Exercise No: 1 Date:

Title: Raising of seedlings and saplings under protected conditions. Use of portrays in
Quality planting material production
PRO TRAY SEEDLING PRODUCTION TECHNOLOGY
Back ground
The production of good quality seedlings is very much essential for getting higher
yield and quality of any crop. The population of the country is constantly increasing day by
day. Therefore, the daily requirement of vegetables/ flowers will also grow simultaneously.
Hence, there is need for overall development and expansion in vegetable/ flower production.
It has now been realized that to achieve higher production levels, productivity has to be
increased through the adoption of hybrid varieties and improved production technology.
Presently, the commercial vegetable growers are quite aware about the importance of hybrid
varieties as they are high yielding, uniform in maturity and can tolerate the effect of abiotic
and biotic stresses and have better quality produce as compared to standard varieties /
cultivars. Though the seeds of many hybrids are made available to the farmers, they lack the
technical knowhow of producing quality seedlings. Hence, the production and timely
distribution of quality seedlings of vegetables/ flowers would be a greater scope to meet the
growing demand. With this background the technology " Pro tray production of vegetable
seedlings" is developed.
Technology description
Seedling production using pro trays: Seedling production of F1 hybrids of tomato, chilies,
capsicum, cauliflower and brinjal as well as flowering annuals, using pro trays with coco peat
as media could be used. Presently the seedlings of vegetables are raised and distributed to the
beneficiaries. Sterilized commercial coco peat is being used as growing media, as it reduces
the incidence of seedling diseases and contains right amount of moisture in it. The coco peat
is a by-product of coir industry and it has high water holding capacity as, it contains low
nutrients and high lignin content.
Raising and Management: The seedling tray (pro tray) is filled with the growing medium
(coco peat). A small depression (0.5 cm) is made with fingertip in the centre of the cell of the
pro tray for sowing. One seed per cell is sown and covered with medium. Coco peat with 300
to 400 per cent moisture is used and hence no immediate irrigation is required until
germination. After sowing 10 trays are kept one over other for 3 to 6 days, depending on the
crops. The entire stack will be covered using polyethylene sheet to ensure conservation of
moisture until germination. The stacked trays are spread once the germination commences to
avoid etiolation. The trays are irrigated lightly every day depending upon the prevailing
weather conditions by using a fine sprinkling rose can. Drenching the trays with fungicides as
a precautionary measure against seedling mortality is also being done. Spraying of 0.3 per
cent (3g / litre) water soluble fertilizer using poly feed (19 all with trace elements) twice (12
and 20 days after sowing) for enhance the growth of the seedlings. The seedlings at right
stage of planting are hardened by withholding irrigation and reducing the shade before
transplanting or selling to the growers. Systemic insecticides are sprayed 7 - 10 days after
germination and before transplanting for managing the insect vectors. The seedlings would be
ready in about 21-30 days for transplanting to the main field depending upon the crop.
How it is women friendly?
• Participation of women in nursery raising activity is higher.
• Nursery raising activity is known as drudgery- less technology.
• Women can produce seedling in their house.
• The trays are shifted to net house/ thatch house/ burrandaha on germination of seedlings
and spread over the beds.
• The materials portray and coco peats are available in the local market.
Performance:
This technology was tested at village level and it performed well.
Locale of dissemination/ application:
The small and marginal farmers including farmwomen who have with limited capital/
resources can take up this technology for enhancing their income.
Outcomes/impact/benefits:
• More profit can be earned if this technology is adopted by the farming community.
• More income.
• More production.
• More employment
• Entrepreneurship development
 Exercise No: 2 Date:
Title: Bed preparation and planting of crop for production
Definition of Nursery: "A vegetable nursery is a place or an establishment for raising or
handling of young vegetable seedlings until they are ready for more permanent planting."
Why do we need Nursery?
Some vegetables require special cares during their early growth period. There are some
vegetables with very small sized seeds. These are first sown in the nursery for better care and
to combat with the time for field preparation and after about one month of seed sowing,
transplanted in the main field.
