The Journal of CPRI,

Vol. 7, No. 1, March 2011 pp. 79–88

Technology Development for Flame - Retardant Low - Smoke Material for

Wire and Cables for Sheathing Applications

Reddy P V*

An attempt was made to develop technology for low-smoke flame-retardant cable and compound with
elimination of toxic chemicals in the formulation. The extrusion trials using twin screw extruder and
cable coating with single screw extruder were successful. Results of the evaluation of the cable and
compound suggest that the composition seems to be satisfactory. However, large-scale production
could not be taken due to the actual technoeconomic viability of the commercialization. This study
paved the way for DSIR-sponsored project for commercial exploitation under PATSER scheme.

Keywords: PVC resin, Stabilizer, Plasticizer, Single screw extruder, Flame-Retardant

Low-Smoke (FRLS), Compounding.

1.0 INTRODUCTION The additives must have a minimum impact on

physical properties and product cost.
Polymer-based materials are used in every branch
of industry, and their usage is based on rapid The industrial growth has resulted in large amount
progress made in many of the polymers. Most of power generation, and expansion of power and
of the polymer-based materials are combustible, distribution networks. Electric cables are designed
release toxic and noxious gases during combustion. to carry power and communication leads for long
In view of these, lots of research is being carried distances, can act as pathway along which fire
out for in-depth study of the behavior of polymeric can travel and spread. The causes for fire could
materials exposed to fire. The risk involved and be due to electrical malfunction, faults, arcing,
the damage caused by fire, where polymers are lightning, switching surges, overloading, heating
present, are significantly high considering the of conductor joints, single phasing, inadequate
modern methods of construction, erection of ventilation, etc. Fire involving these cables may
high rise buildings, thermal power plants, oil cause the loss of life, as well as damage to the
refineries and modern means of transportation. In facilities and equipment. In order to avoid such
all major fire accidents, dense smoke is formed disasters, there is an increased demand for
during burning of materials, which leads to poor improved flame-retardant cables and to reduce
visibility, causing lot of problems for fire-fighting not only flame propagation but also smoke and
personnel, like difficulty in speedy evacuation toxic emission. The flammable characteristics
from the fire zone under critical conditions. In of polymeric materials used in cable insulation
order to counter this problem, many research and jacketing have been of great importance to
and industrial laboratories are making attempts the electrical industry over the years. Electric
to render these materials fireproof and reduce cables rarely cause fires but may assist the spread
smoke generation by adding suitable compounds of flames and may produce smoke and toxic
or by changing the structure of the polymer itself. fumes when exposed to fire already in progress.
*Central Power Research Institute, Bangalore - 560080, India. E-mail: pvreddy@cpri.in
80 The Journal of CPRI, Vol. 7, No. 1, March 2011

During the early part of the development period, More recently, in what has developed into the
the emphasis was on flame-retardant and to reduce largest market for flame-retardant chemicals,
flame propagation of cables. More recently, flame-retardancy is engineered into polymers
interest has centered in cables which evolve and, thus, is a result of the inherent properties of
reduced levels of smoke and toxic fumes. the materials.

