COM312 Networking and Data Communication

Lecturer:
Mr Chinyerezi Kapenya
(M.Sc.IT, BBA C&MIS, CCNA-Instructor, PDGE, Computer
Hacking Forensic Investigation)
Introduction to Data Communication and Networking

What is data communication , what is networking

The term “Data Communication” comprises two words:

Data and Communication. Data can be any text, image,
audio, video, and multimedia files. Communication is an act
of sending or receiving data. Thus, data communication refers
to the exchange of data between two or more networked or
connected devices. These devices must be capable of sending
and receiving data over a communication medium. Examples
of such devices include personal computers, mobile
phones, laptops, etc. These devices are connected through
a media to the network, which carry information
from one end to other end.
Data Communication is Communication using
communication media is also called data communication
 Introduction to Data Communication and Networking
what is Transmission media ,Communication media
• these are system or subsystems that mediate the propagation of signals for the purpose
of communication
• It‘s a physical path between the transmitter and the receiver
• Ways by which information is delivered and received

What is an electronic device , these are components for controlling the flow of electrical
currents for the purpose of information processing and system control. These are used in
the data communication.

We have two types of communication or transmission media

1. Wireless (unguided)
2. Wired (Guided)
 Introduction to Data Communication and Networking
We have two types of communication or transmission media
 Introduction to Data Communication and Networking
In wireless is the transmission of information using Radio frequencies to connect
between nodes. What are nodes: it‘s a communication endpoint where lines end for
network distribution. What are Radio Frequencies : is the oscillation rate of an alternating
electric current or voltage or of a magnetic, electric or electromagnetic field or
mechanical .
In wireless media, data is transmitted using the following different types of media which
are described below
 Introduction to Data Communication and Networking
• In Infrared Transmission: In the visible spectrum of light and the microwaves, there
is an infrared wave. The frequency range is from 300 GHz to 430 THz, and it has a
wavelength of 700 NM to 1-mm. The infrared wave is used to communicate with very
short distances like TV and remote contact. Infrared travels in a straight line and is thus
inherently directional. Infrared is unable to penetrate wall-like barriers due to the high
frequency spectrum.
• Microwave Transmission: Electromagnetic waves over 100 MHz can be transmitted
directly and signals can be sent to a specific station by beaming the waves. Because
microwaves are moving on a straight line, all transmitters and receivers must be strictly
on an aligned line of view.
• Broadcast radio : Transmits signal using radio waves through the air over a long
distance and short distance , long distance such as city to city or regions. So Bluetooth
, Wi-Fi use broadcast signals.
• A satellite or artificial satellite is an object intentionally placed into orbit in outer
space. It receives signals from an earth-based station and amplifies the signal and
broadcast the signal back over a wide area to any number of earth–based stations
Except for passive satellites, most satellites have an electricity generation system for
equipment on board, such as solar panels or radioisotope thermoelectric generators
(RTGs). Most satellites also have a method of communication to ground stations,
called transponders.
 Introduction to Data Communication and Networking
In wired media, data is transmitted using three different types of media which are
described below:
• Twisted Pair cable
• Coaxial cable
• Fiber optical cable
 Introduction to Data Communication
and Networking
• Twisted pair cable: What is Twisted Pair
of cables? It is a popular media for LAN
(Local area network) and a telephone
network. It contains multiple pairs of cables
twisted with each other.
Two types of twisted pair cable
– shielded twisted pair
– unshielded twisted pair
The cables are twisted to minimize interference
between each other. The cables are cheaper,
lighter thinner more flexible and easier to install.
However, it can transmit data only for a short
distance and the transmission speed is slow. It
requires RJ-45 to connect it to the computer.

Features of twisted pair cable are as follows:

A twisted pair cable is two insulated copper
wires twisted together loosely to form a cable.
The wire is solid copper .The insulation is
usually PVC. They are cheaper, lighter and
easier to work with than coaxial cables.
 Introduction to Data Communication and Networking
Cabling

The Console Cable is used for the serial connection between your computer‘s
serial port and the console port on your TP-Link switch or router to access the
CLI (Command Line Interface) of the device.

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 Introduction to Data Communication and Networking
Cabling
A straight through cable is a type of twisted pair cable that is used in local
area networks to connect a computer to a network hub such as a router. This
type of cable is also sometimes called a patch cable

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 Introduction to LAN’S and WAN’S
Cabling
An Ethernet crossover cable is a type of Ethernet cable used to connect
computing devices together directly.

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 Introduction to Data Communication and Networking
Cabling
Usually, straight through cables are primarily used for connecting unlike
devices. And crossover cables are use for connecting unlike devices alike
devices.
Use straight through cable for the following cabling:
Switch to router
Switch to PC or server
Hub to PC or server
Use crossover cables for the following cabling:
Switch to switch
Switch to hub
Hub to hub
Router to router
Router Ethernet port to PC NIC
PC to PC

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Introduction to Data Communication and Networking
Cabling

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 Introduction to Data Communication and Networking
Advantages of twisted pair cable
• It is the smallest amount expensive media of transmission of brief description.
• It is relatively easy for implementation and termination.
• If a portion of a twisted pair cable is broken it doesn‘t affect the whole network.
• It is inexpensive and readily available.
• It is flexible and lightweight.
• It is easy to work with it and install.

Disadvantages of twisted pair cable

Their attenuation is very high.

It offers very poor security.
It produces various signals and noise signals noise.
It bears susceptibility to interference.
It has a relatively low bandwidth (3000Hz).
Introduction to Data
Communication and
Networking
Introduction to Data Communication and Networking
Coaxial Cable
It has an outer plastic covering containing an insulation layer made of PVC or
Teflon and 2 parallel conductors each having a separate insulated protection cover.
The coaxial cable transmits information in two modes: Baseband mode(dedicated
cable bandwidth) and Broadband mode(cable bandwidth is split into separate
ranges). Cable TVs and analog television networks widely use Coaxial cables.
Advantages:

High Bandwidth
Better noise Immunity
Easy to install and expand
Inexpensive

Disadvantages:

Single cable failure can disrupt the entire network

Introduction to Data Communication and Networking

Optical Fiber Cable

It uses the concept of reflection of light through a core made up of glass or plastic.
The core is surrounded by a less dense glass or plastic covering called the
cladding. It is used for the transmission of large volumes of data.

The cable can be unidirectional or bidirectional. The WDM (Wavelength Division

Multiplexer) supports two modes, namely unidirectional and bidirectional mode.

Advantages:
Increased capacity and bandwidth
Lightweight
Less signal attenuation
Immunity to electromagnetic interference
Resistance to corrosive materials

Disadvantages:
Difficult to install and maintain
High cost
Fragile
 Introduction to Data Communication and Networking
Three types of transmission modes
Based on the direction of data from sender to receiver, there can be 3 types of
transmission modes which are as follows

Simplex
Half-duplex
Duplex
 Introduction to Data Communication and Networking
Three types of transmission modes

Simplex:
In simplex mode, among the two devices which are communicating with each
other, one device can only be a sender and the other can only be a receiver. Thus
the sender device will not receive data but will transmit data, and the receiver
device will only receive data but will not transmit or send any data. This
transmission is unidirectional.

Examples: Keyboards and monitors or displays, traditional FM radios etc.

Traditional FM radios only output broadcasted or transmitted audio from stations,
but does not communicate back.

Advantage
The sender can use the full capacity of the medium to transmit data, so more data
is transmitted at a time.

Disadvantage
One way connection, so no inter-communication between devices.
 Introduction to Data Communication and Networking
Half-Duplex
In half-duplex, both devices which are communicating with each other can
send and receive data, but not at the same time, that is, when one device is
sending data then another device can only receive that data but can‘t send data
back. This is like a narrow bridge where vehicles from both end of the bridge
can cross the bridge but not at the same time.

Examples: walkie-talkie, CB radios etc.

Advantage

In half-duplex, both devices can send and receive data and also entire capacity
of the transmission medium is used when transmitting data.

Disadvantage

As when one device is sending data then another one must wait, this can cause
delay in sending the data at the right time.
 Introduction to Data Communication and Networking
Full-Duplex

In full-duplex or duplex mode, both devices can send and receive data at
the same time. Here is this transmission mode, data going in a direction
will share the capacity of the transmission medium with the data going in
another direction. This sharing can be obtained by two ways, such as, by
sharing the capacity of the medium, or having two physically separated
transmission paths.

Examples: telephone, cellphone networks etc.

Advantages

Both parties can talk and listen to each other at the same time.

Disadvantages

If there is no dedicated path in the network then the capacity will be

divided into two.
 Introduction to Data Communication and Networking
Components of a data communications system

Data communications are the exchange of data between two devices using one or
multiple forms of transmission medium using one of the three transmission
modes. That is, data communication is movement of data from one device or
end-point to another device or end point through electrical or optical medium.
Systems that facilitates this movement of data between devices or end-points are
called data communication network. There are 5 components of a data
communication network. The devices which are in need to be a part of a data
communication network made up of computer hardware and software.

Data communication networks collect data from devices such as microphone and
let the data to be carried to the receiver or destination such as a micro-computer
or minicomputer. However, it could be the opposite, that is data communication
networks can also carry data from a micro-computer or minicomputer to a device
such as printer. Data communications networks facilitate more efficient use of
computers and improve the day-to-day control of a business by providing faster
information flow. They also provide message transfer services to allow computer
users to talk to one another via electronic mail, chat, and video streaming.
 Introduction to Data Communication and Networking
5 Components of Data Communication Network

Data
Sender
Receiver
Transmission Medium
Protocol
 Introduction to Data Communication and Networking
Components of Data Communication Network

Data
Communication of data means a message or data will be
transmitted from one device and will be received in the
destination or target device. Thus the first component in a data
communication network is data or message to that needs to be
delivered and received. Data or message can be of various forms
such as text, audio, video, image or combinations of these forms
etc.

Sender
A source must send that to a destination. This source is the
sender. The device that sends the data to the destination or target
is the Sender. It can be a computer, cell phone, video camera and
so on.
 Introduction to Data Communication and Networking
Components of Data Communication Network

Receiver
The destination of a transmitted data is the receiver which will
receive the data. The device that receives the data is the
Receiver. A receiver can again be a computer, cell phone, video
camera and so on.

Transmission medium
In data communication network, the transmission medium is the
physical path for the data to travel to its destination. Receiver
receives the data at one end of this path and the sender sent from
another end of the path. Transmission medium could be like
twisted-pair cable, coaxial cable, fiber-optic cable etc.
 Introduction to Data Communication and Networking
Components of Data Communication Network
Protocol
A protocol is nothing but a set of rules that applies on the full data
communication procedure. This is like an agreement between the
two devices to successfully communicate with each other. For
example, how to send the data, how the data will be traveling,
how to ensure that full data has received, how to handle errors in
transmission etc. Both devices follow the same set of rules or
protocol so that they understand each other.
 Introduction to Data Communication and Networking
Measuring Capacity of Communication

MEDIA In data communication, the transmission medium is also

known as channel. The capacity of a channel is the maximum
amount of signals or traffic that a channel can carry. It is measured
in terms of bandwidth and data transfer rate.

Bandwidth of a channel is the range of frequencies available for

transmission of data through that channel. Higher the bandwidth,
higher the data transfer rate. Normally, bandwidth is the difference
of maximum and minimum frequency contained in the composite
signals.
Bandwidth is measured in Hertz (Hz).
1 KHz =1000 Hz
1 MHz =1000 KHz = 1000000 Hz
 Introduction to Data Communication and Networking

Measuring Capacity of Communication MEDIA

Data Transfer Rate Data travels in the form of signals over a channel. One
signal carries one or more bits over the channel. Data transfer rate is the number
of bits transmitted between source and destination in one second. It is also
known as bit rate. It is measured in terms of bits per second (bps). The higher
units for data transfer rates are:
1 Kbps=210 bps=1024 bps
1 Mbps=220 bps=1024 Kbps
1 Gbps=230 bps=1024 Mbps
1 Tbps=240 bps=1024 Gbps

Example 11.1 A user wants to upload a text document at

the rate of 10 pages per 20 second. What will be the required
data rate of the channel? (Assume that 1 page contains 1600
characters and each character is of 8 bits).
 Introduction to Data Communication and Networking
In Data Communication and networking you find hardware and software. what
is a hardware and what is the software.

Computer Hardware
Computer Hardware is any part of the computer that can be touched. These are
primarily electronic devices used to build up the computer. Computer
Hardware actually perform the computing operations along with taking input
and sending the computed result as output or to storing that.

