Principles of Seed Technology

Longevity of seed is a characteristic of the species or variety

Some kinds of seed are inherently long-lived, others are short-lived, while others have an
“intermediate” life span. Differences in storability extend even down to the variety level. It
has been known, for example, the certain inbred lines of corn are “poor storers” and that this
characteristic is inherited.
Inherent differences in seed longevity are facts, the seeds man must accept and contend with
as best he can. Among the vegetables, onion seed are notoriously short-lived, radish seed are
intermediate in longevity, and watermelon seed are relatively long-lived. Soybean and peanut
seed do not store well as compared to seed of wheat, corn, cotton, sorghum and rice. In some
cases, seed kinds which have very similar chemical and physical properties differ substantially
in longevity. Tall fescue and annual ryegrass seed are similar in structure, chemical
composition, and yet, ryegrass seed store better than tall fescue seed.

Possible Sequence of changes in seed during deterioration

Seed selection for extended storability

 Store well mature seeds.

 Store normal coloured seeds

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 Seeds should be free from mechanical injury

 Seeds should not have met with adverse conditions during maturation
 Seeds should be dried to optimum moisture content.
 Seeds should be treated with fungicides before storage.
 Suitable packaging materials should be used for packing.

High quality seed store better than low quality seed

The storage potential of seed is greatly affected by their quality at the time they enter storage,
or their pre-storage history. The pre storage history of a seed lot encompasses all the “events”
in the “life” of the seeds from the time functional maturity is reached until they are placed in
storage.
Seeds are highest in quality at the time functional maturity is attained. Since most kinds of
seed reach maturity at moisture contents too high for mechanical harvest, the seeds are
subjected to the field environment from maturation to harvest. The post-maturation pre-
harvest period normally ranges from 1 to 4 weeks for the different kinds of seed. Adverse
climatic conditions can result in rapid and severe deterioration of the seed, and so on. The
degree of deterioration that occurs in seed prior to harvest determines their quality at harvest
and conditions their performance in storage.
In like manner, mechanical, abuse to seed associated with harvesting, handling and processing
operations, and damage caused by inadequate or improper aeration or drying can have both
immediate and residual effects, i.e., performance of the seed might be affected at the time of
injury or not until some later time during storage.
In characterizing seed deterioration, we pointed out that the rate of deterioration of seed in
storage varies among seed lots of the same kind and among individual seeds within a lot.
These variations in storability are, of course, related to the pre-storage history of seed lots.
Seed lots with a “good” pre-storage history (minimal field deterioration, mechanical damage,
etc.) store well, while those with a “bad” pre-storage history store poorly.
STORAGE GODOWNS AND THEIR MAINTENANCE
Seeds undergo deterioration due to aging in storage. This is accelerated by climatic factors and
external biotic factors like insects and pathogen. In addition to seed borne pathogen and
storage insects, seeds are damaged by birds and rats for their feed. Clean and hygienic
godowns protect the seed from external insects and preserve the seed. Hence care should be
taken in construction of godown. The points to be noted are as follows.

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 Seed godown should be in a place where transport facilities are easily available.
 Seed godowns should not be constructed in areas near seashore. Since the high RH of
atmospheric air accelerate the deterioration of seed.
 Seed godown should not be constructed in low lying water stagnating areas.
 Seed godown should be constructed in places where atmospheric RH is low, free
circulation of air is possible, sunlight is adequate and elevated in nature.
 The ventilators should be at bottom for free air circulation.
 Ground moisture should not reach the floor.
 Should be rat proof with wire mesh
 Should not be near industries as smoke is injurious

In maintenance of seed in godown following points are to be considered.

1. Godown should be clean and dry

2. Seed bags should not be stacked directly on floor. Should be stacked on wooden ballets.

3. The height of the stack should not be more than 6-8 bags.
4. Different seed lot should be kept separately.
5. Godown should be sprayed periodically once in a week or fortnightly with Malathion
50 EC (1 : 300 Chemical : Water) @ 5 lit. sq. m-1 or 0.25% Nuvan @ 1 lit. 100 m3-1.
6. Altering the chemicals at weekly intervals will give better control.
7. Seed lots can be fumigated with Aluminium phophide @ 3 gm/cu.m in air tight
condition for 7 days. This can be done as propylatic measure and on minimum
infestation by insects.
8. Seed lots should be periodically (once in month) tested for seed quality.

