MODULE-1

Study Notes: Computers

1. Computer
A computer is an electronic machine designed to accept data, process it according to a set of instructions,
and produce meaningful information. It works on the principle of Input → Process → Output → Storage.
Basic Functional Diagram of a Computer
[Input Devices] → [Central Processing Unit] → [Output Devices]
↑
[Memory/Storage]
Example:
When you type 23 + 7 in a calculator app, the input is given via the keyboard/touchscreen, the CPU
processes it using addition operation, and the result 30 is displayed on the screen.

2. Characteristics of Computers
Computers possess several unique features that differentiate them from human beings.

Characteristic Description Example

Perform millions of operations per A computer can calculate 2+2 instantly, whereas a
Speed
second. human takes a few seconds.

Provides precise results if

Accuracy In bank transactions, balances are updated accurately.
instructions are correct.

Once instructed, it works A printer prints multiple pages without user

Automation
automatically. interference.

Storage Can store huge amounts of data. A laptop stores movies, photos, and software.

Same computer can run MS Word, play music, and

Versatility Can perform a variety of tasks.
browse internet.

Diligence Does not get tired or bored. A server runs 24×7 without breaks.

Can connect with other computers

Connectivity Internet browsing, video calls.
via networks.

3. History of Computers
The history of computers is divided into generations, based on technological advancement.
Generations of Computers

Generation Period Technology Used Examples

First Generation 1940–1956 Vacuum tubes ENIAC, UNIVAC

Second Generation 1956–1963 Transistors IBM 1401

Third Generation 1964–1971 Integrated Circuits (ICs) IBM 360 series

Fourth Generation 1971–1980s Microprocessors Apple II, IBM PC

Generation Period Technology Used Examples

Fifth Generation 1980s–Present Artificial Intelligence, VLSI, ULSI Smartphones, AI-powered computers

Diagram: Evolution of Computers

Abacus → Mechanical Calculators → Vacuum Tube Computers → Transistor Computers → IC Computers
→ Microprocessor Computers → AI-based Systems
4. Classification of Computers
Computers are classified based on purpose, size, and data handling.
A. Based on Purpose

Type Description Example

General Purpose Used for multiple tasks Desktop PC, Laptop

Special Purpose Designed for a specific function Weather forecasting system, ATMs

A. Based on Purpose
1. General Purpose Computers
These computers are designed to perform a wide variety of tasks. Users can install different software
applications to do multiple jobs like word processing, browsing, gaming, or programming.
Example: Desktop PCs, laptops.
2. Special Purpose Computers
They are built to solve a specific problem or perform a single dedicated task efficiently. They cannot be
reprogrammed easily for other purposes.
Example: Automatic teller machines (ATMs), weather forecasting systems, traffic light controllers.
B. Based on Data Handling

Type Description Example

Analog Works on continuous data (signals) Speedometer, ECG machine

Digital Works on discrete values (0s and 1s) Laptop, Smartphone

Hybrid Combination of analog & digital Aircraft control system

B. Based on Data Handling

1. Analog Computers
Analog computers process continuous data, such as signals, speed, or temperature. They are mostly used
in scientific and engineering fields for simulations.
Example: Speedometers in cars, ECG machines in hospitals.
2. Digital Computers
Digital computers process discrete data (binary 0s and 1s). They are the most common type of computers
used today because they are highly accurate and versatile.
Example: PCs, laptops, tablets, smartphones.
3. Hybrid Computers
Hybrid computers combine the features of both analog and digital computers. They can process continuous
data as well as perform digital operations.
Example: Airplane flight control systems, hospital ICU monitoring systems.

C. Based on Size and Performance

Type Description Example

Supercomputer Extremely powerful, handles trillions of calculations per second PARAM, Cray

Mainframe Supports thousands of users simultaneously Banking systems

Minicomputer Mid-sized, supports multiple users PDP-11

Microcomputer Smallest, used by single users PC, Laptop, Mobile

C. Based on Size and Performance

1. Supercomputers
The fastest and most powerful computers capable of performing trillions of calculations per second. They
are used for complex scientific computations like weather prediction, nuclear simulations, and space
research.
Example: PARAM (India), Cray.