Example: Processor, Memory Devices, Monitor, Printer etc. are computer

hardware. Monitor is used to display output such as video, texts etc. while
Printer is used to print documents, images etc. These are electronic devices
and can be touched. Both monitor and printer are output devices. Hardware
such as keyboard, mouse etc. are input devices as we use this devices to input
or send signal to the computer. Beside input/output or IO devices there are lots
of other devices that builds up the central processing unit (CPU) such as
motherboard, processor, RAM, hard disk, graphics card etc. these computer
hardware processes data (input or stored data) and generates output or simply
executes further instructions.
Computer Software
 Introduction to Data Communication and Networking
In Data Communication and networking you find hardware and software. what
is a hardware and what is the software.

Software: is the collection of computer programs, procedures and

documentation that performs different tasks on a computer system. Software
can specify the processors instruction through which the processor can change
the state of computer hardware in a predefined sequence. Briefly, computer
software is a language in which computer speaks.

Examples

Operating Systems such as Microsoft Windows 10, Word processing

applications such Microsoft Word etc. as computer software. We can‘t touch
these as they are all virtual. But we can use them using various input devices
and can get output from them using different output devices. For example, we
can use keyboard to type into Microsoft Word and can see what we types in
the monitor, we can also print out what we typed using a printer. The software
are stored in storage such as hard disks or memories such as ROM.
Introduction to Data Communication and Networking
Differences between Computer Hardware and Software
 Data Communication Concepts
Characteristics of Data Communication
The effectiveness of any data communications system depends upon the
following four fundamental characteristics:

1. Delivery: The data should be delivered to the correct destination

and correct user.
2. Accuracy: The communication system should deliver the data
accurately, without introducing any errors. The data may get
corrupted during transmission affecting the accuracy of the
delivered data.
3. Timeliness: Audio and Video data has to be delivered in a timely
manner without any delay; such a data delivery is called real time
transmission of data.
4. Jitter: It is the variation in the packet arrival time. Uneven Jitter
may affect the timeliness of data being transmitted.
 Introduction to Networks

What is a ―Network‖?
• A network is a way to get ―stuff‖ between 2 or more ―things‖
• A group or system of interconnected people or things
Examples: Mail, phone system, conversations, railroad system,
highways and roads.

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 Introduction to Networks
What is Computer Network
A computer network is a group of computer systems and other computing
hardware devices that are linked together through communication channels to
facilitate communication and resource-sharing among a wide range of users.

The smallest network is between two electronic devices and the largest network is
the World Wide Web (WWW) or internet. The World Wide Web also known as the
web, WWW or W3 refers to all the public websites or pages that users can access
on their local computers and other devices through the internet.
 Introduction to Networks
Computer Network
Computer networks are commonly classified based on both their purpose and size.
Gain a better understanding of network classification as you explore several
different types of networks, including LAN, WAN, WLAN, MAN, SAN, and the
specific purposes of PAN, EPN, and VPN networks.

Types of Networks
There are several different types of computer networks. Computer networks can be
characterized by their size as well as their purpose. The size of a network can be
expressed by the geographic area they occupy and the number of computers that are
part of the network. Networks can cover anything from a handful of devices within
a single room to millions of devices spread across the entire globe.
Some of the different networks based on size are:
• Personal area network, or PAN
• Local area network, or LAN
• Metropolitan area network, or MAN
• Wide area network, or WAN
 Introduction to Networks
Computer Network
In terms of purpose, many networks can be considered general purpose, which
means they are used for everything from sending files to a printer to accessing the
Internet. Some types of networks, however, serve a very particular purpose.
Some of the different networks based on their main purpose are:
• Storage area network, or SAN
• Enterprise private network, or EPN
• Virtual private network, or VPN

We will look at the following Networks

1. Local Area Networks
2. Wide Area Networks
3. Metropolitan Networks
 Introduction to Networks
Computer Network
Local Area Network( LAN)
It covers, as the name suggests, a local area. A local area network, or LAN, consists
of a computer network at a single site, typically an individual office building and
homes. A LAN is very useful for sharing resources, such as data storage and
printers. LANs can be built with relatively inexpensive hardware, such as hubs,
network adapters and Ethernet cables. The smallest LAN may only use two
computers, while larger LANs can accommodate thousands of computers. A LAN
typically relies mostly on wired connections for increased speed and security, but
wireless connections can also be part of a LAN. High speed and relatively low cost
are the defining characteristics of LANs. LANs are typically used for single sites
where people need to share resources among themselves but not with the rest of the
outside world. Think of an office building where everybody should be able to
access files on a central server or be able to print a document to one or more central
printers. Those tasks should be easy for everybody working in the same office, but
you would not want somebody just walking outside to be able to send a document
to the printer from their cell phone! If a local area network, or LAN, is entirely
wireless, it is referred to as a wireless local area network, or WLAN
 Introduction to Networks
Computer Network
Local Area Network( LAN)
These type of networks include:
• Personal Area Networks (PAN)
• Home Area Networks (HAN).

Wide Area Network (WAN)

A wide area network, or WAN, occupies a very large area, such as an entire country
or the entire world. A WAN can contain multiple smaller networks, such as LANs
or MANs. The Internet is the best-known example of a public WAN. A WAN can
be setup both physically and virtually. A WAN can connect multiple other LANs
virtually, creating what is called a VLAN. In this sense it is like a LAN of LANs!
When it comes to today's increased use of remote work connections, the WAN is a
powerful tool that provides interfaces to the Internet as well as giving access to
systems that may be spread throughout the world. One means of connecting to a
WAN is through a VPN or virtual private network. This allows a secure connection
to the WAN, thus protecting your data and device from attack. In addition to virtual
connections, fiber optic provides a backbone to many WAN setups.
 Introduction to Networks
Computer Network
Wide Area Network (WAN)
A wide area network, or WAN, occupies a very large area, such as an entire country or the
entire world. A WAN can contain multiple smaller networks, such as LANs or MANs. The
Internet is the best-known example of a public WAN.

The Internet
It is a collection of other networks, including other LANs and WANs. Hence, the name
INTERconnection of NETworks. In order to be connected to that worldwide Network, one
needs a ISP (Internet Service Provider). They are the companies who provide you service in
terms of internet connection to connect to the internet..
Examples of ISP in Zambia
• Afczas
• Airtel Zambia
• Bank-of-Zambia-vAS
• CITYCHannel
• Liquid Intelligent Technologies
• Mtn Zambia
• Paratus Telecommunications Zambia
• UUNET Africa, Lusaka Zambia
• ZAMREN
• ZAMTEL
 Introduction to Networks
Computer Network
Metropolitan Area Network (MAN)
A metropolitan area network, or MAN, consists of a computer network across an
entire city, college campus or small region. A MAN is larger than a LAN, which is
typically limited to a single building or site. Depending on the configuration, this
type of network can cover an area from several miles to tens of miles. A MAN is
often used to connect several LANs together to form a bigger network. When this
type of network is specifically designed for a college campus, it is sometimes
referred to as a campus area network, or CAN.

One of the benefits of networks

like PAN and LAN is that they
can be kept entirely private by
restricting some communications
to the connections within the network.
 Introduction to Networks
Computer Network
Common Network Device
Here is the common network device list:
• Hub
• Switch
• Router
• Bridge
• Gateway
• Modem
• Repeater
• Access Point
 Introduction to Networks
Computer Network
Common Network Device
Hub
Hubs connect multiple computer networking devices together. A hub also acts as a
repeater in that it amplifies signals that deteriorate after traveling long distances
over connecting cables. A hub is the simplest in the family of network connecting
devices because it connects LAN components with identical protocols. A hub can
be used with both digital and analog data, provided its settings have been
configured to prepare for the formatting of the incoming data.
For example, if the incoming data is in digital format, the hub must pass it on as
packets; however, if the incoming data is analog, then the hub passes it on in signal
form.
Hubs do not perform packet filtering or addressing functions; they just send data
packets to all connected devices. Hubs operate at the Physical layer of the Open
Systems Interconnection (OSI) model. There are two types of hubs:
• simple Port
• multiple port.
 Introduction to Networks
Computer Network
Common Network Device
Switch
Switches generally have a more intelligent role than hubs. A switch is a multiport device that
improves network efficiency. The switch maintains limited routing information about
nodes in the internal network, and it allows connections to systems like hubs or routers.
Strands of LANs are usually connected using switches. Generally, switches can read the
hardware addresses of incoming packets to transmit them to the appropriate destination.
Using switches improves network efficiency over hubs or routers because of the virtual
circuit capability. Switches also improve network security because the virtual circuits are
more difficult to examine with network monitors. You can think of a switch as a device that
has some of the best capabilities of routers and hubs combined. A switch can work at either
the Data Link layer or the Network layer of the OSI model. A multilayer switch is one
that can operate at both layers, which means that it can operate as both a switch and a router.
A multilayer switch is a high-performance device that supports the same routing protocols as
routers.
Switches can be subject to distributed denial of service (DDoS) attacks; flood guards are
used to prevent malicious traffic from bringing the switch to a halt. Switch port security is
important so be sure to secure switches: Disable all unused ports and use DHCP snooping,
ARP inspection and MAC address filtering.
 Introduction to Networks
Computer Network
Common Network Device
Router
Routers help transmit packets to their destinations by charting a path through the sea of
interconnected networking devices using different network topologies. Routers are
intelligent devices, and they store information about the networks they‘re connected
to. Most routers can be configured to operate as packet-filtering firewalls and use
access control lists (ACLs). Routers, in conjunction with a channel service unit/data
service unit (CSU/DSU), are also used to translate from LAN framing to WAN
framing. This is needed because LANs and WANs use different network protocols.
Such routers are known as border routers. They serve as the outside connection of a
LAN to a WAN, and they operate at the border of your network.
Router are also used to divide internal networks into two or more subnetworks.
Routers can also be connected internally to other routers, creating zones that operate
independently. A router contains information about the systems connected to it and
where to send requests if the destination isn‘t known. Routers usually communicate
routing and other information using one of three standard protocols:
• Routing Information Protocol (RIP),
• Border Gateway Protocol (BGP) o
• Open Shortest Path First (OSPF).
 Introduction to Networks
Computer Network
Common Network Device
Routers are your first line of defense, and they must be configured to pass only traffic that
is authorized by network administrators. The routes themselves can be configured as
static or dynamic. If they are static, they can only be configured manually and stay that
way until changed. If they are dynamic, they learn of other routers around them and use
information about those routers to build their routing tables. Routers are general-purpose
devices that interconnect two or more heterogeneous networks. They are usually
dedicated to special-purpose computers, with separate input and output network interfaces
for each connected network. Because routers and gateways are the backbone of large
computer networks like the internet, they have special features that give them the flexibility
and the ability to cope with varying network addressing schemes and frame sizes through
segmentation of big packets into smaller sizes that fit the new network components. Each
router interface has its own Address Resolution Protocol (ARP) module, its own LAN
address (network card address) and its own Internet Protocol (IP) address. The router, with
the help of a routing table, has knowledge of routes a packet could take from its source to its
destination. The routing table, like in the bridge and switch, grows dynamically. Upon
receipt of a packet, the router removes the packet headers and trailers and analyzes the IP
header by determining the source and destination addresses and data type, and noting the
arrival time. It also updates the router table with new addresses not already in the table. The
IP header and arrival time information is entered in the routing table. Routers normally work
at the Network layer of the OSI model.
 Introduction to Networks
Computer Network
Common Network Device
Bridge
Bridges are used to connect two or more hosts or network segments together. The
basic role of bridges in network architecture is storing and forwarding frames
between the different segments that the bridge connects. They use hardware Media
Access Control (MAC) addresses for transferring frames. By looking at the MAC
address of the devices connected to each segment, bridges can forward the data or
block it from crossing. Bridges can also be used to connect two physical LANs into
a larger logical LAN.
Bridges work only at the Physical and Data Link layers of the OSI model.
Bridges are used to divide larger networks into smaller sections by sitting between
two physical network segments and managing the flow of data between the two.
Bridges are like hubs in many respects, including the fact that they connect LAN
components with identical protocols. However, bridges filter incoming data
packets, known as frames, for addresses before they are forwarded.
Bridges have mostly fallen out of favor in recent years and have been replaced by
switches, which offer more functionality. In fact, switches are sometimes referred to
as ―multiport bridges” because of how they operate.
 Introduction to Networks
Computer Network
Common Network Device
Gateway
Gateways normally work at the Transport and Session layers of the OSI model.
At the Transport layer and above, there are numerous protocols and standards from
different vendors; gateways are used to deal with them. Gateways provide
translation between networking technologies such as Open System Interconnection
(OSI) and Transmission Control Protocol/Internet Protocol (TCP/IP). Because of
this, gateways connect two or more autonomous networks, each with its own
routing algorithms, protocols, topology, domain name service, and network
administration procedures and policies.
Gateways perform all of the functions of routers and more. In fact, a router with
added translation functionality is a gateway. The function that does the translation
between different network technologies is called a protocol converter.
 Introduction to Networks
Computer Network
Common Network Device
Modem
Modems (modulators-demodulators) are used to transmit digital signals over
analog telephone lines. Thus, digital signals are converted by the modem into
analog signals of different frequencies and transmitted to a modem at the receiving
location. The receiving modem performs the reverse transformation and provides a
digital output to a device connected to a modem, usually a computer. The digital
data is usually transferred to or from the modem over a serial line through an
industry standard interface, RS-232. Many telephone companies offer DSL
services, and many cable operators use modems as end terminals for identification
and recognition of home and personal users. Modems work on both the Physical
and Data Link layers.