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9. Based on seed testing result, seeds can be dried under sun for the removal of moisture.
It reduces insect and pathogen infestation.
10. New seed lots should be kept away from old seed lots to avoid secondary infestation of
insects.
11. Seeds should be treated with combination of fungicide and insecticide (eg.) Thiram @ 2
g kg-1 + carbaryl @ 200 mg kg-1.
12. Frequent supervision of each and every lot is must.
13. Seed bag should be restacked once in 3 months for free aeration.
14. Instead of gunny bags low cost interwoven polythene bags should be used to prolong
the life of seed.

15. Pesticides, fungicides, fertilizers,

rejects should not be stored with
seed.
16. Each lot should be labeled
accurately and registers for
stocks should be maintained.

17. Per acre or per hectare packing (small) is

preferable for easy handling and effective
supervision.

STORAGE INSECT MANAGEMENT

Maintenance of store house hygiene

 Cracks and crevices around corners have to

be brushed to eliminate hiding pests. All debris
should be removed. Provision of wire meshes to
windows, ventilators, gutters, drains to prevent
entry of rats, squirrels, birds, etc.
 Reduce the moisture content of seed to prevent insect build up (usually below 10%).
Previously used bags, bins, etc. should be dried in the sun repeatedly.
 Elimination of conditions which favour storage pests. Uniformly graded seeds should
be used, broken seeds should be removed before bagging since they favour pest build
up. Stitching of all torn bags, filling bags up to the brim, no loose packing.

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 Surface treatment of storehouse before storage with malathion dust 4% @ 25 g/sq m or

malathion 50% EC spray @ 10 ml/lit of water and 3 lit of solution per sq. metre.
 Good dunnage by arranging wooden planks or bamboo poles or spreading thick
polythene sheets on the floor. Treatment of dunnage materials with malathion as
specified, arrange the bags in criscross pattern with a maximum of 15 bags and provide
adequate space between the roof and the seed bags.

Prophylatic treatment of seeds

Application of malathion 4 per cent dust 25 g/sq metre or malathion 50 per cent EC 10 ml per
litre of water and 3 litres of spray solution for 100 sq.m. The chemicals have to be sprayed on
the walls and floors and the treatment has to be repeated based on the extent of flying and
crawling insects.

Chemicals
Two chemicals are widely used : Phosphine and Methyl Bromide. Others are dichlorvos,
Carbondioxide, Ethylene oxide and HCN.
Phosphine : Available in a solid form (0.6 g pellets, 3 g tablets). The active ingredient is
Aluminium phosphide mixed with Ammonium carbonate and Paraffin. After exposure to the
atmosphere, the pellets decompose and release the active substance, hydrogen phosphide
(PH3), which has the same specific weight as air, and is thus evenly distributed in the
fumigated material or chamber. Phosphine is also able to penetrate bags, carton boxes and
other containers.
It must be borne in mind that fumigation particularly repeated fumigation, may seriously
reduce the vigour and viability. This is particularly true for seeds with a higher moisture
content of 14 per cent. Seeds with moisture content above 14 per cent should be dried, before
fumigation.
Samples of seeds have to be drawn at fortnight intervals and the infestation can be classified as
follows based on insects found per kg of sample.
When there is no pest Free
Upto 2 insects Mild
More than 2 insects Severe
The fumigant has to be chosen and the requirement worked out on the following guidelines :
Aluminium phosphide: Three tablets of 3 g each per ton of seed for cover fumigation (only
selected blocks of bags)
Twenty one tablets of 3g each for 28 cubic metres, for shed fumigation (entire godown). Period
of fumigation - 5 days. The major advantages of Phostoxin are that it lacks residues and does
not affect flavor or germination and is easy to handle.
Methyl bromide: Above 5.6oC, methyl bromide is in the gas phase and is available in
cylinders similar to those used for cooking gas. Since, it is odorless, other gases such as
chloropicrin are sometimes added to facilitate detection of leaks. Because methyl bromide is

