DATA COMMUNICATION AND COMPUTER NETWORKS

UNIT 1.Introduction to Data Communication

Basics of the Communications: Communication is defined as a process in

which more than one computer transfers information, instructions to each other and for
sharing resources. Or in other words, communication is a process or act in which we
can send or receive data. A network of computers is defined as an interconnected
collection of autonomous computers. Autonomous means no computer can start, stop
or control another computer.

Components of Data Communication:

A communication system is made up of the following components:

1. Message: A message is a piece of information that is to be transmitted

from one person to another. It could be a text file, an audio file, a video

file, etc.

2. Sender: It is simply a device that sends data messages. It can be a

computer, mobile, telephone, laptop, video camera, or workstation, etc.

3. Receiver: It is a device that receives messages. It can be a computer,

telephone, mobile, workstation, etc.

4. Transmission Medium / Communication Channels: Communication

channels are the medium that connect two or more workstations.

Workstations can be connected by either wired media or wireless

media.
5. Set of rules (Protocol): When someone sends the data (The sender),

it should be understandable to the receiver also otherwise it is

meaningless. For example, Sonali sends a message to Chetan. If Sonali

writes in Hindi and Chetan cannot understand Hindi, it is a

meaningless conversation. Therefore, there are some set of rules

(protocols) that is followed by every computer connected to the

internet and they are:

● TCP(Transmission Control Protocol): It is responsible for dividing

messages into packets on the source computer and reassembling

the received packet at the destination or recipient computer. It also

makes sure that the packets have the information about the source

of the message data, the destination of the message data, the

sequence in which the message data should be re-assembled, and

 checks if the message has been sent correctly to the specific

destination.

● IP(Internet Protocol): Do You ever wonder how a computer

determines which packet belongs to which device. What happens if

the message you sent to your friend is received by your father?

Scary Right. Well! IP is responsible for handling the address of the

destination computer so that each packet is sent to its proper

destination.
Type of data communication

As we know that data communication is communication in which we can send or

receive data from one device to another. The data communication is divided into

three types:

1. Simplex Communication: It is one-way communication or we can say

that unidirectional communication in which one device only receives

and another device only sends data and devices use their entire

capacity in transmission. For example, IoT, entering data using a

keyboard, listening to music using a speaker, etc.

2. Half Duplex communication: It is a two-way communication or we can

say that it is a bidirectional communication in which both the devices

can send and receive data but not at the same time. When one device

is sending data then another device is only receiving and vice-versa.

For example, walkie-talkie.

3. Full-duplex communication: It is a two-way communication or we can

say that it is a bidirectional communication in which both the devices

can send and receive data at the same time. For example, mobile

phones, landlines, etc.

Communication Channels

Communication channels are the medium that connects two or more

workstations. Workstations can be connected by either wired media or wireless

media. It is also known as a transmission medium. The transmission medium or

channel is a link that carries messages between two or more devices. We can

group the communication media into two categories:

● Guided media transmission

● Unguided media transmission

1. Guided Media: In this transmission medium, the physical link is created using

wires or cables between two or more computers or devices, and then the data is

transmitted using these cables in terms of signals. Guided media transmission of

the following types:

1. Twisted pair cable: It is the most common form of wire used in

communication. In a twisted-pair cable, two identical wires are wrapped

together in a double helix. The twisting of the wire reduces the crosstalk. It is

known as the leaking of a signal from one wire to another due to which the

signal can corrupt and can cause network errors. The twisting protects the wire

from internal crosstalk as well as external forms of signal interference.

Types of Twisted Pair Cable :

● Unshielded Twisted Pair (UTP): It is used in computers and

telephones widely. As the name suggests, there is no external

shielding so it does not protect from external interference. It is cheaper

than STP. These are a pair of two insulated copper wires twisted

together without any other insulation or shielding and hence are called

unshielded twisted pair cables. They reduce the external interference

due to the presence of insulation. Unshielded twisted pair cables are

arranged in pairs so that we can add a new connection whenever

required.
 Advantages –

1. These cables are cost-effective and easy to install owing to their

compact size.

2. They are generally used for short-distance transmission of both voice

and data.

3. It is less costly as compared to other types of cables.

Disadvantages –

1. The connection established using UTP is not secure.

2. They are efficient only for a distance up to 100 meters and have to

be installed in pieces of up to 100 meters.

3. These cables have limited bandwidth.

● Shielded Twisted Pair (STP): It offers greater protection from crosstalk

due to shields. Due to shielding, it protects from external interference.