Repeater
A repeater is an electronic device that amplifies the signal it receives. You can
think of repeater as a device which receives a signal and retransmits it at a higher
level or higher power so that the signal can cover longer distances, more than 100
meters for standard LAN cables. Repeaters work on the Physical layer.
 Introduction to Networks
Computer Network
Common Network Device
Access Point
While an access point (AP) can technically involve either a wired or wireless
connection, it commonly means a wireless device. An AP works at the second OSI
layer, the Data Link layer, and it can operate either as a bridge connecting a standard
wired network to wireless devices or as a router passing data transmissions from one
access point to another.
Wireless access points (WAPs) consist of a transmitter and receiver (transceiver)
device used to create a wireless LAN (WLAN). Access points typically are separate
network devices with a built-in antenna, transmitter and adapter. APs use the wireless
infrastructure network mode to provide a connection point between WLANs and a
wired Ethernet LAN. They also have several ports, giving you a way to expand the
network to support additional clients. Depending on the size of the network, one or
more APs might be required to provide full coverage. Additional APs are used to allow
access to more wireless clients and to expand the range of the wireless network. Each
AP is limited by its transmission range — the distance a client can be from an AP and
still obtain a usable signal and data process speed. The actual distance depends on the
wireless standard, the obstructions and environmental conditions between the client and
the AP. Higher end APs have high-powered antennas, enabling them to extend how far
the wireless signal can travel.
 Introduction to Networks
Computer Network
Types of network devices
Access Point
APs might also provide many ports that can be used to increase the network‘s size, firewall
capabilities and Dynamic Host Configuration Protocol (DHCP) service. Therefore, we get
APs that are a switch, DHCP server, router and firewall.
To connect to a wireless AP, you need a service set identifier (SSID) name. 802.11 wireless
networks use the SSID to identify all systems belonging to the same network, and client
stations must be configured with the SSID to be authenticated to the AP. The AP might
broadcast the SSID, allowing all wireless clients in the area to see the AP‘s SSID. However,
for security reasons, APs can be configured not to broadcast the SSID, which means that an
administrator needs to give client systems the SSID instead of allowing it to be discovered
automatically. Wireless devices ship with default SSIDs, security settings, channels,
passwords and usernames. For security reasons, it is strongly recommended that you change
these default settings as soon as possible because many internet sites list the default settings
used by manufacturers.
Access points can be fat or thin. Fat APs, sometimes still referred to as autonomous APs,
need to be manually configured with network and security settings; then they are essentially
left alone to serve clients until they can no longer function. Thin APs allow remote
configuration using a controller. Since thin clients do not need to be manually configured,
they can be easily reconfigured and monitored. Access points can also be controller-based or
stand-alone.
 Introduction to Networks
Computer Network
Common Network Device

Having a solid understanding of the types of network devices available can help
you design and built a network that is secure and serves your organization well.
However, to ensure the ongoing security and availability of your network, you
should carefully monitor your network devices and activity around them, so you
can quickly spot hardware issues, configuration issues and attacks.
 Introduction to Networks
Computer Network
Advantages of Networks
• Allow groups of users to exchange information and share data
• Allow easy and efficient communication among individuals, including electronic
mail (e-mail)
• Device sharing can reduce costs
• Data Storage: Al the data of the respective organization will be stored in a remote
server that can be accessed in any given time. Each and every employee within an
organization will be able to access them.
• Connecting Computers: A single network can be used to connect limited number of
computers interconnecting with each other. Hence, all the computers does not need
to have a ISP account, they can be functioned under the network with single unit.
• Problem Solving: Computer networking makes it possible for people all around the
world to troubleshoot and solve problems in lesser amount of time.
• Reliability: The information stored on the central server is considered to be
reliable. If one PC happens to loose the information, similar kind of data can be
accessed using another computer.
• Security and protection is already included with computer network.
 Introduction to Networks
Disadvantages of Networks
• Robustness: The connected systems on a network entirely depend on the main server. In case if the
server breaks down, the system cannot be used anymore.
• Independence: Since networks are based on the centralized server, most of the decisions are made
themselves. This hinders the freedom of user who wants to use the computer as they desire.
• Malware Attack: Basically due to their interactions, a virus can easily spread between computers in
a network. Even if one of the computer happens to get infected with malware, there are high chances
of them spreading to remaining computers.
• Implementation: All though computer networks are considered to be cost effective, it is certainly not
when it is implemented. Setting up a computer network can be expensive. It depends on the number
of systems connected. Additionally, there must be separate cables and equipment's such as switches,
routers and hubs.
• Security: Unlike standalone computers, a computer connected to a network posses many security
risks. Since there are large number of users using the network. For large networks such as WAN,
hackers can easily access the network using specialized tools developed for this purpose.
• Productivity: One of the major problems of computer networking is that it can drastically decrease
the productivity of the company. When there is an internet access.
• Maintenance: For the proper functioning of a computer network, it requires regular maintenance.
The problem is this cannot be done with basic skills.
• Accessibility: Even though most of the modern computers provide free access, there are still
connectivity issues in some countries. Particularly countries those are developing, people residing
there suffer from connectivity challenges. Unless these challenges are resolved, there is no assurance
of true global network. 54
 Introduction to Networks
Network Services

The Network especially the Internet is essentially designed for communications and
computing resources sharing. The basic services must be available on Network and Internet ‟
server‖ so that, from their computers at work or at home by joining the Internet you can:
• Exchange electronic mail (e-mail)
• Participate live (in real time) in a conversation with another person via the 'Internet video
phone' (like Skype), or audio-video conferencing between multiple people using a
specially designed computer programs and equipment.
• Participate in on-line (directly, in real time) written discussion with a larger group of
people who use the 'Internet Relay Chat' (IRC) service - chat rooms.
• To work on a remote computer using the 'Telnet' service.
• Take files of any type (download) from remote computers and deliver files (upload) them
with an FTP (File Transfer Protocol) service.
• Paying bills through the 'Internet Banking' (ebanking).
• Search the Web, documents, various web sites or via dedicated international service, as
'Google' and 'Yahoo!', oversubscribed keywords to find the desired documents.
• Publicly disclose their images or pictures, messages, voices and video through social
networks.
• Advertise your business in a variety of ways, from setting up video clips to the creation of
their own website.
• Read web editions of newspapers .
 Introduction to Networks

Network Services
• Play simple games
• Reading complex documents using 'hypertext'. Clicking on a keyword or image on
the screen the user is automatically goes to other facilities within the same or other
domains.
• Read multimedia documents found on World Wide Web (www or web) that contain
text, graphics, sound, and video using intelligent browser web presentation, as
'Google Chrome', 'Firefox' or 'Internet Explorer' program support.
 Network protocols and Standards
What is Network Protocols
A network protocol is an established set of rules that determine how data is transmitted
between different devices in the same network. Essentially, it allows connected devices
to communicate with each other, regardless of any differences in their internal
processes, structure or design. Network protocols are the reason you can easily
communicate with people all over the world, and thus play a critical role in modern
digital communications.
Similar to the way that speaking the same language simplifies communication between
two people, network protocols make it possible for devices to interact with each other
because of predetermined rules built into devices‘ software and hardware. Neither local
area networks (LAN) nor wide area networks (WAN) could function the way they do
today without the use of network protocols.

What is Network Standard

A networking standard is a document that has been developed to provide technical
requirements, specifications and guidelines that must be employed consistently to ensure
devices, equipment and software which govern networking are fit for their intended
purpose. Standards ensure quality, safety and efficiency.
 Network protocols and Standards
How Network Protocols Work
Network protocols take large-scale processes and break them down into small, specific
tasks or functions. This occurs at every level of the network, and each function must
cooperate at each level to complete the larger task at hand.
The term protocol suite refers to a set of smaller network protocols working in
conjunction with each other. Network protocols are typically created according to
industry standard by various networking or information technology organizations.

The following groups have defined and published different network protocols:
• The Institute of Electrical and Electronics Engineers (IEEE)
• The Internet Engineering Task Force (IETF)
• The International Organization for Standardization (ISO)
• The International Telecommunications Union (ITU)
• The World Wide Web Consortium (W3C)

While network protocol models generally work in similar ways, each protocol is unique
and operates in the specific way detailed by the organization that created it.
 Network protocols and Standards
Who Uses Network Protocols?
Network protocols aren‘t only relevant to certified network specialists or IT
professionals. Billions of people use network protocols daily, whether they
know it or not. Every time you use the internet, you leverage network
protocols. Though you may not know how network protocols work or how
frequently you encounter them, they are necessary for using the internet or
digital communications in any capacity.

List of Network Protocols

There are thousands of different network protocols, but they all perform one of
three primary actions:
• Communication
• Network management
• Security
Each type is necessary to use network devices swiftly and safely, and they work
together to facilitate that usage.
 Network protocols and Standards
List of Network Protocols
Communication
Communication protocols allow different network devices to communicate with each
other. They are used in both analog and digital communications and can be used for
important processes, ranging from transferring files between devices to accessing the
internet.
Common types of communication protocols include the following:
• Automation: These protocols are used to automate different processes in both
commercial and personal settings, such as in smart buildings, cloud technology or
self-driving vehicles.
• Instant messaging: Instantaneous, text-based communications on smartphones and
computers occur because of a number of different instant messaging network
protocols.
• Routing: Routing protocols permit communication between routers and other
network devices. There are also routing protocols specifically for ad hoc networks.
• Bluetooth: Ever-popular Bluetooth devices — including headsets, smartphones and
computers — work due to a variety of different Bluetooth protocols.
• File transfer: If you have ever moved files from one device to another, either via a
physical or digital medium, you‘ve used file transfer protocols (FTP).
• Internet Protocol: Internet Protocol (IP) allows data to be sent between devices via
the internet. The internet could not operate as it currently does without IP.
 Network protocols and Standards
List of Network Protocols
Network Management
Network management protocols define and describe the various procedures needed to
effectively operate a computer network. These protocols affect various devices on a
single network including computers, routers and servers to ensure each one, and the
network as a whole, perform optimally.
The functions of network management protocols include the following:
• Connection: These protocols establish and maintain stable connections between
different devices on the same network.
• Link aggregation: Link aggregation protocols allow you to combine multiple
network connections into one link between two devices. This works to increase the
strength of the connection and helps sustain the connection should one of the links
fail.
• Troubleshooting: Troubleshooting protocols allow network administrators to
identify errors affecting the network, evaluate the quality of the network connection,
and determine how administrators can fix any issues.
 Network protocols and Standards
List of Network Protocols
Security
Security protocols, also called cryptographic protocols, work to ensure that the network and
the data sent over it are protected from unauthorized users.
Common functions of security network protocols include the following:
• Encryption: Encryption protocols protect data and secure areas by requiring users to
input a secret key or password in order to access that information.
• Entity Authentication: Entity authentication protocols create a system that requires
different devices or users on a network to verify their identity before accessing secure
areas.
• Transportation: Transportation security protocols protect data while it is transported
from one network device to another.
 Network protocols and Standards
List of Network Protocols
Network Protocol Example
Whether you know it or not, you‘ve absolutely encountered network protocols when
using electronic devices and some of them are readily identifiable.
Here are a few examples of the most commonly used network protocols:
• Hypertext Transfer Protocol (HTTP): This Internet Protocol defines how data is
transmitted over the internet and determines how web servers and browsers should
respond to commands. This protocol (or its secure counterpart, HTTPS) appears at
the beginning of various URLs or web addresses online.
• Secure Socket Shell (SSH): This protocol provides secure access to a computer,
even if it‘s on an unsecured network. SSH is particularly useful for network
administrators who need to manage different systems remotely.
• Short Message Service (SMS): This communications protocol was created to send
and receive text messages over cellular networks. SMS refers exclusively to text-
based messages. Pictures, videos or other media require Multimedia Messaging
Service (MMS), an extension of the SMS protocol.
Network protocols do not simply define how devices and processes work; they define how
devices and processes work together. Without these predetermined conventions and rules, the
internet would lack the necessary infrastructure it needs to be functional and useable.
Network protocols are the foundation of modern communications, without which the digital
world could not stand..
 Network protocols and Standards
The function of protocols
There is the various function of the protocol, which are as follows:
Connection Establishment/Release
A data transfer can be a communication-oriented transfer or connectionless transfer. The
connectionless services are the most unreliable services. Most of the protocols provide
connection-oriented services. If a large volume of data transfer is required, connection
oriented services are always better.