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3.5 times heavier than air, care has to be taken that it is properly distributed within the goods
to be fumigated (fan can be used). The recommended dosage is 20 g/m3 for 24-48 hrs.
Special safety measures are required, since methyl bromide is absorbed through the skin. It
tends to accumulate in commodities which are important whenever repeated fumigation is
necessary.
Equipment
Gas-proof plastic sheets with at least 50 cm overlap firmly pressed to the ground with sand,
iron bars, or other weights are frequently used. Gas escape results in reduced insecticidal
effect and is a hazard to users. A cement floor is necessary to prevent gas escape through soil.
Care must be taken that the fumigation area is properly aerated and fans sometimes help.
If a store‟s door and windows can be hermetically sealed, fumigation of the entire store is
possible. Most stores, however, allow gas to escape through other openings. Silos are usually
good fumigation facilities. When large quantities must be fumigated within a short time, a
vaccum fumigation chamber is appropriate. These chambers are available in sizes between 1
and 50 m3, and sometimes as a plant of upto 6 x 50 m3, equipped with common fans, pumps
and other equipment. The insecticides used are methyl bromide or ethylene oxide.
Safety
Face masks with a proper canister should be used, especially during the aeration process.
When handling Phostoxin, cotton gloves should be worn. Gas concentration can be checked
with a Halide gas detector for methyl bromide and with a tube detector (Draeger) for
Phostoxin. A warning sign should be clearly visible to prevent people from inadvertently
removing plastic sheets or entering a building under fumigation.
Rodent Management in Store Houses
Provide of wire mesh to windows, ventilators, drains and leave no gaps to doors. Use
rodent baits with multi dose or anticoagulant rodenticides. The bait may be prepared as
follows:
Cereal flour 450 g
Any edible oil 10 g
Powdered jaggery 15 g
Anticoagulant or rodenticide such as coumarin 25 g
Replace the consumed bait daily. If needed the single dose or acute poison bait may be
prepared as follows :
Food material 97 g
Edible oil 1g
Zinc phosphide 2g
Before providing the poisoned zinc phosphide bait, the plain or non-poisoned bait are to be
provided for two or three days to make the rats accept the bait.

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Lecture 31
SEED MARKETING
A definition of seed marketing
Seed marketing should aim to satisfy the farmer's demand for reliable supply of a range
of improved seed varieties of assured quality at an acceptable price.

 To the retailer in the agricultural sector, for example, it is selling seed along with other
inputs to the farmer.
 To the farmer it is simply selling what he produces on his farm. However, whatever the
circumstances, a well-defined sequence of events has to take place to promote the
product and to put it in the right place, at the right time and at the right price for a sale
to be made.
 Too many people think of marketing solely in terms of the advertising and selling of
goods, whereas in reality marketing starts long before the goods exist and continues
long after they are sold. Therefore, for the marketing process to be successful: the
farmer consumer's needs must be satisfied; the seed company's objectives must be
realized.

MARKETING STRUCTURE
Seed distribution systems
Seed distribution can be carried out by government, public sector agencies, co-operatives and
the private sector or, as is often the case, by a combination of all of these. Channels for seed
marketing may be described as:
Direct
The seed producing organization supplies the farmer directly. Some features of direct
channel distribution are:

 the supplier has direct contact with the consumer

 a high level of service and customer support can be maintained
 direct control is maintained over the quality of the product

 the upkeep of such a system can be expensive, with high fixed costs if a

sales force is employed

 a responsive management structure and well-motivated staff are required

where there are many staff involved in a direct sales organization there can
be an inbuilt inertia to change so the system may lack flexibility.

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 the revenue necessary to pay for the high fixed costs will only come from

having a wide product range and achieving good market shares or selling
high value products such as horticultural seeds.
Single level
The seed producing organization supplies the farmer through independent retail outlets. The
main features of this system are that:

 the seed supplier relies on the retailer for contact with the consumer
 retail networks require strong service and support from the supplier
 good administrative control must be provided by the sales management
 the supplier's distribution system must be well organized and responsive
 product quality at the retail level must be monitored for deterioration and
adulteration and a return system should be considered
 although the products may be well promoted, the supplier relies on the retailer to make
the final sale.