Polyvinylchloride (PVC) is being used abundantly The market for flame-retardant PVC compounds is
for insulation and sheathing of electric cables. growing, as these plastics compete for increasing
In case of a fire, normal PVC cables burn with applications in residential buildings, industrial
difficulty, but in certain conditions; for example, buildings, public buildings, automobiles, aircraft,
when cables are installed vertically, PVC will burn upholstery and clothing. Other significant
and can cause fire to spread rapidly. Polyvinyl markets include electrical insulation and military
chloride is inherently flame-retardant and hence its equipment. The requirements for flame-retardancy
compositions represent one of the largest markets are becoming more rigorous as these markets
for flame-retardant applications. In unplasticized are penetrated, test methods have become more
form, PVC is flame-retardant due to its high realistic and sophisticated and awareness of the
chlorine content (approximately 57 %). When PVC inherent danger in using flammable materials is
is compounded with diaromatic ester plasticizers increasing. This awareness has been accentuated
and other modifiers, the resultant compositions by the total destruction, by fire, of buildings that
will usually be combustible. One kilogram of soft were supposedly fire proof due to combustible
PVC when subjected to fire will emit 360 g of HCl contents, furnishings and decorations.
gas, which when dissolved in water results in 1L
of concentrated smoking hydrochloric acid. The 1.2 Development/Design Criteria for Flame-
flammability of plasticized PVC can be controlled Retardant Power Cables
by the use of suitable additives. In order to impart
flame-retardance with low-smoke characteristics, In the event of a fire involving cable runs, the
and to minimize toxic gas formation during protective cable sheath of a multicore cable will
burning of PVC compound, additives involving be the first component exposed to the flames/or
elements like chlorine, phosphorus, antimony, to the radiant heat flux. Thus, the design criteria
alloys, inorganic compounds, coordination as for the development of cable sheath or jacket in
well as several organometallic compounds are fire must consider in optimizing the fire/pyrolysis
used. Low-melting sulphate glass has also been behavior of materials. In general, it can be said
identified as an effective fire-and smoke-retarding that the task of the polymer expert is to develop
additive for PVC [1]. new materials which are transformed from ‘Easy
to Burn’ stage to ‘Difficult to Burn’ stage. New
1.1 History of the Flame-Retardant materials should also perform well in reducing
Chemicals Industry the smoke generation and acid generation
significantly. In addition, the cable insulating and
Fire causes a huge amount of human suffering, as sheath materials should have high fire resistance
well as personal and business financial loss. For and maintain electrical integrity under conditions
nearly a century, with mixed success, attempts of electrical stress and exposure to flame so that
have been made to remove the fire hazard from essential services are maintained.
items encountered in everyday life. Man-made
materials, in particular, have been the subject of 1.3 Fundamental Aspects of
intense research concerning their behavior in fires. Burning of Polymers
Initial applications were aimed at reducing the
combustibility of fabrics or substrates by coating Polymeric materials (hard or soft) are linear or cross-
them with chemicals. Later, the industry began linked macromolecular organic materials which do
to increase the fire-resistance of materials by not burn easily. However, their flammability arises
incorporating an additive or reactive compound. from the fact that they are unstable at temperatures
The Journal of CPRI, Vol. 7, No. 1, March 2011 81

of ≥200°C, providing a range of small volatile place during the standard processing operations to
organic compounds, which are highly flammable. render the product useless. Under the effect of heat
These products of thermal degradation evolving and light/UV radiation, polyvinyl chloride looses
large amounts of heat cause further degradation, its HCl molecule continuously, soon leading to
rapidly leading to serious fire. Most polymers a chain segment of polyunsaturation, resulting in
decompose at temperatures between 220 and the loss of mechanical or electrical properties. To
500°C and rapid oxidation may start at approx. eliminate this effect, certain materials known as
150°C. The presence of oxygen plays a main role stabilizers must be added. It has been found that
in the decomposition as long as the surface is not incorporation of stabilizers retards or moderates
flamming. This is because the oxygen depletion the degradation reaction so that useful processable
in the actual flame is so large that little amount materials may be obtained.
of oxygen is enough to reach the burning surface.
The decomposition is then almost a thermal There is a great deal of uncertainty in the
decomposition. Once this situation is reached, it mechanism of PVC degradation, but certain
is said that fire has developed and combustion is facts have emerged. Firstly, dehydrochlorination
in progress. occurs at an early stage in the degradation
process. There is some infrared evidence that as
1.4 Theory of Processing of PVC with hydrogen chloride is removed, polyene structures
Additives are formed. At one time, it was thought that the
liberated HCl caused autocatalytic liberation
The normally used processing additives for PVC of further hydrogen chloride, but there is now
are plasticizers, stabilizers, lubricants, fillers, growing evidence that this is not the case.
etc.
A second fact that has emerged is that oxygen
1.4.1 Plasticization of PVC has an effect on the reaction. It is believed that
oxygen can cause both chain scission and cross-
PVC is unique in its acceptance of large amounts linking reaction, while it has also been observed
of plasticizers with a gradual change in physical that the presence of oxygen accelerates color
properties from rigid solid to soft gel or viscous formation.
liquid.
The first physical manifestation of degradation
Method of Plasticization: The plasticizer is used in the widest sense is a change in the color
incorporated into the PVC resin by means of hot of PVC. Initially, on heating, water white will
compounding. This process requires an energy turn, in sequence, pale yellow, orange, brown
input by heating, accompanied by vigorous and black. Further degradation causes adverse
mixing. At laboratory scale, the plasticizer and changes in mechanical and electrical properties.
resin powder are mixed in a plasticorder at
150–170°C. The resin–plasticizer blend initially The choice of a stabilizer, thus, becomes an
offers very little resistance to mixing. A slight empirical yet systematic process. The following
increase may be noticed as dry blending takes factors are the most important that must be
place. As the resin-plasticizer blend begins to fuse considered.
and plasticization occurs on the surface, resistance
to mixing increases rapidly. This is seen by the 1. The grade of the polymer used.
sudden increase in torque in the plasticorder. Some 2. The nature of other ingredients present.
of the commonly used plasticizers are phthalates,
phosphates, paraffinic oils, napthenic oils, etc. 3. The cost of stabilizer required to give
adequate stabilization for the processing and
1.4.2 Stabilization of PVC anticipated service life of the compound.
4. The clarity of the compound required.
At processing temperatures used in practice
(150–200°C), sufficient degradation may take 5. Toxicity.
82 The Journal of CPRI, Vol. 7, No. 1, March 2011