Encapsulation
A protocol defines how the data is encapsulated in the frame or packet. Each packet in all
PDUs contains three fields for control information along with the data field. There are three
control information fields such as Address, Error Control and Protocol Control.
 Network protocols and Standards
The function of protocols
There is the various function of the protocol, which are as follows:
Segmentation and Reassembly
In a layered architecture, when the application entity sends data to another host's application
entity, it moves from the application layer to the physical layer of the same host. Then the
data packet travels on transmission media and then again from the physical layer to the
application layer of destination.
In this process, the lower level protocol breaks up the data into smaller blocks and adds extra
control information for peer-level use. This process is called Segmentation.
Similarly, when the packet reaches the destination and it moves from the lower level to the
upper-level. The upper level protocols recombine the blocks to get actual data after removing
control information added by the sender's lower level protocols. This is called reassembly.

Data Transfer Management

If the sender can generate the data at the rate of 10 MBps and the receiver can accept at a
speed of 1 MBps, then it is the protocol that synchronized them properly to provide matching
and sequencing.
 Network protocols and Standards
The function of protocols
There is the various function of the protocol, which are as follows:
Multiplexing / Demultiplexing
The multiplexing function of the protocol is more related to addressing. One of the two types
of multiplexing is used in protocols such as upward multiplexing or downward
multiplexing. In upward multiplexing, several higher level connections are multiplexed or a
single lower-level connection. In contrast, in downward multiplexing, a single higher level
connection is built on top of multiple lower-level connections.

Addressing
Addressing is a process of defining the address of entities during communication. The
concept of addressing is complex and includes addressing level, addressing scope, connection
identifiers and addressing modes.

Ordered Delivery
If the communicating machine is not connected directly, they are indirectly connected in a
network. There lies a possibility of data packets not reaching their destination in the same
sequence in which they were sent. The basic reason for a break of the sequence is that the
data units (PDUs) traverse different network paths.
 Network protocols and Standards
The function of protocols
There is the various function of the protocol, which are as follows:
Error Control
The damage of data and loss of data must be adequately monitored when data transmission
takes place. The damage or error in data controls is detected by the error control methods
defined in the protocol. The error control is implemented in two steps as follows−
• Error Detection
• Retransmission of data

For error detection, some error detection code is sent by the sender with each PDU. The
receiver knows that code and checks if the code in the received data is correct or not. Suppose
any error is detected, the receiver requests the sender to retransmit the data. On the other
hand, if no error is detected, the receiver transmits an acknowledgement for correct receiving
data to the sender.

Flow Control
Flow control is also a necessary process to control the problems like congestion, overloading,
loss of data etc. Flow control is a function performed by the receiving machine to limit the
data rate being sent by the transmitting machine. The stop and wait protocols are the simplest
methods to control the data flow. Flow control is a must, especially if the communicating
machines have different transmission and reception data rates.
 Network protocols and Standards
The function of protocols
There is the various function of the protocol, which are as follows:
Other Transmission Controls
Timing and Synchronization is one of the essential transmission controls. A protocol also
provides different additional services to communicating entities which include the following.
• Priority
• Quality of Service
• Security
 Network protocols and Standards

IP Addressing and Classes

The Internet Protocol (IP) is the fundamental protocol for communications
on the Internet. It specifies the way information is packetized, addressed,
transferred, routed, and received by networked devices.

History
Its development began in 1974, led by computer scientists Bob Kahn and Vint
Cerf. It is frequently used in conjunction with the Transmission Control
Protocol, or TCP. Together they are referred to as TCP/IP. The first major
version of the Internet Protocol was Version 4, or IPv4. In 1981, it was
formally defined in (Request For Comments) RFC 791 by the Internet
Engineering Task Force, or IETF. The successor to IPv4 is IPv6, which was
formalized by the IETF in 1998. It was designed to eventually replace IPv4.
As of 2018, IPv6 governs approximately 20% of all Internet traffic.
 Network protocols and Standards
IP Addressing and Classes
 An IP address is an address used to uniquely identify a device on an IP
network.
 The address is made up of 32 binary bits which can be divisible into a
network portion and host portion with the help of a subnet mask.
 32 binary bits are broken into four octets (1 octet = 8 bits)
 Dotted decimal format (for example, 172.16.81.100)
 Network ID – portion identifies the network where the computer sits
 HOST ID – portion identifies the computer on that network
 Network protocols and Standards

IP Addressing and Classes

An IP address is a number identifying of a computer or other device on the

Network (LAN or WAN). It is similar to a mailing address, which identifies
where postal mail comes from and where it should be delivered. IP addresses
uniquely identify the source and destination of data transmitted with the
Internet Protocol.
IPv4 and IPv6 addresses
IPv4 addresses are 32 bits long (four bytes). An example of an IPv4 address is
216.58.216.164. The maximum value of a 32-bit number is 2^32, or
4,294,967,296. So the maximum number of IPv4 addresses, which is called its
address space(An address space is a range of logical space on any part of a
computer or a peripheral device where data can be stored) , is about 4.3 billion. In
the 1980s, this was sufficient to address every networked device, but scientists
knew that this space would quickly become exhausted.
 Network protocols and Standards

IP Addressing and Classes

To Delay this a temporal solution was done, which was NAT,

Network Address Translation, NAT (RFC 1631) is an
Internet standard for local-area network (LAN) to use one or
more IP addresses for internal traffic and external. For example,
a NAT can be used by home users to allow multiple computers to
connect to a broadband connection. NAT is also used to hide
Internet network addresses by using the single NAT address.
Today, there are two different variants of NAT used. NAPT,
which is short for Network Address Port Translation; and
PAT, which is short for Port Address Translation.
 Network protocols and Standards
IP Addressing and Classes

Network Address Translation

 Network protocols and Standards

IP Addressing and Classes

An IPv6 address is represented as eight groups of four
hexadecimal digits, each group representing 16 bits (two octets,
a group sometimes also called a hextet). The groups are
separated by colons (:). An example of an IPv6 address is:
2001:0db8:85a3:0000:0000:8a2e:0370:7334. The hexadecimal
digits are case-insensitive, but IETF recommendations suggest
the use of lower case letters
A major advantage of IPv6 is that it uses 128 bits of data to store
an address, permitting 2^128 unique addresses, or
340,282,366,920,938,463,463,374,607,431,768,211,456. The
size of IPv6's address space is 340 Duodecillion which is much,
much larger than IPv4.
 Network protocols and Standards
IP Addressing and Classes

With an IPv4 IP address, there are five classes of available IP ranges: Class A, Class B,
Class C, Class D and Class E, while only A, B, and C are commonly used

Class Address Range Supports

1.0.0.1 to
Class A Supports 16 million hosts on each of 127 networks.
126.255.255.254
128.1.0.1 to
Class B Supports 65,000 hosts on each of 16,000 networks.
191.255.255.254
192.0.1.1 to
Class C Supports 254 hosts on each of 2 million networks.
223.255.254.254
224.0.0.0 to
Class D Reserved for Multicast groups.
239.255.255.255
240.0.0.0 to Reserved for future use, or Research and
Class E
254.255.255.254 Development Purposes.
75
 Network protocols and Standards
IP Addressing and Classes

Ranges 127.x.x.x are reserved for the loopback or local host, for
example, 127.0.0.1 is the loopback address. Range
255.255.255.255 broadcasts to all hosts on the local network.
Ping 127.0.0.1 to test the loopback and if the NIC is working
 Network protocols and Standards
IP Addressing and Classes

Static vs. dynamic IP addresses

IP addresses are assigned in two different ways. They may be
dynamically assigned (they can change automatically) or
statically assigned (they're intended not to change, and must be
changed manually). Most home networks use dynamic
allocation. Your router uses DHCP to temporarily assign, or
"lease", an IP address to your device. After a period of time, this
lease "expires", and the router renews your old address or
assigns you a new one, depending on the needs of the network
and the configuration of the router.
Internet Protocol
Network protocols and Standards
IP Addressing and Classes

Static DHCP
 Network protocols and Standards
IP Addressing and Classes

32 binary bits are broken into four octets (1 octet = 8 bits)

Network protocols and Standards

IP Addressing and Classes

 Network protocols and Standards

IP Addressing and Classes

216.58.216.164 to will be Binary11011000.00111010.11011000.10100100

128 64 32 16 8 4 2 1
216-128 = 88
88- 64 = 24
24 – 16 = 8
8- 8 = 0
10010001. 00100000.00111011. 00011000 to 145.32.59.24 Decimal numbers
128 64 32 16 8 4 2 1
1 0 0 1 0 0 0 1 = 128+16+1 = 145
Internet Protocol
Network protocols and Standards

IP Addressing and Classes

Network protocols and Standards

IP Addressing and Classes

 Network protocols and Standards
IP Addressing and Subnetting

Subnetting A subnetwork or subnet is a logical subdivision of an IP network. The

practice of dividing a network into two or more networks is called Subnetting.
Computers that belong to a subnet are addressed with an identical most-significant bit-
group in their IP addresses.
The term ―subnet‖ and ―network‖ are interchangeable. Most networks are a subnet of
some larger address block.
Reasons for Subnetting
1. Segmenting networks in subnets creates smaller groups of devices and services in order to:
 Control traffic by containing broadcast traffic within subnetwork
 Reduces overall network traffic and improves network performance

2. Specifically, subnets:
 Creates smaller broadcast domains.
 Limit the amount of traffic on the other network segments.
 Provide low-level security.
 Can be created to match the physical layout or administrative structure of the organization.
 Can be reserved for future growth.
Network protocols and Standards
IP Addressing and Subnetting

How your provider (ISP) sees

you….
150.50.0.0 /16

150.50.0.0 /16
 Network protocols and Standards
IP Addressing and Subnetting

How you Network is......

150.50.1.0 /24
150.50.2.0 /24

150.50.0.0 /16

150.50.0.0
150.50.3/16
.0 /24

150.50.4.0 /24
150.50.5.0 /24

 Subnetting does not change how the outside world sees the network
but provides additional structure within the organization.
 Network protocols and Standards
IP Addressing and Subnetting

Designing a Network Addressing Scheme

Planning network subnets requires examining the needs of an organization‘s network usage.
Start by doing a network requirement study.
– Examine the main sections of the network and how they will be segmented.

Consider the address plan based on:

– The number of hosts per subnet
– How host addresses will be assigned
– Which hosts will require static IP addresses
– Which hosts can use DHCP for obtaining their addressing information.

Also, depends on whether you are an enterprise network or a service provider (ISP).
 Network protocols and Standards
IP Addressing and Subnetting

• Before we start Subnetting lets look at these terms

• Subnet Mask - A Subnet mask is a 32-bit number that masks an IP address, and divides the IP
address into network address and host address.
• Network ID - Network ID is the portion of an IP address that identifies the TCP/IP network on
which a host resides. The network ID portion of an IP address uniquely identifies the host's network
on an internetwork, while the host ID portion of the IP address identifies the host within its network.
• Host ID - Host ID is a a specific piece of information which uniquely identifies a computer
• Broadcast ID - A broadcast address is a network address at which all devices connected to a
multiple-access communications network are enabled to receive datagrams. A message sent to a
broadcast address may be received by all network-attached hosts.

