagram showing the p-n junction diode as a half wave rectifier.
5) Write any two points of differences between p-type & n-type semiconductors.
( Page:65of69) (Basic Science (311305) - Physics) VP Polytechnic College, Indapur
SLA Assignment No. 07
Learning outcome:Convert temperature in different temperature scales.
Q. Answer the following questions.
1) Convert 45oC
temperature intooF
.
2)Convert body temperature 98.6oF intooC.
3)Convert 320oK intooC.
4) What is the value of boiling point of water inoF
?
5) Distinguish between heat and temperature. (write any three points)
( Page:66of69) (Basic Science (311305) - Physics) VP Polytechnic College, Indapur
SLA Assignment No. 08
Learning outcome:Compare different modes of heat transfer with examples (applications).
Q. Answer the following questions.
1) Define: i) conduction ii) convection iii) radiation
2)Define variable state of temperature & steady state of temperature. In which state heat
absorbed by the body and heat given out by the body are equal?
3)Write two uses (applications) each of good and poor conductors of heat.
4) State law of thermal conductivity. Hence define the coefficient of thermal conductivity.
5) State Newton’s law of cooling and also list the conditions or assumptions for Newton’s
law of cooling.
( Page:67of69) (Basic Science (311305) - Physics) VP Polytechnic College, Indapur
SLA Assignment No. 09
Learning outcome:Inter-relate the characteristics of the three gas laws.
Q. Answer the following questions.
1) State: i) Boyle’s law ii) Charle’s law iii) Gay-Lussac’s law
0 3 0
2)The volume of a gas at 20 C is 500 cm .What will be its volume at 80 C.
0 0
3)A gas at 20 C and pressure of 70 cm of Hg has volume 2.5 litres. Find its volume at 30 C
and pressure of 85 cm of Hg.
4) Define: absolute zero temperature. Write the value of absolute zero temperature.
5) Give two examples (applications) each of Boyle’s law and Charle’s law.
( Page:68of69) (Basic Science (311305) - Physics) VP Polytechnic College, Indapur
SLA Assignment No. 10
Learning outcome:i) Explain total internal reflection in optical fiber.
ii) Differentiate between types of optical fiber with applications.
Q. Answer the following questions.
1) Whatis Total Internal Reflection (T.I.R.)? Write conditions for it.
2)Mention any two applications of optical fiber.
3)Define: i)Acceptance angle (θa) ii)Numerical aperture (N.A.)
4) For silicate glass optical fiber, calculate the critical angle if the refractive index of core
is 1.55 and the refractive index of the cladding is 1.35.
8
5)The speed of light in diamond is 1.2 x 10 m/s. Calculate refractive index of diamond.
8
(Take Va = 3 x 10 m/s … speed of light in air)
( Page:69of69) (Basic Science (311305) - Physics) VP Polytechnic College, Indapur
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