6. The effect on lubrication, printing, heat a filler with a higher volume cost because more
sealing and plate-out. can be incorporated. To judge the economics of
a filler simply on its price per unit weight is of
The most important class of stabilizers are the little merit. For electrical insulation, China clay is
lead compounds, which form lead chloride on commonly employed, whilst magnesium carbonate
reaction with hydrogen chloride evolved during and various calcium carbonates are used for
decomposition. They are also good heat stabilizers. general-purpose work.
Of these materials, basic lead carbonate (2PbCO3·
Pb(OH)2) has been, and probably still is, the 1.4.4 Addition of Lubricants
most important stabilizer for PVC, on which it
confers excellent thermal stability and electrical In plasticized PVC, the main function of a lubricant
resistivity at temperatures around 160°C. It may is to prevent sticking of the compound to surfaces
be considered as typical of the lead compounds of the processing equipment working at high
and has a low weight cost. One disadvantage of temperature and speeds. This is brought about
lead carbonate is that it may decompose with by selecting a material of limited compatibility
the evolution of carbon dioxide and water at the which will thus sweat out during processing to
higher range of processing conditions of above form a film between the bulk of the compound and
190°C, thus leading to a porous product. the metal surfaces of the processing equipment.
Calcium stearate (Ca(C17H35COO)2) has been
For this reason, at higher working temperatures, used most commonly with non-transparent
tribasic lead sulphate (3PbO·PbSO4·H2O) has been products, and stearic acid with those that are
found to be a good heat stabilizer. It is in itself transparent.
very stable to heat and can be heated without
decomposition to temperatures well in excess of 1.4.5 Means of Imparting Flame Resistance
those normally encountered in compounding and to PVC
fabricating PVC, such as high speed extrusion.
In the absence of any decomposition, it ensures Most commercial plastics burn fairly easily even
sound products with complete absence of porosity under moderate conditions. Therefore, it is a
caused by evolution of gases. It gives polymer common practice to use flame-retardants (FRs)
compounds better electrical insulation property for improving the fire-resistance performance
than lead carbonate. Its weight cost is somewhat and reducing the tendency for smoke emission.
higher than that of lead carbonate, but less than Today, a variety of different FRs are available in
most other stabilizers. the market which are often tailor-made for specific
applications. FRs are compounds that possess
1.4.3 Addition of Fillers special structural or chemical features that can
modify and transform the properties of polymers in
Fillers are commonly employed in opaque PVC such a way that they retard the flame and emit low
compounds in order to reduce the cost. They may smoke. Elements such as phosphorus, halogens,
also be employed for technical reasons such as etc. are used to transform polymers to FRs which
to increase the hardness of a flooring compound, not only give high performance, but are also
reduce tackiness of highly plasticized compounds, cost-effective.
improve electrical insulation properties and
improve the heat deformation resistance of The most common approach that is adopted by
cables. the industries for flame-retardance is the use
of halogenated flame-retardants. Halogen can
In evaluating the economics of a filler, it is be added to the system as flame-retardant, but
important to consider the volume of filler that can are more efficient when incorporated into the
be added before bringing the processing and service substrate of the polymer as a reactive flame-
properties below that which can be tolerated. Thus, retardant. However, these retardants develop
in some cases, it may be more economical to use thick smoke and corrosive gases. The polymers
The Journal of CPRI, Vol. 7, No. 1, March 2011 83