Multilevel
The seed producing organization supplies a national distributor, wholesalers or regional
distributors who, in turn, supply sub-distributors or the retail outlets.
This system is characterized by:

 the supplier having no direct contact with the consumer

 products being strongly promoted in order to create demand
 supplying seed to the distributors in sufficient time to achieve timely availability at the
retail level
 management ensuring that there is a good system of monitoring sales and obtaining
feedback from the consumer
 the distributor being interested only in the strongest selling lines.

If neither infrastructure nor the economy are well developed, national distributors may simply
not be available and the seed producer will have to supply seed to regional wholesalers or
distributors.
Sources of seed available to farmers
For farmers there are a number of sources available for the purchase of seed. These are:
Direct sales
The seed producer supplies the farmer directly from central seed stores and a network of
his/her own supply points
Farmer producers
Farmers with seed production contracts are licensed to supply other farmers within their zone

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of influence
Cooperatives
Cooperatives act as 'farmer producers' and/or as suppliers of inputs to members
Farmer dealers
Farmers act as dealers, supplying their neighbours; this can evolve into a highly developed
system
Commission agents
These work directly with the producer or his/her intermediaries, passing on orders from the
farmers
Grain merchants
Traders involved in the seed and grain business who are also licensed seed producers
Crop buyers
Collectors and crop or commodity traders who provide a point of contact with farmers and
can be used to market seed
Retail store dealers
Town and village dealers who retail a range of agricultural inputs, with the larger operators
possibly having sub-dealers
Industrial processors
Processors interested in specific crops including oilseed crushers and vegetable canners, who
may have an interest in supplying seed as part of a growing contract or integrated production
system
Cold store operators
Potato cold store operators trade potato seed since they deal directly with the growers and
have the appropriate storage
Consumer outlets
Garages, shops and supermarkets (are best suited to display small packets of seed)
Mail order
Suitable for low volume, high value products such as vegetables and flowers.
Although government extension outlets are not strictly retail outlets, seed is sometimes
supplied to the farmer through government sponsored agencies and departments which
administer crop or regional development and credit programmes.
ORGANIZATIONAL CHART

 Product management

Concentrates on developing and implementing marketing policy for a seed product or range
of products

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 Advertising, promotion and public relations

Aims to create product awareness, influence farmers' buying decisions, (PR) and build up a
positive perception of the company

 Sales order administration and dispatch

Involves receiving and processing orders, allocating stock and dispatching orders, and
maintaining stock records

 Stock control and quality assurance

Involves managing the inventory for each class of seed, crop and variety, to ensure
maintenance of germination and vigour

 Distribution and transport

Entails moving the seeds from the point of production to the point of sale

 Sales and invoicing

The process of making the actual sale and receiving payment for it, i.e. the end result of the
marketing activity

 Management information

Involves collating and interpreting sales information and other information as a basis for
monitoring operations and planning future activities

 Customer care

Involves after-sales service, dealing with complaints and maintaining

customer loyalty
THE PROMOTIONAL ACTIVITIES
Resources invested in variety development and seed production will be wasted if farmers are
not persuaded to use the improved varieties. All promotional activities involve sending
messages to the distributors and consumers in order to inform them about a company's
products and help them to make their decision to buy a particular variety or brand of seed.

 Advertisements

Messages sent via the media to inform and influence the farmer

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 Sales promotions

Specific techniques designed to increase sales of particular seeds

 Personal selling

The importance of salesmanship

 Publicity and public relations

Generalized communication which is designed to promote the company's image rather than
that of specific seeds

 Extension

Farmers in developing countries have certain characteristics:

 They have low purchasing power coupled with a low rate of return from farming.
 They are generally conservative and therefore are slow to adopt new products.
 They may not be well informed.
 They often lack mobility and the means to transport goods.