It is heavier and costlier as compared to UTP. These types of cables

have extra insulation or protective covering over the conductors in the

form of a copper braid covering. This covering provides strength to the

overall structure of the cable. It also reduces noise and signal

interference in the cable. The shielding ensures that the induced signal

can be returned to the source via ground and only circulate around the

shield without affecting the main propagating signal. The STP cables

are also color-coded like the UTP cables as different color pairs are

required for analog and digital transmission. These cables are costly

and difficult to install.

 Advantages –

1. They are generally used for long-distance communication and

transmission and are installed underground.

2. The protective shield prevents external electromagnetic noise

penetration into the cable.

3. They have a higher bandwidth as compared to UTP.

Disadvantages –

1. These cables are very expensive.

2. They require a lot of maintenance which increases the cost more.

3. These can be installed underground only.

4. The length of the segment is similar to UTP for these cables.

Applications of Twisted pair cables :

● Twisted Pair cables are used in telephone lines to provide data and

voice channels.

● The DSL(Digital Subscriber Line) lines make use of these cables.

● Local Area Networks (LAN) also make use of twisted pair cables.

● They can be used for both analog and digital transmission.

● RJ-45(registered jack-45) is a very common application of STP.

RJ45 is a well-known ethernet connectivity connector that allows users to

connect through wired internet.

2. Coaxial Cable: It consists of a solid wire core that is surrounded by one or

more foil or wire shields. The inner core of the coaxial cable carries the signal

and the outer shield provides the ground. It is widely used for television signals

and also used by large corporations in building security systems. Data

transmission of this cable is better but expensive as compared to twisted pairs.

A coaxial cable is an electrical cable with a copper conductor and an insulator

shielding around it and a braided metal mesh that prevents signal interference

and crosstalk. Coaxial cable is also known as coax.

The core copper conductor is used for the transmission of signals and the

insulator is used to provide insulation to the copper conductor and the insulator

is surrounded by a braided metal conductor which helps to prevent the

interference of electrical signals and prevent crosstalk. This entire setup is again

covered with a protective plastic layer to provide extra safety to the cable.
 Structure of Coaxial Cable

Copper conductor: A central conductor, which consists of copper. The conductor

is the point at which data transmits.

Insulator: Dielectric plastic insulation around the copper conductor. It is used to

maintain the spacing between the center conductor and shield.

Braided mesh: A braided mesh of copper helps to shield from electromagnetic

interference, The braid provides a barrier against EMI moving into and out of the

coaxial cable.

Protective plastic layer: An external polymer layer, which has a plastic coating.

It is used to protect internal layers from damages.

Applications of Coaxial cable

The coaxial cables are used in Ethernet LANs and also used in MANs

1. Television: Coaxial cable used for television would be 75 Ohm and

RG-6 coaxial cable.

2. Internet: Coaxial cables are also used for carrying internet signals,

RG-6 cables are used for this.

3. CCTV: The coaxial cables are also used in CCTV systems and both

RG-59 AND RG-6 cables can be used.

4. Video: The coaxial cables are also used in video Transmission the

RG-6 is used for better digital signals and RG-59 for lossless

transmission of video signals.

5. HDTV: The HDTV uses RG-11 as it provides more space for signals to

transfer.

Advantages

1. Coaxial cables support high bandwidth.

2. It is easy to install coaxial cables.

3. coaxial cables have better cut-through resistance so they are more

reliable and durable.

4. Less affected by noise or crosstalk or electromagnetic interference.

5. Coaxial cables support multiple channels

Disadvantages

1. Coaxial cables are expensive.

2. As a Coaxial cable has multiple layers it is very bulky.

3. There is a chance of breaking the coaxial cable and attaching a “t-joint”

by hackers, this compromises the security of the data.

3. Optical fibers: Optical fiber is an important technology. It transmits large

amounts of data at very high speeds due to which it is widely used in internet

cables. It carries data as a light that travels inside a thin glass fiber.
The fiber optic cable is made up of three pieces:

1. Core: Core is the piece through which light travels. It is generally

created using glass or plastic.

2. Cladding: It is the covering of the core and reflects the light back to the

core.

3. Plastic coating: It is the protective covering that protects fiber cable

from the environment.

2. Unguided Media: The unguided transmission media is a transmission mode in

which the signals are propagated from one device to another device wirelessly.

Signals can wave through the air, water, or vacuum. It is generally used to

transmit signals in all directions. Unguided Media is further divided into various

parts :

1. Microwave: Microwave offers communication without the use of cables.

Microwave signals are just like radio and television signals. It is used in

long-distance communication. Microwave transmission consists of a transmitter,

receiver, and atmosphere. In microwave communication, there are parabolic

antennas that are mounted on the towers to send a beam to another antenna.