• Subnetting does not change how the outside world sees the network but provides additional structure
within the organization.
 Network protocols and Standards
IP Addressing and Subnetting

Subnet 1 2 4 8 16 32 64 128 256

Host 256 128 64 32 16 8 4 2 1

Subnet /24 /25 /26 /27 /28 /29 /30 /31 /32
Mask

Subnet – each number is the double of the previous number

Host - This shows the number of Host Address or ID for each Subnet. The number are
half of the previous number.
Subnet Mask - The slash and the number following it is just a shorthand way to write a
subnet mask
 Network protocols and Standards
IP Addressing and Subnetting

What does 192.168.1.0/24

 what is the /24?
 where did they get that number from,
 what's it represent, and
 how do i figure out what mine is?
/24 is Mask/bit length. The slash and the number following it is just a shorthand way
to write a subnet mask. It's called CIDR (Classless Inter-Domain Routing) notation.
It's also commonly referred to as the prefix length.
There are two parts to an IP address, the network number and the host number.
The subnet mask shows what part is which. /24 means that the first 24 bits of the IP
address are part of the Network number (192.168.0) the last part is part of the host
address (1-254).
Example – 192.168.0.0/16 or 11000000.10101000.00000000.00000000
The number of bits (from left to right) that represent the subnet address is specified as
16 ('/16'). 16 bits, or 11000000.10101000 (192.168) is the network address and 0.0, or
00000000.00000000, is the host address - in this case a broadcast address
 Network protocols and Standards
IP Addressing and Subnetting

What does 192.168.1.0/24

The number after the slash represents the number of consecutive 1's in the subnet
mask. For example, 192.168.10.0/24 is equal to the network 192.168.10.0 with a
255.255.255.0 subnet mask. If you convert 255.255.255.0 to binary, you end up with
24 consecutive 1's: 11111111.11111111.11111111.00000000
Another example could be 10.0.0.0/8. 8 consecutive 1's in the subnet mask gives you
11111111.00000000.00000000.00000000 or 255.0.0.0

The remaining (from 32) bits subsequently define how large the given network
actually is.
Example - /24 - /32 = 8bits
 Network protocols and Standards
IP Addressing and Subnetting

How do you calculate the prefix, network address and

Maximum number of host numbers?
1. Netmask Length, subnet mask, prefix
IP: 128.42.5.4
Subnet: 255.255.248.0
consecutive 1's in the subnet mask gives you the prefix /Number
2. Calculating the Network Address:
logical AND 0+0= 0, 0+1=0, 1+0=0, 1+1=1
128.42.5.4 in binary: 10000000 00101010 00000101 00000100
255.255.248.0 in binary: 11111111 11111111 11111000 00000000
----------------------------------- [Logical AND]
10000000 00101010 00000000 00000000 ------> 128.42.0.0
 Network protocols and Standards
IP Addressing and Subnetting

How do you calculate the prefix, network address and

Maximum number of host numbers?
3. Maximum Number of hosts = 2**(32 - Netmask_length) – 2
The reason we subtract 2 above is because the all-ones and all-zeros host numbers are
reserved. The all-zeros host number is the network number; the all-ones host number
is the broadcast address.
Using the example subnet of 128.42.0.0/21 above, the number of hosts is...
Maximum Number of hosts = 2**(32 - 21) - 2 = 2048 - 2 = 2046
 Network protocols and Standards
IP Addressing and Subnetting

So the total number of available IP addresses will be 2^n-2

Class A
Class A network subnet mask is 255.0.0.0, which means it has 8 network bits of which
the first bit is fixed as ‗0‘. And hence a total of 7 network bits and 24 host bits.
Hence total no. of the network will be 2^7-2=126
And the total number of hosts per network will be 2^24-2=16777214

Class B
Class B network range starts from 128.0.0.0 to 191.255.255.255. It has Subnet mask
255.255.0.0 hence it has 16 network bits of which first two bits fixed as ‗10‘. So it has
a total of 14 the network bits and 16 host bits.
So total number of the network will be 2^14=16384
And the total number of hosts per network will be 2^16-2=65534
 Network protocols and Standards
IP Addressing and Subnetting

Class C
Class C network range starts from 192.0.0.0 to 223.255.255.255. The subnet mask is
255.255.255.0 which means it has 24 network bits and the first three bits is fixed as
‗110‘. So it has a total of 21 network bits and 8 host bits.
Hence total no. of the network will be 2^21=2097152
And the total number of hosts per network will be 2^8-2=254
Calculating the IP usable for /29 ,/28 and /27 networking range.
/29
/29 represents 29 of the 32 bits of the address are the Netmask hence only 3 bits are
available to distinguish the computers.
However, you always lose 2 addresses from the block for broadcast and loopback, so
the result is:
2^(32-29) – 2 = 2^3 – 2 = 8 – 2 = 6
We have only 5 usable addresses on /29 allocations.
 Network protocols and Standards
IP Addressing and Subnetting

/28
/28 denotes the 28 of the 32 bits of the address are the Netmask hence only 4 bits are
available to differentiate the computers.
However, you always lose 2 addresses for broadcast and loopback, so the result is:
2^(32-28) – 2 = 2^4 – 2 = 16 – 2 = 14
We have only 14 usable addresses on /28 allocations.
/27
/27 denote that 27 of the 32 bits of the address are the Netmask hence only 5 bits are
available to differentiate the computers.
However, you always lose 2 addresses for broadcast and loopback, so the result is:
2^(32-27) – 2 = 2^5 -2 = 32 – 2 =30
We have only 30 usable addresses on /27 allocations.
 Network protocols and Standards
IP Addressing and Subnetting

Subnet 1 2 4 8 16 32 64 128 256

Host 256 128 64 32 16 8 4 2 1

Subnet /24 /25 /26 /27 /28 /29 /30 /31 /32
Mask

We have been given the IP address as 192.168.4.0 /24 you have been asked to create
3 subnets.

1. 4 is for four subnets

2. 64 is the number of hosts ID and it means that each subnet will have 64 total host IDs
including the network ID and Broadcast ID
3. /26 is the new subnet mask for the 4 Subnets .
 Network protocols and Standards
IP Addressing and Subnetting

Subnet 1 2 4 8 16 32 64 128 256

Host 256 128 64 32 16 8 4 2 1

Subnet /24 /25 /26 /27 /28 /29 /30 /31 /32
Mask

We will provide the following information to answer the question of Subnetting

1. The network ID
2. Subnet mask
3. Host id Range
4. Usable Host
5. Broadcast ID
 Network protocols and Standards
IP Addressing and Subnetting

Subnet 1 2 4 8 16 32 64 128 256

Host 256 128 64 32 16 8 4 2 1
Subnet /24 /25 /26 /27 /28 /29 /30 /31 /32
Mask

Original Network ID – 192.168.4.0/24

Network ID Subnet Host ID Range No. Of Broadcast ID

Mask Usable Host

192.168.4.0 /26 192.168.4.1 TO 192.168.4.62 62 192.168.4.63

192.168.4.64 /26 192.168.4.65 TO 192.168.4.126 62 192.168.4.127

192.168.4.128 /26 192.168.4.129 TO 192.168.4.190 62 192.168.4.191

192.168.4.192 /26 192.168.4.193 TO 192.168.4.254 62 192.168.4.255

 Network protocols and Standards
IP Addressing and Subnetting

Subnet 1 2 4 8 16 32 64 128 256

Host 256 128 64 32 16 8 4 2 1
Subnet /24 /25 /26 /27 /28 /29 /30 /31 /32
Mask
Network ID Subnet Host ID Range No. Of Broadcast ID
Mask Usable Host
Original Network ID – 192.168.4.0/24
192.168.4.0 /26 192.168.4.1 TO 192.168.4.62 62 192.168.4.63
192.168.4.64 /26 192.168.4.65 TO 192.168.4.126 62 192.168.4.127
192.168.4.128 /26 192.168.4.129 TO 192.168.4.190 62 192.168.4.191
192.168.4.192 /26 192.168.4.193 TO 192.168.4.254 62 192.168.4.255

The fist network id is the always the original network id. The next network id will be 0 +
64=64, 64+64 =128, 128+64 = 192 . Number of Usable Host ID can be found by getting the host
64 which is the total number of host IDs for each network. So to get the usable host we
subtract 64-2 = 62 as usable host, because we have removed the two bits(host ID) reserved for
network id and broadcast id. To get the Broadcast ID we should keep in mind that the one bit(
one host ID) has ben reserved for each broad cast ID. So we subtract 64 -1 = 63 +64. The Host
ID range is any Host id between the Network ID and the Broadcast ID.
 Network protocols and Standards
Connectionless versus connection oriented protocols
A number of characteristics can be used to describe communications protocols. The most
important is the distinction between connection-oriented transport services (COTS) and
connectionless transport services (CLTS).

Connection-Oriented Protocols
TCP is an example of a connection-oriented protocol. It requires a logical connection to be
established between the two processes before data is exchanged. The connection must be
maintained during the entire time that communication is taking place, then released
afterwards. The process is much like a telephone call, where a virtual circuit is
established--the caller must know the person's telephone number and the phone must be
answered--before the message can be delivered. TCP/IP is also a connection-oriented
transport with orderly release. With orderly release, any data remaining in the buffer is sent
before the connection is terminated. The release is accomplished in a three-way handshake
between client and server processes. The connection-oriented protocols in the OSI protocol
suite, on the other hand, do not support orderly release. Applications perform any handshake
necessary for ensuring orderly release.
 Network protocols and Standards
Connectionless versus connection oriented protocols
Connection-Oriented Protocols
Examples of services that use connection-oriented transport services
• telnet: Telnet is an application protocol used on the Internet or local area network to
provide a bidirectional interactive text-oriented communication facility using a virtual
terminal connection
• rlogin: rlogin is a Unix program that allows users to log in on another host using a
network. rlogin uses TCP port 513. rlogin is also the name of the application layer
protocol used by the software, also the protocol is part of the TCP/IP protocol suite.
• ftp: (File Transfer Protocol) is a network protocol for transmitting files between
computers over Transmission Control Protocol/Internet Protocol (TCP/IP) connections.
Within the TCP/IP suite, FTP is considered an application layer protocol.

Connectionless Protocols
Connectionless protocols, in contrast, allow data to be exchanged without setting up a link
between processes. Each unit of data, with all the necessary information to route it to the
intended destination, is transferred independent of other data packets and can travel over
different paths to reach the final destination. Some data packets might be lost in transmission
or might arrive out of sequence to other data packets.
UDP is a connectionless protocol. It is known as a datagram protocol because it is analogous
to sending a letter where you don't acknowledge receipt.
 Network protocols and Standards
Connectionless versus connection oriented protocols
Connectionless Protocols
Examples of applications that use connectionless transport services are
• Broadcasting: Broadcasting is the distribution of audio or video content to a dispersed
audience via any electronic mass communications medium, but typically one using the
electromagnetic spectrum (radio waves), in a one-to-many model
• TFTP: Trivial File Transfer Protocol (TFTP) is a simple lockstep File Transfer Protocol
which allows a client to get a file from or put a file onto a remote host.

Choosing Between COTS and CLTS

The application developer must decide which type of protocol works best for the particular
application. Some questions to ask are:

How reliable must the connection be?

Must the data arrive in the same order as it was sent?
Must the connection be able to handle duplicate data packets?
Must the connection have flow control?
Must the connection acknowledge the messages it receives?
What kind of service can the application live with?
What level of performance is required?
If reliability is paramount, then connection-oriented transport services (COTS) is the better
choice.
 Network protocols and Standards
Protocols in a layered Architecture
Layered Protocols
A layered protocol architecture provides a conceptual framework for dividing the complex task of
exchanging information between remote hosts into simpler tasks. Each protocol layer has a
narrowly defined responsibility. A protocol layer provides a standard interface to the next higher
protocol layer. Consequently, it hides the details of the underlying physical network infrastructure.

A protocol is a set of rules and standards that

primarily outline a language that devices will
use to communicate. There are an excellent range
of protocols in use extensively in networking,
and that they are usually implemented in
numerous layers. Each layer needs to receive a
set of services from the lower layer and to give
the services to the upper layer. The modification
done in any one layer will not affect the other
layers.
 Network protocols and Standards
Protocols in a layered Architecture
Basic Elements of Layered Architecture
The basic elements of the layered architecture are as follows:
Service − Set of actions or services provided from one layer to the higher layer.
Protocol − It defines a set of rules where a layer uses to exchange the information with its peer
entity. It is concerned about both the contents and order of the messages used.
Interface − It is a way through that the message is transferred from one layer to another layer.

Reasons
The reasons for using layered protocols are explained below:
• Layering of protocols provides well-defined interfaces between the layers, so that a change in
one layer does not affect an adjacent layer.
• The protocols of a network are extremely complicated and designing them in layers makes
their implementation more feasible.
Advantages
The advantages of layered protocols are as follows −
• Assists in protocol style, as a result of protocols that operate at a particular layer have outlined
information that they work and a defined interface to the layers on top of and below.
• Foster‘s competition because products from completely different vendors will work along.
• Prevents technology or capability changes in one layer from touching different layers above
and below.
• Provides a typical language to explain networking functions and capabilities.
 Network protocols and Standards
Protocols in a layered Architecture
Disadvantages
The disadvantages of layered protocols are as follows:
• The main disadvantages of layered systems consist primarily of overhead each in computation
and in message headers caused by the abstraction barriers between layers. Because a message
typically should pass through several (10 or more) protocol layers the overhead of those
boundaries is commonly more than the computation being done.
• The upper-level layers cannot see what is within the lower layers, implying that an application
cannot correct where in an exceedingly connection a problem is or precisely what the matter is.
• The higher-level layers cannot control all aspects of the lower layers, so that they cannot
modify the transfer system if helpful (like controlling windowing, header compression,
CRC/parity checking, et cetera), nor specify routing, and should rely on the lower protocols
operating, and cannot specify alternatives when there are issues.
 Network protocols and Standards
Protocols in a layered Architecture
What is OSI Model?
The OSI Model is a logical and conceptual model that defines network communication
used by systems open to interconnection and communication with other systems. The
Open System Interconnection (OSI Model) also defines a logical network and
effectively describes computer packet transfer by using various layers of protocols.