with high amount of inorganic fillers are suitable trihydrate (ATH). ATH acts as a mineral flame-
for reducing smoke. retardant and smoke suppressant because of its
thermodynamic properties. Al2O3.3H2O contains
The design of flame resistance into plastics is 34.6 % of water. The retardant is obviously effective
essentially based on empirically gained knowledge. because of the heat required to decompose the
The role of active smoke-retarders is to change hydrate and evaporate the water. When exposed
the thermal degradation pattern of PVC and to to heat, it will absorb about 280 cal/gm before
promote the formation of char. In practical form liberating water vapor. At 200°C, chemically
(i.e. taking into account economic limitations and combined water of hydration begins to liberate.
performance characteristics), flame resistance is This endothermic decomposition absorbs thermal
imparted by the incorporation of halogen-bearing reactive energy from the flame. The endothermic
compounds, specifically chlorine and bromine, cooling is believed to favor dehydrogenation
phosphorus-or boron-containing compounds, reactions and protect char formation. The
and by nitrogenous materials, either singly or evolution of water not only has a cooling effect
used in combination. Their effectiveness can but also blankets the flame and acts as a diluent.
be, and frequently is, augmented by auxiliary The aluminum oxide layer, formed by dehydration,
synergistically acting compounds. Flame- has an exceptionally high surface area. The high
retardants can be classified into three categories: surface area of alumina absorbs smoke and
(a) Reactive type : The fire-retardant reacts flammable molecules, causing a reduction in the
chemically with the polymer components amount of carbon dioxide evolved. It has been
and is combined chemically into the basic suggested that ATH acts as an electron donor
polymeric structure. to terminate radical reactions, by giving rise to
relatively unreactive inorganic free radical, which
(b) Additive type : The fire-retardant is is incapable of initiating further radical reactions.
physically blended into the base polymer Other excellent properties include electrical
prior to conversion to the final product. These arc/track and corrosion resistance.
types are usually preferred for thermoplastic
polymers. 1.5.1 Smoke Suppressants
(c) Co-additive type : This includes compounds Copper oxalate and ammonium molybdates
which by themselves are ineffective as provide an effective combination in PVC
flame-retardants, but in the presence of halogen, compositions to suppress smoke formation on fire
phosphorus, nitrogen or boron-containing without having adverse effects on the properties
compounds provides synergistically improved of the polymer composition. These additives are
flammable characteristics. normally used in powder form in amounts of
about 1–20 phr. These can be easily mixed with
1.5 Metal-Based Flame-Retardants PVC in the powder form.
For many years, metal hydroxides have been Smoke suppression by char formation can be
established to substitute critical organic FR in achieved by using low-melting sulphate glasses.
applications where the human life is directly When heated, these systems form a cellular foamed
threatened in a fire. The halogen-and acid-free char on the surface, which is thermally stable and
character of such substances in combination protects the underlying polymer from the action of
with halogen-free plastics is promoting and flames. Low-melting ternary sulphate and modified
pushing the trend to use environmentally benign sulphate glasses based on transition metals like
products. During combustion, metal hydroxides copper and nickel reduce the smoke generation
do not evolve toxic or corrosive gases as well as during burning of the PVC compound.
remarkably suppress the emission of smoke.
The objective of this work was to develop the
Nowadays, the most widely used acid-free technology for flame-retardant low-smoke material
and halogen-free flame-retardant is aluminium for wires and cables for sheathing applications.
84 The Journal of CPRI, Vol. 7, No. 1, March 2011

2.0 EXPERIMENTAL WORK The compound consists of common PVC filled

with mineral flame-retardants and some other
2.1 Blending/Compounding of PVC additives in minor amounts as indicated in
Formulations Table 2.