The higher the tower, the greater the range.

2. Radio wave: When communication is carried out by radio frequencies, then it

is termed radio waves transmission. It offers mobility. It consists of the

transmitter and the receiver. Both use antennas to radiate and capture the radio

signal.

3. Infrared: It is short-distance communication and can pass through any object.

It is generally used in TV remotes, wireless mouse, etc.

Types of Network Topology
In Computer Networks ,there are various ways through which different

components are connected to one another. Network Topology is the way that

defines the structure, and how these components are connected to each other.

Types of Network Topology

The arrangement of a network that comprises nodes and connecting lines via

sender and receiver is referred to as Network Topology. The various network

topologies are:

● Point to Point Topology

● Mesh Topology

● Star Topology

● Bus Topology

● Ring Topology

● Tree Topology

● Hybrid Topology
Point to Point Topology

Point-to-Point Topology is a type of topology that works on the functionality of

the sender and receiver. It is the simplest communication between two nodes, in

which one is the sender and the other one is the receiver. Point-to-Point

provides high bandwidth.

Point to Point Topology

Mesh Topology

In a mesh topology, every device is connected to another device via a particular

channel. In Mesh Topology, the protocols used are AHCP (Ad Hoc Configuration

Protocols), DHCP (Dynamic Host Configuration Protocol), etc.

Mesh Topology

Every device is connected to another via dedicated channels. These channels are

known as links.

● Suppose, the N number of devices are connected with each other in a

mesh topology, the total number of ports that are required by each

device is N-1. In Figure 1, there are 5 devices connected to each other,

hence the total number of ports required by each device is 4. The total

number of ports required = N * (N-1).

 ● Suppose, N number of devices are connected with each other in a

mesh topology, then the total number of dedicated links required to

connect them is NC2 i.e. N(N-1)/2. In Figure 1, there are 5 devices

connected to each other, hence the total number of links required is

5*4/2 = 10.

Advantages of Mesh Topology

● Communication is very fast between the nodes.

● Mesh Topology is robust.

● The fault is diagnosed easily. Data is reliable because data is

transferred among the devices through dedicated channels or links.

● Provides security and privacy.

Drawbacks of Mesh Topology

● Installation and configuration are difficult.

● The cost of cables is high as bulk wiring is required, hence suitable for

a less number of devices.

● The cost of maintenance is high.

A common example of mesh topology is the internet backbone, where various

internet service providers are connected to each other via dedicated channels.

This topology is also used in military communication systems and aircraft

navigation systems.
Star Topology

In Star Topology, all the devices are connected to a single hub through a cable.

This hub is the central node and all other nodes are connected to the central

node. The hub can be passive in nature i.e., not an intelligent hub such as

broadcasting devices, at the same time the hub can be intelligent known as an

active hub. Active hubs have repeaters in them. Coaxial cables or RJ-45 cables

are used to connect the computers. In Star Topology, many popular Ethernet

LAN protocols are used as CD(Collision Detection), CSMA (Carrier Sense

Multiple Access), etc.

Star Topology

A star topology having four systems connected to a single point of connection

i.e. hub.
Advantages of Star Topology

● If N devices are connected to each other in a star topology, then the

number of cables required to connect them is N. So, it is easy to set up.

● Each device requires only 1 port i.e. to connect to the hub, therefore the

total number of ports required is N.

● It is Robust. If one link fails only that link will affect and not other than

that.

● Easy to fault identification and fault isolation.

● Star topology is cost-effective as it uses inexpensive coaxial cable.

Drawbacks of Star Topology

● If the concentrator (hub) on which the whole topology relies fails, the

whole system will crash down.

● The cost of installation is high.

● Performance is based on the single concentrator i.e. hub.

A common example of star topology is a local area network (LAN) in an office

where all computers are connected to a central hub. This topology is also used

in wireless networks where all devices are connected to a wireless access point.

Bus Topology

Bus Topology is a network type in which every computer and network device is

connected to a single cable. It is bi-directional. It is a multi-point connection and

a non-robust topology because if the backbone fails the topology crashes. In

Bus Topology, various MAC (Media Access Control) protocols are followed by

LAN ethernet connections like TDMA, Pure Aloha, CDMA, Slotted Aloha, etc.

Bus Topology

bus topology with shared backbone cable. The nodes are connected to the

channel via drop lines.

Advantages of Bus Topology

● If N devices are connected to each other in a bus topology, then the

number of cables required to connect them is 1, known as backbone

cable, and N drop lines are required.