Characteristics of OSI Model

Here are some important characteristics of the OSI model:
• A layer should only be created where the definite levels of abstraction are needed.
• The function of each layer should be selected as per the internationally standardized
protocols.
• The number of layers should be large so that separate functions should not be put in
the same layer. At the same time, it should be small enough so that architecture
doesn‘t become very complicated.
• In the OSI model, each layer relies on the next lower layer to perform primitive
functions. Every level should able to provide services to the next higher layer
• Changes made in one layer should not need changes in other lavers.
 Network protocols and Standards
Protocols in a layered Architecture
History of OSI Model
Here are essential landmarks from the history of OSI model:
• In the late 1970s, the ISO conducted a program to develop general standards and methods of
networking.
• In 1973, an Experimental Packet Switched System in the UK identified the requirement for
defining the higher-level protocols.
• In the year 1983, OSI model was initially intended to be a detailed specification of actual
interfaces.
• In 1984, the OSI architecture was formally adopted by ISO as an international standard

7 Layers of the OSI Model

OSI model is a layered server architecture system in which each layer is defined according to a
specific function to perform. All these seven layers work collaboratively to transmit the data from
one layer to another.
The Upper Layers: It deals with application issues and mostly implemented only in software. The
highest is closest to the end system user. In this layer, communication from one end-user to another
begins by using the interaction between the application layer. It will process all the way to end-
user.
The Lower Layers: These layers handle activities related to data transport. The physical layer and
data link layers also implemented in software and hardware.
 Network protocols and Standards
Protocols in a layered Architecture
7 Layers of the OSI Model
Upper and Lower layers further divide network architecture into seven different layers as below
Application, Presentation, Session, Transport, Network, Data-link, Physical layers
 Network protocols and Standards
Protocols in a layered Architecture
7 Layers of the OSI Model
How to remember the 7 Layers of the OSI Model
• From Application to Physical Layer
All People Seem To Need Data Processing
• From Physical to Application Layer
Please Do Not Throw Sausage Pizza Away

7. Application Layer
The application layer is used by end-user software such as web browsers and email clients. It
provides protocols that allow software to send and receive information and present meaningful data
to users.
A few examples of application layer protocols are the Hypertext Transfer Protocol (HTTP), File
Transfer Protocol (FTP), Post Office Protocol (POP), Simple Mail Transfer Protocol (SMTP), and
Domain Name System (DNS).

6. Presentation Layer
The presentation layer prepares data for the application layer. It defines how two devices should
encode, encrypt, and compress data so it is received correctly on the other end. The presentation
layer takes any data transmitted by the application layer and prepares it for transmission over the
session layer.
Some examples of presentation layer protocols are SSL stands for Secure Sockets Layer, HTTP/
HTML (agent), FTP (server), AppleTalk Filing Protocol, Telnet, and so on.
 Network protocols and Standards
Protocols in a layered Architecture
7 Layers of the OSI Model
5. Session Layer
The session layer creates communication channels, called sessions, between devices. It is
responsible for opening sessions, ensuring they remain open and functional while data is being
transferred, and closing them when communication ends. The session layer can also set
checkpoints during a data transfer—if the session is interrupted, devices can resume data transfer
from the last checkpoint.
Other examples of session layer implementations include Zone Information Protocol (ZIP), the
AppleTalk protocol that coordinates the name binding process, and Session Control Protocol (SCP)
– the DECnet Phase IV session-layer protocol, (ADSP)AppleTalk Data Stream Protocol,
(NetBIOS) Network Basic Input Output System, (PAP) Password Authentication Protocol, (PPTP)
Point-to-Point Tunneling Protocol, (RPC) Remote Procedure Call Protocol, (RTCP)Real-time
Transport Control Protocol.

4. Transport Layer
The transport layer takes data transferred in the session layer and breaks it into ―segments‖ on the
transmitting end. It is responsible for reassembling the segments on the receiving end, turning it
back into data that can be used by the session layer. The transport layer carries out flow control,
sending data at a rate that matches the connection speed of the receiving device, and error control,
checking if data was received incorrectly and if not, requesting it again.
Typical examples of layer 4 are the Transmission Control Protocol (TCP) and User Datagram
Protocol (UDP).
 Network protocols and Standards
Protocols in a layered Architecture
7 Layers of the OSI Model
3. Network Layer
The network layer has two main functions. One is breaking up segments into network packets, and
reassembling the packets on the receiving end. The other is routing packets by discovering the best
path across a physical network. The network layer uses network addresses (typically Internet
Protocol addresses) to route packets to a destination node.
From a TCP/IP perspective, this is where IP addresses are applied for routing purposes.

2. Data Link Layer

The data link layer establishes and terminates a connection between two physically-connected nodes
on a network. It breaks up packets into frames and sends them from source to destination. This layer
is composed of two parts
• Logical Link Control (LLC), which identifies network protocols,
performs error checking and synchronizes frames, and
• Media Access Control (MAC) which uses MAC addresses to
connect devices and define permissions to transmit and receive
data.
Examples of data link protocols are Ethernet,
Point-to-Point Protocol (PPP), High-Level Data Link Control (HDLC)
and Advanced Data Communication Control Procedures (or Protocol)
(ADCCP).
 Network protocols and Standards
Protocols in a layered Architecture
7 Layers of the OSI Model
1. Physical Layer
The physical layer is responsible for the physical cable or wireless connection between network
nodes. It defines the connector, the electrical cable or wireless technology connecting the devices,
and is responsible for transmission of the raw data, which is simply a series of 0s and 1s, while
taking care of bit rate control. The physical layer helps you to define the electrical and physical
specifications of the data connection. This level establishes the relationship between a device and a
physical transmission medium. The physical layer is not concerned with protocols or other such
higher-layer items.
Examples of hardware in the physical layer are network adapters, ethernet, repeaters, networking
hubs, etc.
 Network protocols and Standards
Protocols in a layered Architecture
7 Layers of the OSI Model

Physical (e.g. cable, RJ45)

Data Link (e.g. MAC, switches)
Network (e.g. IP, routers)
Transport (e.g. TCP, UDP, port numbers)
Session (e.g. Syn/Ack)
Presentation (e.g. encryption, ASCII, PNG, MIDI)
Application (e.g. SNMP, HTTP, FTP)
 Network protocols and Standards
Protocols in a layered Architecture
 Network protocols and Standards
TCP/IP model vs. OSI model
What is the TCP/IP model
The TCP/IP reference model is a layered model developed by the Defense Project Research
Agency(ARPA or DARPA) of the United States as a part of their research project in 1960. Initially,
it was developed to be used by defense only. But later on, it got widely accepted. The main purpose
of this model is to connect two remote machines for the exchange of information.

TCP/IP model vs. OSI model

TCP/IP and OSI are the most widely used communication networking protocols. The main
difference is that OSI is a conceptual model that is not practically used for communication. Rather,
it defines how applications can communicate over a network. TCP/IP, on the other hand, is widely
used to establish links and network interaction.

• The TCP/IP protocols layout standards on which the internet was created, while the OSI model
provides guidelines on how communication has to be done. Therefore, TCP/IP is a more
practical model.
• The TCP/IP and OSI models have similarities and differences. The main similarity is in the
way they are constructed as both use layers, although TCP/IP consists of just four layers, while
the OSI model consists of the following seven layers

The upper layer for both the TCP/IP model and the OSI model is the application layer. Although
this layer performs the same tasks in each model, those tasks may vary depending on the data each
receives.
 Network protocols and Standards
Protocols in a layered Architecture
 Network protocols and Standards
Protocols in a layered Architecture
What is the TCP/IP model
The functions performed in each model are also similar because each uses a network layer and
transport layer to operate. The TCP/IP and OSI models are each mostly used to transmit data
packets. Although they will do so by different means and by different paths, they will still reach
their destinations.

The similarities between the TCP/IP model and the OSI model include the following:
• They are both logical models.
• They define networking standards.
• They divide the network communication process in layers.
• They provide frameworks for creating and implementing networking standards and devices.
• They enable one manufacturer to make devices and network components that can coexist and
work with the devices and components made by other manufacturers.
 Network protocols and Standards
Protocols in a layered Architecture
What is the TCP/IP model
The differences between the TCP/IP model and the OSI model include the following:
• TCP/IP uses just one layer (application) to define the functionalities of the upper layers, while
OSI uses three layers (application, presentation and session).
• TCP/IP uses one layer (physical) to define the functionalities of the bottom layers, while OSI
uses two layers (physical and data link).
• The TCP/IP header size is 20 bytes, while the OSI header is 5 bytes.
• TCP/IP is a protocol-oriented standard, whereas OSI is a generic model based on the
functionalities of each layer.
• TCP/IP follows a horizontal approach, while OSI follows a vertical approach.
• In TCP/IP, the protocols were developed first, and then the model was developed. In OSI, the
model was developed first, and then the protocols in each layer were developed.
• TCP/IP helps establish a connection between different types of computers, whereas OSI helps
standardize routers, switches, motherboards and other hardware.
 Network protocols and Standards
Open Systems Interconnection (OSI) model
Models, also called protocol stacks, represented in layers, help to understand where things
go right or wrong.

OSI 7-layer model DOD 3-layer model Simplified 4/5-layer model

7 Application

6 Presentation Application Application

5 Session

4 Transport Transport
Protocol
3 Network Network
2 Data Local Network Data
1 Physical (LAN)
Physical

120
 Wireless Networking Standards
Purpose of wireless network standard
Wireless standards are a set of services and protocols that dictate how your Wi-Fi network (and
other data transmission networks) acts. The most common wireless standards you will encounter
are the IEEE 802.11 Wireless LAN (WLAN) & Mesh.
The Institute of Electrical and Electronic Engineers (IEEE) develops official standards to
enable wireless local area network (WLAN) devices to work together, regardless of which
manufacturer made them. The IEEE updates the Wi-Fi standard every few years.
These standards are driven by two factors:
• speed - getting data transmitted faster between PCs and access points
• security - making sure that the wireless capability is not abused
You need to be aware of both factors when choosing wireless networking equipment.
 Wireless Networking Standards
Purpose of wireless network standard
Development of the wireless network standard
The committee for IEEE 802 standards formed a working group for wireless local network
standards 802.11 in 1990. This group undertook development of the general standard for
radio equipment and networks working at 2.4 GHz, with access time of 1 and 2 Mbps
(Megabits-per-second). The works on development of the standard were completed in 7
years, and in June 1997 the first specification of the 802.11 was ratified. The IEEE 802.11 is
the first standard for WLAN products from an independent international organization
developing the most of standards for wired networks. But the first established data rate in a
wireless network didn't meet the requirements of users by that time. And the developers had
to create a new standard to make the Wireless LAN technology popular, cheap and attractive
for modern tough business applications.

In September 1999 the IEEE ratified the extension of the previous standard. The new IEEE
802.11b extension (also known as 802.11 High rate) defines a standard for products of
wireless networks working at 11 Mbps (similar to Ethernet), what allows using these devices
in large organizations. The compatibility of products from different manufacturers is ensured
by an independent organization named Wireless Ethernet Compatibility Alliance (WECA). It
was founded by the leaders of wireless communication industry in 1999. At present it
includes more than 80 companies such as Cisco, Lucent, 3Com, IBM, Intel, Apple, Compaq,
Dell, Fujitsu, Siemens, Sony, AMD etc. On the WECA's site you can look through the
products which meet the requirement of Wi-Fi (the WECA's term for IEEE 802.11b).
 Wireless Networking Standards
Purpose of wireless network standard
Development of the wireless network standard

Not all old Wi-Fi standards are obsolete. At least, not yet. Here is a brief history of Wi-
Fi standards and whether the standard is still active.