2. Mainframe Computers
Mainframes are very large and powerful systems that can support hundreds or thousands of users
simultaneously. They are widely used in industries that need massive data processing.
Example: Banking systems, insurance companies, railway reservation systems.
3. Minicomputers
Smaller than mainframes but larger than microcomputers. They are mid-sized systems used by small and
medium-sized organizations for tasks like database management and departmental operations.
Example: PDP-11, VAX series.
4. Microcomputers
The smallest and most common type of computers, designed for individual users. They are affordable and
widely used for personal, educational, and business purposes.
Example: Personal computers (PCs), laptops, tablets, smartphones.

Applications of Computers
Computers are used in almost every field of modern life because of their speed, accuracy, storage, and
connectivity. Below are the major application areas.
-Field Application Example

Education Online learning, digital classrooms, e-exams Coursera, Google Classroom

Business Accounting, payroll, e-commerce Amazon, Flipkart

Healthcare Patient records, diagnostics, telemedicine MRI, Apollo online consultations

Science & Research Simulations, forecasting, space research ISRO PARAM supercomputers

Banking & Finance ATMs, online banking, mobile wallets SBI YONO, Paytm

Communication Emails, messaging, video calls WhatsApp, Zoom

Entertainment Movies, games, streaming Netflix, YouTube

Government Record keeping, e-governance Aadhaar, DigiLocker

Industry Robotics, quality control Car manufacturing robots

Transportation Ticket booking, GPS, traffic control IRCTC, Google Maps

Basic Organization of a Computer

A computer follows the Input–Process–Output (IPO) cycle with storage and control units supporting the
operation.
The five basic units are:
1. Input Unit
2. Output Unit
3. Storage Unit (Memory)
4. Central Processing Unit (CPU) – which itself has:
o Control Unit (CU)

o Arithmetic Logic Unit (ALU)

5. Communication between these units

1. Input Unit
The input unit is responsible for feeding data and instructions into the computer. It converts human-
readable information into machine-readable form (binary).
Examples: Keyboard, Mouse, Scanner, Microphone.
2. Central Processing Unit (CPU)
Often called the brain of the computer. It processes all the data and controls the functioning of the
computer.
 Arithmetic Logic Unit (ALU): Performs arithmetic (addition, subtraction, multiplication, division)
and logical operations (comparisons like <, >, =).
Example: Checking if a password entered matches the stored one.
 Control Unit (CU): Directs the flow of data and instructions between other units. It interprets
program instructions and tells the computer what to do.
Example: Sending data from input devices to memory and later to output devices.
3. Memory / Storage Unit
Responsible for storing data, instructions, and results. It is divided into:
  Primary Storage (RAM, ROM): Fast, temporary or permanent storage used during processing.
 Secondary Storage (Hard disk, SSD, Pen drives): Long-term storage of data.
Example: While playing a video, RAM temporarily stores the file, and the hard disk keeps the video
permanently.
4. Output Unit
The output unit presents the processed data (information) in a human-readable form. It converts binary
data into text, images, or audio.
Examples: Monitor, Printer, Speakers, Projector.

Table – Units of a Computer

Unit Function Example Devices

Input Unit Accepts data and instructions Keyboard, Mouse, Scanner

ALU (CPU) Performs arithmetic & logical operations Part of processor

Control Unit (CPU) Directs flow of data & execution of instructions CPU internal

Memory/Storage Stores data and instructions RAM, ROM, HDD, SSD

Output Unit Displays information in human-readable form Monitor, Printer, Speakers

Data Representation with Conversions

1. Numbers
Computers convert numbers into binary (0 and 1) because they only understand electrical signals (ON = 1,
OFF = 0).
Example: Convert Decimal to Binary
Convert decimal 25 into binary.
 Divide by 2 repeatedly and record remainders:
25 ÷ 2 = 12 remainder 1
12 ÷ 2 = 6 remainder 0
6 ÷ 2 = 3 remainder 0
3 ÷ 2 = 1 remainder 1
1 ÷ 2 = 0 remainder 1
 Read remainders from bottom to top → 11001.
Decimal 25 = Binary 11001