● Coaxial or twisted pair cables are mainly used in bus-based networks

that support up to 10 Mbps.

● The cost of the cable is less compared to other topologies, but it is

used to build small networks.

 ● Bus topology is familiar technology as installation and troubleshooting

techniques are well known.

● CSMA is the most common method for this type of topology.

Drawbacks of Bus Topology

● A bus topology is quite simple, but still, it requires a lot of cabling.

● If the common cable fails, then the whole system will crash down.

● If the network traffic is heavy, it increases collisions in the network. To

avoid this, various protocols are used in the MAC layer known as Pure

Aloha, Slotted Aloha, CSMA/CD, etc.

● Adding new devices to the network would slow down networks.

● Security is very low.

A common example of bus topology is the Ethernet LAN, where all devices are

connected to a single coaxial cable or twisted pair cable. This topology is also

used in cable television networks.

Ring Topology

In a Ring Topology, it forms a ring connecting devices with exactly two

neighboring devices. A number of repeaters are used for Ring topology with a

large number of nodes, because if someone wants to send some data to the last

node in the ring topology with 100 nodes, then the data will have to pass
through 99 nodes to reach the 100th node. Hence to prevent data loss

repeaters are used in the network.

The data flows in one direction, i.e. it is unidirectional, but it can be made

bidirectional by having 2 connections between each Network Node, it is called

Dual Ring Topology. In-Ring Topology, the Token Ring Passing protocol is used

by the workstations to transmit the data.

Ring Topology

A ring topology comprises 4 stations connected with each forming a ring.

The most common access method of ring topology is token passing.

● Token passing: It is a network access method in which a token is

passed from one node to another node.

● Token: It is a frame that circulates around the network.

Operations of Ring Topology

1. One station is known as a monitor station which takes all the

responsibility for performing the operations.

2. To transmit the data, the station has to hold the token. After the

transmission is done, the token is to be released for other stations to

use.

3. When no station is transmitting the data, then the token will circulate

in the ring.

4. There are two types of token release techniques: Early token release

releases the token just after transmitting the data and Delayed token

release releases the token after the acknowledgment is received from

the receiver.

Advantages of Ring Topology

● The data transmission is high-speed.

● The possibility of collision is minimum in this type of topology.

● Cheap to install and expand.

● It is less costly than a star topology.

Drawbacks of Ring Topology

● The failure of a single node in the network can cause the entire

network to fail.

● Troubleshooting is difficult in this topology.

 ● The addition of stations in between or the removal of stations can

disturb the whole topology.

● Less secure.

Tree Topology

This topology is the variation of the Star topology. This topology has a

hierarchical flow of data. In Tree Topology, protocols like DHCP and SAC

(Standard Automatic Configuration ) are used.

Tree Topology

In this, the various secondary hubs are connected to the central hub which

contains the repeater. This data flows from top to bottom i.e. from the central

hub to the secondary and then to the devices or from bottom to top i.e. devices

to the secondary hub and then to the central hub. It is a multi-point connection

and a non-robust topology because if the backbone fails the topology crashes.
Advantages of Tree Topology

● It allows more devices to be attached to a single central hub thus it

decreases the distance that is traveled by the signal to come to the

devices.

● It allows the network to get isolated and also prioritize from different

computers.

● We can add new devices to the existing network.

● Error detection and error correction are very easy in a tree topology.

Drawbacks of Tree Topology

● If the central hub fails the entire system fails.

● The cost is high because of the cabling.

● If new devices are added, it becomes difficult to reconfigure.

Hybrid Topology

This topological technology is the combination of all the various types of

topologies we have studied above. Hybrid Topology is used when the nodes are

free to take any form. It means these can be individuals such as Ring or Star

topology or can be a combination of various types of topologies seen above.

Each individual topology uses the protocol that has been discussed earlier.
 Hybrid Topology

The above figure shows the structure of the Hybrid topology. As seen it contains

a combination of all different types of networks.

Advantages of Hybrid Topology

● This topology is very flexible.

● The size of the network can be easily expanded by adding new

devices.

Drawbacks of Hybrid Topology

● It is challenging to design the architecture of the Hybrid Network.

● Hubs used in this topology are very expensive.

● The infrastructure cost is very high as a hybrid network requires a lot

of cabling and network devices.

Signals:

Information converted into an electrical form suitable for transmission is called a signal.
There are two types of signals; Analog and Digital. Analog signals are continuous
variations of current and voltage whereas digital signals are those that have discrete
stepwise value (0 = Low, 1 = High).

Transmission:

Transmission is actually the process of sending and propagating analog or

signals of digital information.