• IEEE 802.11: The original! This now-defunct standard was created in 1997 and
supported a blazing fast maximum connection speed of 54 megabits per second
(Mbps). Devices using this haven't been made for over a decade and won't work
with today's equipment.
 Wireless Networking Standards
Purpose of wireless network standard
Development of the wireless network standard
• IEEE 802.11a: Created in 1999, this version of Wi-Fi works on the 5GHz
band. This was done with the hope of encountering less interference since
many devices (like most wireless phones) also use the 2.4GHz band.
802.11a is fairly quick, too, with maximum data rates topping out at
54Mbps. However, the 5GHz frequency has more difficulty with objects in
the signal's path, so the range is often poor.
• IEEE 802.11b: Also created in 1999, this standard uses the more typical
2.4GHz band and can achieve a maximum speed of 11Mbps. 802.11b was
the standard that kick-started Wi-Fi's popularity.
• IEEE 802.11g: Designed in 2003, the 802.11g standard upped the
maximum data rate to 54Mbps while retaining use of the reliable 2.4GHz
band. This resulted in the widespread adoption of the standard.
• IEEE 802.11n: Introduced in 2009, this version had slow initial adoption.
802.11n operates on both 2.4GHz and 5GHz, as well as supporting multi-
channel usage. Each channel offers a maximum data rate of 150Mbps,
which means the standard's maximum data rate is 600Mbps.
 Wireless Networking Standards
Purpose of wireless network standard
Development of the wireless network standard
• IEEE 802.11ac: The ac standard is what you will find most wireless devices
using at the time of writing. Initially released in 2014, ac drastically
increases the data throughput for Wi-Fi devices up to a maximum of 1,300
megabits per second. Furthermore, ac adds MU-MIMO support, additional
Wi-Fi broadcast channels for the 5GHz band, and support for more antennas
on a single router.
• IEEE 802.11ax: Next up for your router and your wireless devices is the ax
standard. As 802.11ax completes its rollout, you will have access to
theoretical network throughput of 10Gbps—around a 30-40 percent
improvement over the ac standard. Furthermore, wireless ax will increase
network capacity by adding broadcast subchannels, upgrading MU-MIMO,
and allowing more simultaneous data streams.
• IEEE 802.11be: Although the specifications for 802.11be are yet to be
finalized, its highly likely that this will become the successor to 802.11ax.
As per the IEEE Xplore paper, 802.11be will deliver "doubled bandwidth
and the increased number of spatial streams, which together provide data
rates as high as 40 Gbps."
 Wireless Networking Standards
Purpose of wireless network standard
Development of the wireless network standard
Like all IEEE 802 standards, the 802.11 works on two lower levels of the ISO/OSI model: a
physical and data link. Any network applications, a network operating system or a protocol (e.g.,
TCP/IP) will work perfectly in the 802.11 network as in the Ethernet.
The 802.11 deals with two types of equipment - a client which is a computer equipped with a
wireless Network Interface Card (NIC), and an Access point (AP) which serves a bridge between a
wireless and wired networks. An access point usually contains a transceiver, a wired network
interface (802.3) and software for data processing. ISA, PCI or PC Card network cards in the
802.11 standard or integrated solutions (e.g. telephone garniture of the 802.11) can serve a wireless
station.
 Wireless Networking Standards
Purpose of wireless network standard
Development of the wireless network standard
Over the past 24 years, IEEE 802.11, commonly referred to as Wi-Fi, has evolved from 2 Mbps to
multi-gigabit speeds, a 1,000-fold increase in throughput. The standard has continuously advanced
itself by introducing new protocols such as 802.11n, 802.11ac, and 802.11ax (Wi-Fi 6).
 Wireless Networking Standards
Purpose of wireless network standard
Development of the wireless network standard
Can All Wi-Fi Standards Communicate?
Two devices using the same Wi-Fi standard can communicate without
restriction. Issues arise, however, when you try to connect two devices that use
different, potentially incompatible wireless standards.

• In recent times, your router and devices using 802.11ac can communicate
happily.
• Devices that use 802.11b, g, and n can all communicate with an ac router.
• 11b cannot communicate with a, and vice versa.
• 11g cannot communicate with b, and vice versa.

The original 1997 standard (now known as 802.11 legacy) is now obsolete,
while the a and b standards are nearing the end of their lifespan.
 Wireless Networking Standards
Wireless access point
A wireless access point (WAP), or more generally just access point (AP), is a
networking hardware device that allows other Wi-Fi devices to connect to a wired
network. As a standalone device, the AP may have a wired connection to a router, but, in
a wireless router, it can also be an integral component of the router itself. An AP is
differentiated from a hotspot which is a physical location where Wi-Fi access is
available.
An access point connects to a wired router, switch, or hub via an Ethernet cable, and
projects a WiFi signal to a designated area.
 Wireless Networking Standards
Wireless Access Point
• A wireless communications hardware device that creates a central point of wireless
connectivity. A wireless access point behaves much like a "hub" in that the total
bandwidth is shared among all users for which the device is maintaining an active
network connection.

Wireless Port
• A network port that has been installed to connect a wireless access point to the
University's wired network. Wireless ports provide both data and power service to
the wireless access point and are clearly distinguished from ordinary network ports
by an affixed yellow warning label. Because wireless ports carry both data and
electrical power, ordinary end-user devices could be severely damaged if they are
connected to this type of port.

Security & WPA

• Wi-Fi security protocols use encryption technology to secure networks and protect
the data of their clients. Wireless networks are often less secure than wired ones,
so wireless security protocols are crucial for keeping you safe online. The most
common Wi-Fi security protocols today are WEP, WPA, and WPA2.
 Wireless Networking Standards
Security & WPA
All Wi-Fi security protocols are certified by the Wi-Fi Alliance, the non-profit organization
that owns the Wi-Fi trademark. There are four wireless security protocols currently available:
• Wired Equivalent Privacy (WEP)
• Wi-Fi Protected Access (WPA)
• Wi-Fi Protected Access 2 (WPA 2)
• Wi-Fi Protected Access 3 (WPA 3)

WEP (Wired Equivalent Privacy) is the oldest and most common Wi-Fi security protocol.
It was the privacy component established in the IEEE 802.11, a set of technical standards that
aimed to provide a wireless local area network (WLAN) with a comparable level of security
to a wired local area network (LAN). The Wi-Fi Alliance ratified WEP as a security standard
in 1999. The Wi-Fi Alliance officially retired WEP in 2004

WPA (Wi-Fi Protected Access) is a wireless security protocol released in 2003 to address the
growing vulnerabilities of its predecessor, WEP. The WPA Wi-Fi protocol is more secure than
WEP, because it uses a 256-bit key for encryption, which is a major upgrade from the 64-bit
and 128-bit keys used by the WEP system. WPA also uses the Temporal Key Integrity
Protocol (TKIP), which dynamically generates a new key for each packet, or unit of data.
TKIP is much more secure than the fixed-key system used by WEP.
 Wireless Networking Standards
Security & WPA
WEP vs WPA vs WPA2
WPA2 is the more recent wireless security protocol protecting wireless networks, so it‘s generally your
best option when looking to secure your Wi-Fi network. Let‘s take a look at the pros and cons of each
security protocol, ordered from best to worst.
WPA2
Pros:
Addresses many security flaws of its predecessors
Uses the strongest encryption method: AES
Required by the Wi-Fi Alliance for use on all Wi-Fi certified products
256-bit key for encryption
Cons:
Still contains some security vulnerabilities
Requires the most processing power

WPA
Pros:
Addresses security vulnerabilities of the original wireless security standard, WEP
TKIP encryption method is better than the fixed-key encryption used by WEP
256-bit key for encryption
Cons:
When rolled out onto WEP devices, TKIP can be exploited
Similar security vulnerabilities to WEP
 Wireless Networking Standards
Security & WPA
WEP
Pros:
Better than no security protocol — though not by much
Cons:
Riddled with security vulnerabilities
Only 64-bit and 128-bit keys for encryption
Fixed-key encryption
Hard to configure
 Network Topologies and Architectures
Network topology is the topological structure of a network and may be depicted physically
or logically. It is an application of graph theory wherein communicating devices are modeled
as nodes and the connections between the devices are modeled as links or lines between the
nodes.
• Physical – The physical network topology refers to the actual connections (wires, cables,
etc.) of how the network is arranged. Setup, maintenance, and provisioning tasks require
insight into the physical network.
• Logical – The logical network topology is a higher-level idea of how the network is set
up, including which nodes connect to each other and in which ways, as well as how data
is transmitted through the network. Logical network topology includes any virtual and
cloud resources.
Network architecture refers to the way network devices and services are structured to serve
the connectivity needs of client devices. Network devices typically include switches and
routers. Types of services include DHCP and DNS
 Network Topologies and Architectures
Client / Sever
In client-server network relationships, certain computers act as servers and others act as
clients.
A server is simply a computer that provides the network resources and provides service to
other computers when they request it.
A client is the computer running a program that requests the service from a server. Local area
network (LAN) is based on client server network relationship.
Advantages
The advantages of client server network are as follows:
• It is very secure.
• Gives better performance.
• It has centralized backup.
• It is very reliable.
Disadvantages
The disadvantages of client server network are as follows −
• It requires professional administration.
• It is more hardware and software intensive.
• It requires expensive dedicated software.
A client-server network is one on which all available network resources such as files,
directories, applications and shared devices, are centrally managed and hosted and then are
accessed by the client.
 Network Topologies and Architectures
In peer-to-peer (P2P) networking, a group of computers are linked together with equal
permissions and responsibilities for processing data.
A peer-to-peer (P2P) network is also created when two or more PCs are connected and share
resources without going through a separate server computer. A P2P network can be an ad hoc
connection—a couple of computers connected via a Universal Serial Bus to transfer files. A
P2P network also can be a permanent infrastructure that links a half-dozen computers in a
small office over copper wires. Or a P2P network can be a network on a much grander scale
in which special protocols and applications set up direct relationships among users over the
Internet.
 Network Topologies and Architectures
Why Is Network Topology Important?
The layout of your network is important for several reasons.
• it plays an essential role in how and how well your network functions.
• Choosing the right topology for your company‘s operational model can increase performance
while making it easier to locate faults, troubleshoot errors, and more effectively allocate
resources across the network to ensure optimal network health.
• A streamlined and properly managed network topology can increase energy and data
efficiency, which can in turn help to reduce operational and maintenance costs.
The design and structure of a network are usually shown and manipulated in a software-created
network topology diagram. These diagrams are essential for a few reasons, but especially for how
they can provide visual representations of both physical and logical layouts, allowing
administrators to see the connections between devices when troubleshooting.
The way a network is arranged can make or break network functionality, connectivity, and
protection from downtime. The question of, ―What is network topology?‖ can be answered with an
explanation of the two categories in the network topology.
• Physical – The physical network topology refers to the actual connections (wires, cables, etc.)
of how the network is arranged. Setup, maintenance, and provisioning tasks require insight into
the physical network.
• Logical – The logical network topology is a higher-level idea of how the network is set up,
including which nodes connect to each other and in which ways, as well as how data is
transmitted through the network. Logical network topology includes any virtual and cloud
resources.
 Network Topologies and Architectures
What’s the Most Common Type of Network Topology?
Building a local area network (LAN) topology can be make-or-break for your business, as
you want to set up a resilient, secure, and easy-to-maintain topology. There are several
different types of network topology and all are suitable for different purposes, depending on
the overall network size and your objectives.
Bus Topology
A bus topology orients all the devices on a network along a single cable running in a single
direction from one end of the network to the other—which is why it‘s sometimes called a
―line topology‖ or ―backbone topology.‖ Data flow on the network also follows the route of
the cable, moving in one direction.
 Network Topologies and Architectures
What’s the Most Common Type of Network Topology?
Bus Topology
Advantages of Bus Topology
• Bus topologies are a good, cost-effective choice for smaller networks because the
layout is simple, allowing all devices to be connected via a single coaxial or RJ45
cable. If needed, more nodes can be easily added to the network by joining
additional cables.
Disadvantages of Bus Topology
• However, because bus topologies use a single cable to transmit data, they‘re
somewhat vulnerable. If the cable experiences a failure, the whole network goes
down, which can be time-consuming and expensive to restore, which can be less of
an issue with smaller networks.
Bus topologies are best suited for small networks because there‘s only so much
bandwidth, and every additional node will slow transmission speeds.