PVC formulations were made by carefully

examining the functions of the individual
ingredients and their effect on physical, mechanical,
thermal, flame-retardant and electrical properties
of the compounded PVC product. Predetermined
quantities of the PVC resin, stabilizer, plasticizer,
filler, lubricant, antioxidant and flame-retardant
additives with sulphate glass as a special additive
were charged. Brabender Plasticorder PLE 331,
which gives twin screw mixing action, was used
for compounding the formulations at temperatures
between 160 and 170°C. Known quantities of
raw materials were mixed and were transferred
into the Plasticorder and blended thoroughly for
5–10 minutes. The homogeneously compounded
material was fabricated into sheet specimens
(150 mm × 150 mm) using compression moulding
FURNACE FOR GLASS MAKING
machine maintained at 170°C under a pressure
of 25 psi. The sheet specimens were used for
evaluation of mechanical and flame-retardant
properties. Different chemicals used in this study
are listed in Table 1. TABLE 2

PERCENTAGE RANGE OF EACH COMPONENT

TABLE 1
Component phr
VARIOUS CHEMICALS USED IN THIS STUDY
Resin 100
Polyvinyl chloride Resin
Stabilizer 4–7
Calcium zinc stabilizer Stabilizer
Filler 10–30
Calcium carbonate Filler
Plasticizer 30–45
Tri-octyl-trimellitate, dioctyl
Plasticizers Processing aid 1
phthalate, diisodecyl phthalate
Bisphenol-A Antioxidant Flame-retardant additives 50–60

Calcium stearate Processing aid Sulphate glass 5–25

Flame-Retardant
Antimony trioxide
additive
Flame-Retardant 3.0 RESULTS AND DISCUSSION
Ammonium molybdate
additive
PVC formulations, as described above, have
Flame-Retardant
Trihydrated alumina been made and designated as C1, C2, etc. A large
additive
number of formulations have been studied with
Flame-Retardant various plasticizers, stabilizers, fillers and flame-
Low-melting sulphate glass
additive
retardants additives, including sulphate glass.
The Journal of CPRI, Vol. 7, No. 1, March 2011 85

The study also includes some of the commercially the oxygen index values, appreciably decreases
available raw materials like martinal, mica powder, the smoke density rating values [2,3]. As the
etc. The compositions which have been selected concentration increases, thermal stability and
for extrusion trials along with their properties are to, certain extent, the percent elongation values
listed in Table 3. The flame-retardant properties decrease. This decrease in stability and elongation
of PVC compound with variation in sulphate has been restored by the use of trioctyltrimellitate
glass (phr) are presented in Table 4. (TOTM) plasticizer in place of dioctyl
phthalate (DOP) or diisodecyl phthalate (DIDP)
The addition of low-melting sulphate glass to plasticizers. The properties obtained from CPRI
PVC composition while marginally increases -developed formulations compared with different

TABLE 3

SELECTED COMPOSITIONS FOR EXTRUSION TRIALS

Oxygen index
Formulation SDR (%) TS (N/mm2) Elongation (%)
(%)
Required 29–30 50–55 12.5 (minimum) 150 (minimum)
1 29.0 51 14.88 162
2 31.5 46 13.82 141
3 29.3 56 13.65 171
4 29.9 56 13.76 172
5 30.6 43 13.48 126
6 31.3 56 14.11 156
7 29.0 55 13.15 145
8 31.1 55 15.20 137

TABLE 4

FRLS PROPERTIES OF PVC COMPOUND WITH VARIATION OF GLASS

Property Reference compound Low-melting sulphate glass (phr)

10 20 40
Oxygen index (%)
30.4 30.8 32.8 30.7
(ASTM D 2863)
Smoke density rating (%)
65–70 56–64 48–52 47–50
(ASTM D 2843)
Tensile strength (N/mm2)
12.5–14.0 13–15 14–16 14–17
(ASTM D 638)
Elongation in percentage
150–175 150–160 140–150 120–135
(IS 1554, P-I)
Thermal stability (min)
100 85 80 65
200°C
86 The Journal of CPRI, Vol. 7, No. 1, March 2011

specifications for FRLS product [4] are given in 3.2 Highlights of the Achievements
Tables 5 and 6.
(i) Development of low-smoke flame-retardant
Cables and Compounds.
Note:
(ii) Attempt to eliminate the toxic chemicals in
(1) The properties obtained are within the
the formulation of the compound.
specified limits of BIS.
(2) The thickness of the cable extruded appears (iii) Extrusion trials using twin screw extruder
to be less than the required value. This can be and cable coating with single screw extruder
adjusted at the time of cable extrusion. were successful.