1. Analog Communication:

In analog communication the data is transferred with the help of analog signals

in between the transmitter and receiver. Any type of data is transferred in

analog signal. Any data is converted into electric form first and after that it is

passed through the communication channel. Analog communication uses a

continuous signal which varies in amplitude, phase, or some other property with

time in proportion to that of a variable.

The below figure illustrates the Analog Communication System:

2. Digital Communication:

In digital communication digital signal is used rather than analog signal for

communication in between the source and destination. The digital signal

consists of discrete values rather than continuous values. In digital

communication physical transfer of data occurs in the form of digital bit stream

i.e 0 or 1 over a point-to-point or point-to-multipoint transmission medium. In

digital communication the digital transmission data can be broken into packets

as discrete messages which is not allowed in analog communication.

The below figure illustrates the Digital Communication System:

Types of Transmission Technology :

Transmission media is basically divided into two categories: Broadcast

Networks, Point-to-Point Networks. These are explained below.

1. Broadcast Networks :

Broadcast networks are also known as terrestrial networks. It is basically a

group of radio stations, television stations, or any other electronic media outlets

that simply generate agreement to air, or broadcast, content generally from a

centralized source. Broadcasting is simply a method of transferring messages to

all the recipients simultaneously.

In this network, a message that is sent by a node is received by all the other

nodes connected to the network and share a common medium of

communication.
2. Point-to-Point Networks :

Point-to-Point Networks or Point-to-Point Connection is a type of private data

connection that is connecting securely two or more locations for private data

services. It might also be configured to usually carry voice, internet, and data

services together all over the same point-to-point network. It simply refers to

the type of communication connection among two endpoints or nodes of

communication. It is a connection among pairs of machines. Transmission from

point-to-point with one sender and receiver is commonly known as unicasting.

This network is generally used for two locations that are required to securely

send data that is very sensitive and confidential among each of the locations.

Digital Signals
Information can also be represented by a digital signal. For
example, a 1 can be encoded as a positive voltage and a 0 as
zero voltage. A digital signal can have more than two levels. In
this case, we can have zero voltage. A digital signal can have
more than two levels. In this case, we can send more than 1 bit
for each level.
Bit Rate:

The bit rate is the number of bits sent in Is, expressed in bits per
second (bps).

The Bit Rate for the above diagram is 8bps and 16bps.

Bit length =propagation speed x bit duration.

Transmission Impairment in Data
Communication

In a communication system, analog signals travel through transmission media,

which tends to deteriorate the quality of analog signal, which means that the

signal at the beginning of the medium is not the same as the signal at the end

of the medium. The imperfection causes signal impairment. Below are the

causes of the impairment.

Causes of impairment –

● Attenuation – It means loss of energy. The strength of the signal

decreases with increasing distance which causes loss of energy in

overcoming resistance of medium. This is also known as attenuated

signal. Amplifiers are used to amplify the attenuated signal which

gives the original signal back and compensate for this loss.
 Attenuation is measured in decibels(dB). It measures the relative

strengths of two signals or one signal at two different points.

Attenuation(dB) = 10log10(P2/P1)

P1 is the power at the sending end and P2 is the power at the receiving end.

Some where the decibel is also define in terms of voltage instead of power.In
this case because power is proportional to the square of the voltage the formula
is

Attenuation(dB) = 20log10(V2/V1)

V1 is the voltage at the sending end and V2 is the voltage at the receiving end.
● Distortion – It means changes in the form or shape of the signal. This

is generally seen in composite signals made up with different

frequencies. Each frequency component has its own propagation speed

traveling through a medium. And that's why there is a delay in arriving

at the final destination. Every component arrives at a different time

which leads to distortion. Therefore, they have different phases at the

receiver end from what they had at the sender's end.

● Noise – The random or unwanted signal that mixes up with the

original signal is called noise. There are several types of noise such as

induced noise, crosstalk noise, thermal noise and impulse noise which

may corrupt the signal.

Induced noise comes from sources such as motors and appliances.

These devices act as sending antenna and transmission medium act as

 receiving antenna. Thermal noise is movement of electrons in wire

which creates an extra signal. Crosstalk noise is when one wire affects

the other wire. Impulse noise is a signal with high energy that comes

from lightning or power lines

● To find the theoretical bit rate limit, we need to know the ration .The

signal-to-noise ratio is defined as

SNR = AVG SIGNAL POWER / AVG NOISE POWER

SNRdB = 10Log10SNR

EXAMPLE

The values of SNR and SNRdB for a noiseless channel are

SNR = Signal Power/0 = ∞

SNRdB = 10Log10 ∞ = ∞