Ring topology
Ring topology is where nodes are arranged in a circle (or ring). The data can travel
through the ring network in either one direction or both directions, with each device
having exactly two neighbors.
 Network Topologies and Architectures
What’s the Most Common Type of Network Topology?
Ring topology

Pros of Ring Topology

• Since each device is only connected to the ones on either side, when data is transmitted, the
packets also travel along the circle, moving through each of the intermediate nodes until they
arrive at their destination. If a large network is arranged in a ring topology, repeaters can be
used to ensure packets arrive correctly and without data loss.
• Only one station on the network is permitted to send data at a time, which greatly reduces the
risk of packet collisions, making ring topologies efficient at transmitting data without errors.
• By and large, ring topologies are cost-effective and inexpensive to install, and the intricate
point-to-point connectivity of the nodes makes it relatively easy to identify issues or
misconfigurations on the network.
 Network Topologies and Architectures
What’s the Most Common Type of Network Topology?
Ring topology
Cons of Ring Topology
• Even though it‘s popular, a ring topology is still vulnerable to failure without proper
network management. Since the flow of data transmission moves unidirectionally
between nodes along each ring, if one node goes down, it can take the entire network
with it. That‘s why it‘s imperative for each of the nodes to be monitored and kept in
good health. Nevertheless, even if you‘re vigilant and attentive to node performance,
your network can still be taken down by a transmission line failure.
• The question of scalability should also be taken into consideration. In a ring
topology, all the devices on the network share bandwidth, so the addition of more
devices can contribute to overall communication delays. Network administrators
need to be mindful of the devices added to the topology to avoid overburdening the
network‘s resources and capacity.
• Additionally, the entire network must be taken offline to reconfigure, add, or remove
nodes. And while that‘s not the end of the world, scheduling downtime for the
network can be inconvenient and costly.
 Network Topologies and Architectures
What’s the Most Common Type of Network Topology?
Star Topology?
A star topology, the most common network topology, is laid out so every node in the network is
directly connected to one central hub via coaxial, twisted-pair, or fiber-optic cable. Acting as a
server, this central node manages data transmission—as information sent from any node on the
network has to pass through the central one to reach its destination—and functions as a repeater,
which helps prevent data loss.
 Network Topologies and Architectures
What’s the Most Common Type of Network Topology?
Star Topology?
Advantages of Star Topology
• Star topologies are common since they allow you to conveniently manage your entire network
from a single location. Because each of the nodes is independently connected to the central
hub, should one go down, the rest of the network will continue functioning unaffected,
making the star topology a stable and secure network layout.
• Additionally, devices can be added, removed, and modified without taking the entire network
offline.
• On the physical side of things, the structure of the star topology uses relatively little cabling to
fully connect the network, which allows for both straightforward setup and management over
time as the network expands or contracts. The simplicity of the network design makes life
easier for administrators, too, because it’s easy to identify where errors or performance issues
are occurring.
Disadvantages of Star Topology
• On the flipside, if the central hub goes down, the rest of the network can’t function. But if the
central hub is properly managed and kept in good health, administrators shouldn’t have too
many issues.
• The overall bandwidth and performance of the network are also limited by the central node’s
configurations and technical specifications, making star topologies expensive to set up and
operate.
 Network Topologies and Architectures
What’s the Most Common Type of Network Topology?
Mesh Topology?
• A mesh topology is an intricate and elaborate structure of point-to-point connections where the
nodes are interconnected. Mesh networks can be full or partial mesh. Partial mesh topologies
are mostly interconnected, with a few nodes with only two or three connections, while full-
mesh topologies are—surprise!—fully interconnected.
 Network Topologies and Architectures
What’s the Most Common Type of Network Topology?
Mesh Topology?
Advantages of Mesh Topology
• Mesh topologies are reliable and stable, and the complex degree of interconnectivity between
nodes makes the network resistant to failure. For instance, no single device going down can
bring the network offline.
Disadvantages of Mesh Topology
• Mesh topologies are incredibly labor-intensive. Each interconnection between nodes requires
a cable and configuration once deployed, so it can also be time-consuming to set up. As with
other topology structures, the cost of cabling adds up fast, and to say mesh networks require
a lot of cabling is an understatement.
 Network Security
Network Security protects your network and data from breaches, intrusions and other threats. This
is a vast and overarching term that describes hardware and software solutions as well as processes
or rules and configurations relating to network use, accessibility, and overall threat protection.
Network Security involves access control, virus and antivirus software, application security,
network analytics, types of network-related security (endpoint, web, wireless), firewalls, VPN
encryption and more.
Network Security is vital in protecting client data and information, keeping shared data secure and
ensuring reliable access and network performance as well as protection from cyber threats. A well
designed network security solution reduces overhead expenses and safeguards organizations from
costly losses that occur from a data breach or other security incident. Ensuring legitimate access to
systems, applications and data enables business operations and delivery of services and products to
customers.
Why Network Security is important
• Network security system is essential to protecting client data and devices
• A good network security system helps business reduce the risk of falling victim of data theft
and sabotage.
• Network security improves your network’s performance
• Network security helps protect your workstations from harmful spyware.
• Cyberattacks are on the rise
• It also ensures that shared data is kept secure.
• Network security protects against ransomware
 Network Security
Benefits of Network Security
• Builds trust
Security for large systems translates to security for everyone. Network security boosts
client and consumer confidence, and it protects your business from the reputational
and legal fallout of a security breach.
• Mitigates risk
The right network security solution will help your business stay compliant with business
and government regulations, and it will minimize the business and financial impact of a
breach if it does occur.
• Protects proprietary information
Your clients and customers rely on you to protect their sensitive information. Your
business relies on that same protection, too. Network security ensures the protection
of information and data shared across the network.
• Enables a more modern workplace
From allowing employees to work securely from any location using VPN to encouraging
collaboration with secure network access, network security provides options to enable
the future of work. Effective network security also provides many levels of security to
scale with your growing business.
 Network Security
Confidentiality, Integrity and Availability – The CIA Triad
The CIA Triad of confidentiality, integrity and availability is considered the core underpinning of
Network security. Every security control and every security vulnerability can be viewed in light of
one or more of these key concepts. For a security program to be considered comprehensive and
complete, it must adequately address the entire CIA Triad.

• Confidentiality means that data, objects and resources are protected from unauthorized
viewing and other access.
• Integrity means that data is protected from unauthorized changes to ensure that it is reliable
and correct.
• Availability means that authorized users have access to the systems and the resources they
need.
• Authentication enables organizations to keep their networks secure by permitting only
authenticated users or processes to gain access to their protected resources.
 Network Security
Common forms of networking attacks
Vulnerabilities in the network will leave your organization open to a wide range of attacks
such as:
• Virus: A virus cannot execute itself and requires some form of user interaction — the
simplest is an email with a malicious link or attachment.
• Malware: Malware is one of the fastest ways of spreading malicious attacks.
• Worm: A vulnerable network application can be attacked without the user being involved
through a worm.
• Phishing: Phishing is frequently associated with network attack . In phishing attacks, a
user receives emails that come disguised as being from a known and trusted source.
• Denial of service (DoS) and distributed denial of service (DDoS): In denial of service
(DoS), a single network or even an entire infrastructure can be destroyed, partially or
entirely by a DoS, which does not allow any verified access.
• DNS and IP spoofing: In domain name system(DNS) spoofing , hackers corrupt the
DNS data and insert the attacker‘s cache. As a result, the name server turns in the wrong
IP address during a search.
• Compromised key: An attacker can access secure communication with the help of a
compromised key.
 Network Security
Types of Network Security With Examples
Let‘s understand the different types of network security with the help of examples.
• Application Security : Application security involves steps that a developer
undertakes to spot, repair, and prevent security vulnerabilities at any point in the
application‘s development.
• Data Loss Prevention : Data loss prevention involves taking measures to prevent
employees from sharing data outside a prescribed network. It ensures that all
information is transmitted safely.
• Email Security: Email gateways are weak links that are often the source of a
security breach. When phishing attacks are refined with social engineering tactics,
emails are the primary source of these attacks.
• 5Virtual Private network (VPN): VPN creates a secure tunnel for information
passage on the internet. The tunnel is encrypted from originating point to destination
point, ensuring all data transmitted and received is protected.
• Firewalls : Firewalls are the barriers between an internal and external network, such
as the internet. They use a prescribed set of protocols to regulate incoming and
outgoing traffic on the network.
 Firewall
Firewall definition
A firewall is a computer network security system that restricts internet traffic in to, out
of, or within a private network. The firewall is a Hardware or software that selectively
block or allow data packets. It is typically intended to help prevent malicious activity
and to prevent anyone—inside or outside a private network—from engaging in
unauthorized web activities.
 Firewall
Features of Firewall
Bandwidth control and monitoring
Bandwidth control―sometimes referred to as traffic shaping―is one of the best firewall
features. We don‘t always have unlimited amounts of bandwidth. That means it‘s vital to
take control of the bandwidth we do have available. With a firewall, you can control the
bandwidth available for sites, applications, and users.
Web filtering
You can think of a web filter firewall as a content filtering firewall. A web filter firewall
is defined as a software program that oversees the data packets that your computer sends
and receives. In doing this, it filters any compromising content that has been forbidden
or flagged.
Logging
Having access to logs on a firewall gives you up-to-the-minute information about what
is happening on your network. Sought after firewall features include being able to give
graphs in real time and show you what vulnerabilities or attacks are happening.
Virtual Private Networks
Virtual Private Network (VPN) are networks that are built using public wires (usually
the internet) to connect remote users or regional offices to a company‘s private, internal
network. VPNs are great for users connecting back to a site or the office. They can also
be used to connect two sites together.
 Firewall
Features of Firewall
Malware and virus filtering
Next generation firewalls are always filtering for malware, new and old, and are your perimeter
defense mechanisms. This includes scanning for viruses, compromised websites, files containing
viruses, bot nets trying to hack you, man-in-the-middle attacks―you name it! They can even scan
encrypted traffic, such as SSL and TLS connections, to make sure they are safe and trusted.
Intrusion prevention system
An intrusion prevention systems (IPS) is the latest advancements from intrusion detection systems
(IDS). IPS continually monitors your network, capturing information about possible malicious
attacks. These events are then reported to the system administrator(s), who take preventative steps
like closing access points and configuring firewalls to prevent future attacks.
 Firewall
How Firewalls Works
Firewalls are software or hardware that work as a filtration system for the data attempting to enter
your computer or network. Firewalls scan packets for malicious code or attack vectors that have
already been identified as established threats. Should a data packet be flagged and determined to be
a security risk, the firewall prevents it from entering the network or reaching your computer.
There are several different ways security firewalls can monitor and regulate network traffic. These
methods can include:
Packet filtering. Packets are small amounts of data. When a firewall uses packet filtering, the
packets attempting to enter the network are run against a group of filters. These filters remove the
packets that match certain identified threats and allow the others through to their intended
destination.
Proxy service. These firewalls are incredibly secure, but they come with their own drawbacks.
They work more slowly than other types of firewalls and are often limited with regard to the sorts
of applications they can support. Instead of serving as a filtration system that data passes through,
proxy servers function as go-betweens. By essentially creating a mirror of the computer behind the
firewall, they prevent direct connections between the customer device and the incoming packets,
protecting your network location from potential bad actors.
Stateful inspection. Where static filtering examines the packet headers, stateful inspection
firewalls examine a variety of elements of each data packet and compare them to a database of
trusted information. These elements include source and destination IP addresses, ports, and
applications. Incoming data packets are required to sufficiently match the trusted information in
order to be allowed through the firewall. Stateful inspection is a newer method of firewall filtering.
 Firewall
Types of firewall include the following:
• Packet filtering firewall
• Circuit-level gateway
• Application-level gateway (aka proxy firewall)
• Stateful inspection firewall
• Next-generation firewall (NGFW)
 Virtual Private Network
A virtual private network, or VPN, is an encrypted connection over the Internet from a device to a
network. The encrypted connection helps ensure that sensitive data is safely transmitted. It prevents
unauthorized people from eavesdropping on the traffic and allows the user to conduct work
remotely. VPN technology is widely used in corporate environments.
 Virtual Private Network
How does a virtual private network (VPN) work?
A VPN extends a corporate network through encrypted connections made over the
Internet. Because the traffic is encrypted between the device and the network,
traffic remains private as it travels. An employee can work outside the office and
still securely connect to the corporate network. Even smartphones and tablets can
connect through a VPN.

What is secure remote access?

Secure remote access provides a safe, secure way to connect users and devices
remotely to a corporate network. It includes VPN technology that uses strong ways
to authenticate the user or device. VPN technology is available to check whether a
device meets certain requirements, also called a device‘s posture, before it is
allowed to connect remotely.

Is VPN traffic encrypted?

Yes, traffic on the virtual network is sent securely by establishing an encrypted
connection across the Internet known as a tunnel. VPN traffic from a device such
as a computer, tablet, or smartphone is encrypted as it travels through this tunnel.
Offsite employees can then use the virtual network to access the corporate network.