TABLE 5
SPECIFICATIONS FOR FRLS CABLE COMPOUND
Properties Industry Spec. BIS Spec. CPRI Results Aim
Oxygen Index (%) 30 29 29–34 31
Smoke density (%) 60 60 45–65 40–60
Tensile strength (N/mm2) 12.5 12.5 10–17 12–14
Elongation (%) 150 150 100–180 >150
Thermal stability (min), 200°C 80 80 80–90 80–90
Acid generation (%) ≤20 ≤20 ≤20 ≤20
Volume resistivity (Ω-cm) 1×1013 1×1013 1×1013 1×1013

TABLE 6
PROPERTIES OF CABLE SAMPLE EXTRUDED
Properties Values obtained Required values
Oxygen index (%) 30.5 Min 30
Smoke density (%) 56.8 <60
Tensile strength (N/mm2) 13.6 Min 12.5
Elongation (%) 171 Min 150
Thermal stability (min), 200°C 85 >80
Acid gas generation (%) 14.7 20 % maximum
Shrinkage (%) (150°C for 15 min) 1.31 4.0 % maximum
Volume resistivity 1.03 1 × 1013
Ω-cm, RT × 1015 3.04 1 × 1010
70° C × 1010
High voltage 3 kV, 5 min withstood To withstand
Insulation thickness (mm) 0.853 0.90 mm
The Journal of CPRI, Vol. 7, No. 1, March 2011 87

3.2 Techno-economic Viability of the amount of ATH suggests that the processing/
Commercialization of Results of the compounding is by making use of kneader-
Project and Plans to Commercialize type low-compression mixing [5].

Results of the evaluation of the cable and

compound suggest that the composition seems to 4.0 CONCLUSIONS
be satisfactory. However, as large-scale production (a) Several formulations of PVC compounds have
was not possible, the actual techno-economic been established for FRLS applications.
viability of the commercialization could not be
(b) Initial extrusion trials undertaken at local
done (costing).
cable industry are satisfactory.
3.3 Suggested Future Development Work (c) This study paved the way for DSIR-sponsored
project for commercial exploitation under
Based on the detailed study conducted both PATSER scheme.
at laboratory and at an industry, the following
suggestions/observations are offered:
ACKNOWLEDGMENT
(i) The development of low-melting sulphate
glass seems to be remarkable as far as The author is thankful to the Management of CPRI
reduction of smoke during combustion for according permission to publish this work.
of the PVC compound is considered. The My sincere thanks are due to Mr. P. Sadashiva
use of this raw material in addition to the Murthy, E.O.Gr.4, Polymer laboratory, Mr. A.
other ingredients in the composition also R. Srinivasan, E.O.Gr.3 of Diagnostic Cables
supplements in the elimination of the toxicity and Capacitors Division, Bangalore, and Mr. P.
in the system. However, there was no Satheesh Kumar, E.O.Gr.2 of Regional Testing
consistency in terms of the results obtained Laboratory, Noida, for assisting in evaluation of
at different laboratories. the compound and extruded cable samples. My
(ii) This inconsistency in results has forced us to thanks are due to M/s. Farcom Cable Systems Pvt
take up further study to ascertain the reason Ltd., Bangalore, for their assistance in extrusion
for this behavior. trials and M/s. DSIR, New Delhi, for sponsoring
this project work.
(iii) The study suggests that the processing
of the compound at laboratory level by
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free mixing and a specific polymer [1] Reddy P V, Sridhar S and Ratra M C.
structure. “Flame retardant PVC compounds for cable
applications”, Journal of Applied Polymer
(iv) Further detailed study was conducted at
Science, Vol. 46, pp. 483–488, 1992.
industry using twin screw extruder which is
altogether different than the laboratory type [2] Reddy P V. Indian Patent (201478) on the
of mixing, wherein the mixing is made at “Development of Flame retardant Low
high compression which disintegrates the Smoke Compound based on PVC for Cable
polymer into smaller fragments, and this applications”.
probably may be responsible for different
[3] Reddy P V and Jaichand D. Indian Patent
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(v) The detailed investigations carried out at composition for cable insulation and
the laboratory (CPRI) to develop halogen- sheathing applications”, filed during March
free low-smoke compound using higher 2005.
88 The Journal of CPRI, Vol. 7, No. 1, March 2011

[4] Reddy P V, Rajasekhar P, Sridhar S and [5] Reddy P V. “PVC rubber blends for enhanced
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