2. Characters
Characters are converted into binary using character encoding schemes like ASCII or Unicode.
Example: Convert Character to ASCII Binary
Character: ‘A’
 ASCII value of 'A' = 65
  Convert 65 into binary:
65 ÷ 2 = 32 remainder 1
32 ÷ 2 = 16 remainder 0
16 ÷ 2 = 8 remainder 0
8 ÷ 2 = 4 remainder 0
4 ÷ 2 = 2 remainder 0
2 ÷ 2 = 1 remainder 0
1 ÷ 2 = 0 remainder 1
Binary = 1000001
‘A’ → ASCII = 65 → 1000001 (Binary)

3. Images
Images are converted into binary using pixels. Each pixel is assigned a binary code depending on its color.
Example: Convert 2×2 Black & White Image
Image:
⬛⬜
⬜⬛
 Black = 0, White = 1
 Binary representation:
01
10
Image is stored as binary 01 10

4. Audio
Sound is analog (continuous) but computers need digital (discrete). This is done by sampling (measuring
amplitude at equal intervals) and storing values in binary.
Example: Simple Audio Sampling
Sound wave sample values: [3, 5, 2, 6]
 Convert each to binary (assume 3 bits storage):
3 → 011, 5 → 101, 2 → 010, 6 → 110
Audio stored as 011 101 010 110
5. Video
Video = sequence of images (frames) + audio track. Each frame is stored as binary pixels, and audio is
stored as sampled binary.
Example: 2 Frames Video
 Frame 1 (2×2 pixels):
01
 10
 Frame 2 (2×2 pixels):
11
00
 Audio samples: [2, 3] → 010, 011
Video storage = Frame1 (0110) + Frame2 (1100) + Audio (010 011)
Summary Table

Data Type Conversion Process Example Result

Numbers Decimal converted into Binary (divide by 2) 25 → 11001

Characters ASCII/Unicode maps characters to binary codes ‘A’ → 65 → 1000001

Images Pixels mapped to binary (Black=0, White=1, or RGB) 2×2 Image → 01 10

Audio Analog wave sampled into binary values [3,5,2,6] → 011 101 010 110

Video Frames stored as images + audio samples Frame1+Frame2+Audio → Binary stream

Using Spreadsheets for Basic Operations on Data and Visualization

Spreadsheets (like MS Excel, Google Sheets, or LibreOffice Calc) are powerful tools for storing,
analyzing, and visualizing data. They allow users to perform calculations, organize information, and present
results in graphical form.
1. Basic Data Entry and Organization
 Data is entered in rows (records) and columns (fields).
 Each cell can hold a value (number, text, or formula).
Example Table of Student Marks

Name Math Science English

Arjun 85 78 92

Meena 90 88 80

Ravi 70 65 75

Kavya 95 92 89

2. Basic Operations on Data

Spreadsheets use formulas and functions to perform calculations.
a) Sum
Formula: =SUM(B2:D2)
 For Arjun: 85 + 78 + 92 = 255
b) Average
 Formula: =AVERAGE(B2:D2)
 For Arjun: (85 + 78 + 92) ÷ 3 = 85
c) Maximum and Minimum
Formula: =MAX(B2:B5) → Highest Math mark = 95
Formula: =MIN(C2:C5) → Lowest Science mark = 65
d) Conditional Operations
Formula: =IF(B2>=90, "Excellent", "Good")
 If Math ≥ 90 → “Excellent”, else → “Good”
3. Data Visualization
Spreadsheets provide charts and graphs to represent data visually, making patterns easier to understand.
a) Bar Chart
 Compare marks of students in different subjects.
 Example: Math scores (Arjun 85, Meena 90, Ravi 70, Kavya 95).
b) Pie Chart
 Show percentage contribution of each subject to total marks.
 Example: Arjun’s total = 255, distribution among subjects shown in pie slices.
c) Line Chart
 Useful for showing trends over time (e.g., monthly sales, attendance).
4. Example Visualization
Bar Chart: Math Marks
Arjun ██████████████ 85
Meena ███████████████ 90
Ravi ██████████ 70
Kavya ████████████████ 95
5. Advantages of Spreadsheets
1. Easy to store and organize data.
2. Perform automatic calculations.
3. Create visual reports instantly.
4. Support data analysis (sorting, filtering, pivot tables).