It should also be recognized that educational and literacy standards will not always be
high in rural communities. The use of visual material will help to overcome some
communication problems. In all forms of communication, companies should always try to
make the subject of seeds interesting and relevant to the consumer.
Advertising
The published print media
This includes newspapers, periodicals, magazines, trade and professional journals. There may
be both advantages and disadvantages when advertising in this manner.
Some advantages of the printed media are that:

 good coverage can be obtained and, by using the local press and specialist

papers, accurate targeting can also be achieved

 it is relatively cheap and immediate

 complex messages can be given in print; these can be read again and again
 reply and cut-out coupons with an exchange value can be used to encourage

farmers to request further information and buy the product.

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Some disadvantages of the printed media are:

 the text, and therefore the message, may not be well understood due to language and
literacy problems
 only limited space may be available
 printed text has limited impact and colour does not always reproduce well in
newspapers
 a daily paper has a limited life and the advertisements will have to compete for
attention with stories and other information.

As well as placing advertisements, press releases can be given to newspapers or features

written that carry the name of the company and its products.
The broadcast media: This includes television, radio and cinema.
Television
Some advantages of television are:

 the impact will be greater as both sound, colour and movement can be used

to convey the message

o massive coverage can be achieved and some local targeting may be possible.

Some disadvantages of television are:

 it can be very expensive and is only suitable for simple messages

 the exposure time is short and the advertisement may miss the target audience
 TV reception may be poor and if local targeting is not possible the message will not be
relevant to many viewers
 there may not be any related interest programmes that will be viewed by the target
audience
 in many countries farmers cannot afford television, although televisions are often
available in clubs, bars and other public places.

Radio
Some advantages of radio are:

 good coverage is achieved; this is not confined to the home as people listen to the radio
everywhere, including when they are working on the farm

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 it is relatively cheap to broadcast on radio compared to television and advertisements

are easier to prepare
 the incidence of local broadcasting, in local languages, is greater than with television
 related interest programmes and farming information spots are usually more frequent.

Some disadvantages of radio are:

 reception may be poor in certain areas

 people don't always listen closely and consequently may have poor recall of the
message.

Language problems can be overcome through local broadcasting and there is always the
possibility of involving local personalities to add interest and relevance to the area. Radio is
useful for making announcements, such as the availability of seed in the area. Another form of
broadcasting is the loudspeaker van which can be used to tour villages or towns to make
similar announcements, particularly on a market day.
Cinema
In rural locations where cinema is the main entertainment a high proportion of the audience
will be involved in farming so this medium could be considered for advertising. Advertising
slides are not expensive to prepare and these can be shown during the show.
The outdoor media
Outdoor media include posters, signs and advertising on transport, bus shelters, walls
and buildings. These forms of advertising can be used to increase the visibility of the company
and its products. Outdoor advertising may have considerable and lasting impact at a low cost
if it is well situated and if there is not too much competition for the available space. Exclusive
arrangements can always be made for the use of space.
In addition to commercial advertising, retailers should be supplied with signs and crop
boards. It is important that good sites are chosen which are highly visible and strategically
placed to ensure maximum exposure.

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Packaging design

Packaging is a form of advertising. Clear printing, the use of colour, brand or company
logo and well reproduced photographs or images are all important components of design.

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Lecture 32
PRICING POLICY
Seed pricing involves setting prices when a new product is launched or a new distribution
channel is used. Also, decisions may need to be taken to change the price in response to
competition and to the general market situation.
In the public sector prices are often based on an economic pricing policy. Economic pricing
considers the effect of seed price on the economy, taking into account the amount officials
think farmers can afford to pay and the role of the seed industry in the development of
agricultural production. Ideally, however, the public sector should follow a more commercial
pricing policy which accounts for all costs and allows for an element of profit.
Some objectives in government seed pricing could be:

 to induce farmers to use certified seed of improved varieties in order to increase

national production
 to provide adequate incentives to seed producers to supply seed in sufficient quantity
to meet demand
 to encourage the development of private distribution channels
 to implement government agro-economic policies.

Some objectives in private sector seed pricing are likely to be:

 props maximization which will be the long-term target although there may be many
other shorter term considerations which will influence pricing policy, such as increasing
market share and gaining acceptance of new products
 price competition, may be achieved by setting a price that gives a competitive edge in
the market place but may not be lower than that of a rival because other factors, such
as service, will be contributing to a company's competitive advantage
 a yield 01? investment which must be at least as good as other uses for investors' funds.

Pricing strategies
Once a company's seed pricing objectives have been established, different pricing strategies
must be considered. These include:
Low price strategy
Low price strategies are used where consumers respond very positively to small downward
changes in price, but a company may not always gain from setting low prices as more efficient
competitors may respond with similar price cuts. If the product is not particularly price
sensitive then the net effect of a price reduction can simply mean a reduction in revenue. A
company may be tempted to reduce its price where similar or substitute products are also sold

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or when there is an oversupply. However, seeds can become devalued by selling them cheaply
especially where there are real benefits associated with the product. Imported vegetable seeds
are often chosen by farmers in preference to locally produced varieties in the belief that they
are better because they are more expensive. It is therefore critically important to understand
the likely response of the farmer when adopting a low price strategy.
Market price strategy
Where a few large companies dominate supply, products tend to be similar (known in the seed
industry as "me-too" varieties) and the role of price tends to be neutral, i.e. a market price is
established.
High price strategy
This strategy can be used as a long- or short-term policy. In the case of the long-term policy the
company will have identified a market segment for a high quality, value-added product such
as graded and treated seed for precision drilling. A high price will reflect the exclusive image
or added value of the product. A short-term, high-price policy takes advantage of a new
product introduced onto the market, as may be the case with a new high-yielding variety
where supply is limited.
Pricing techniques
The important influences on pricing are cost, demand, prices of the product's main
competitors and short-term sales targets.
Cost-plus pricing
This method involves calculating the unit cost of a product and adding the appropriate profit
margin to give a base price which might then be altered in relation to prevailing market
conditions. While this seems a simple approach the fact that such pricing is production
oriented and may therefore not reflect what is happening in the market place, makes it risky. A
rigid application of cost-plus pricing may lead to price increases when demand is lower and
reductions when demand is strong. This is the opposite of what should normally be done.

Contribution pricing
This is a form of cost-plus pricing which involves separating the different products that make
up the product portfolio and allocating to them the direct costs associated with their
production. The price is determined at a level which will generate revenues in excess of these
costs, thereby contributing towards meeting business overheads. Individual products can be
analysed in terms of their ability to cover their direct costs and contribute to overheads.
Competitive pricing
Where there is market competition, costs cannot always be the determining factor in pricing.
Here the nature and extent of competition will have a major influence on the price. If a product
is faced with direct competition from similar products the price will be restrained. In contrast,
when a product is faced by indirect competition from products in different sectors of the
market there will be more scope to vary the price. This provides the possibility of using
different strategies.

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Short-term pricing techniques

Pricing can be a useful tool for pursuing short-term marketing and sales targets. When a new
variety is launched higher prices can be set, providing the opportunity of earning higher
returns from those farmers willing to pay the higher prices before seed becomes more widely
available. Lower prices may be linked to promotional activities such as boosting sales of
established varieties, creating interest in new ones, reducing high stocks and encouraging
farmers to buy early.
An overview of factors affecting the seed industry
Three broad influences determine the development and status of the seed industry, namely:

 Technology - especially the flow of new varieties from research;

 Economics - both of seed production itself and of the agricultural sector generally; and
 Policy - creates the commercial and financial environment.

All of these factors can be modified and there are many interactions between them that
ultimately determine the size, viability and other characteristics of the seed industry. Figure 1
provides a diagrammatic representation of this analysis, in which various influences on the
seed sector are represented within the triangle formed by these three primary elements. Policy
has been placed at the top because of the major impact it can have on technology and
economics. At the centre lies the production environment, which forms the basis for
agriculture, and which cannot be substantially modified, except by irrigation or protected
cultivation.

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We should recognize seed policy as a major tool for change, but also accept that it cannot alter
certain physical and environmental factors and, in a free market, it will always interact with
technology and economics. In addition to the policy designed specifically for seeds, wider
social and environmental policies may also have an impact on the seed sector and these may
be driven by public awareness. For example, the current debate in Europe about the use of
genetically-modified crops is not primarily conducted on technical issues about seeds but on
wider environmental and food safety concerns. It has nonetheless had a major effect on the
seed industry.

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