These vegetables are Tomato, Brinjal, Chillis, Capsicum, Cauliflower, Cabbage, Knol-khol
(kohl rabi), Chinese cabbage, Cabbage, Brussels sprouts, Sprouting broccoli, Endive, Chicory
(red and green), Celery, Kale
Advantages of Nursery Management:
• It is possible to provide favourable growth conditions i.e. germination as well as growth
• Better care of younger plants as it is easy to look after nursery in small area against
pathogenic infection, pests and weeds.
• Crop grown by nursery raising is quite early and fetch higher price in the market, so
economically more profitable.
• There is saving of land and labour as main fields will be occupied by the crops after 1 month.
More intensive crop rotations can be followed.
• More time is available for the preparation of main field because nursery is grown separately.
• As vegetable seeds are very expensive particularly hybrids, so we can economize the seed by
sowing them in the nursery.
Site Selection is the first important consideration for nursery management:
Critical points needed to be considered while selecting nursery area are:
• Area selected should be well drained, and free from water logging
• There should be proper sunlight,
• The nursery should be near the water supply so that irrigation can be easy.
• The area should be well protected from pet and wild animals
Soil and soil preparation:
Soil Quality
• Raising of vegetable seedlings requires fertile and healthy soil.
• Preferably, the soil for nursery should be loam to sandy loam, loose and friable, rich in
organic matter and well drained.
• The soil pH should be close to the neutral i.e. about 7.0
Soil preparation
• It needs a deep cultivation of the nursery land either by soil turning plough or by spade and
subsequent 2-3 hoeing with cultivator.
• After that all the clots, stones and weeds from the field should be removed and land should be
leveled.
• Mix 2 kg well rotten and fine Farm yard manure/compost or leaf compost or 500 g vermi
compost per square meter and mix in the soil. If the soil is heavy mix 2-3 kg sand per square
meter so that the seed emergence may not be hampered.
Soil treatment: For getting healthy seedlings
For raising the healthy seedlings, soil must be treated to make it pathogen and pest free.
Different methods adopted for this purpose are:
Treatment of soil against pathogens:
A. Soil Solarization
• Suitable Time Period: May-June as temperature rises up to 45oC at this time.
• Wet the soil with water, or saturate it with water
• Spread white polythene of 200 gauges on the whole nursery area for about 5-6 weeks.
• The margin of the polythene should be covered by wet soil (compressed mud) to check the
entry of air.
• After 5-6 weeks remove the polythene sheet
• Prepare the beds for seed sowing.
B. Formalin Solution treatment:
Formalin dust treatment
• This treatment should be done 15-20 days before seed sowing.
• Prepare formalin solution (1.5 to 2%) in one container and drench the soil @ 4-5 litre of
water per square meter soil surface to saturate it up to a depth of 15-20 cm.
• Cover the drench area with polythene sheet of 200 gauge.
• Put the wet soil on the margin of the covered polythene sheet so as it does not allow the
polythene film blown away by the wind and air from the covered area to outside.
• Removes the cover (polythene) after 15 days.
• Prepare the beds for seed sowing.
C. Application of fungicides:
• Generally used fungicides: Captan, Thiram which kill the soil borne pathogens.
• Use 5-6 g of any of the fungicides per square meter nursery area.
D. Insect Control:
• Reason of such application: Presence of certain insect pest and their egg or secondary stage
insects present in the soil which can infect the seedlings in the later stage.
• To save the seedlings against them, some insecticides are also used as soil treatment.
Recommended insecticide is Chlorpyriphos @ 2 ml/ liter of water.
• Depth of 15 to 20 cm in the nursery soil and then prepared the beds for seed sowing.
E. Steam treatment:
• Hot steam can be used to treat the soil against harmful insect pest.
• For this, cover the required area with the help of polythene sheet and stop the movement of
air in the covered area.
• Supply the hot steam for at least 4-6 hours continuously.
• This way all the harmful pathogen and insect pest will be killed.
Nursery bed preparation
• Nursery bed should be prepared according to the season and crop.
• In the rainy season raised beds are prepared but in the winter and summer season flat beds
should be prepared. Similarly onion in the Rabi season requires flat beds. For the uniform and
high percentage of germination the soil must be fine and moist enough.
• If the seedlings are to be raised in boxes during unfavorable weather condition, the flower
pots, polythene bags, potting plugs, wooden treys, earthen pots etc. may be used. Prepare soil
mixture in the ratio of 1:1:1 of soil, sand and well rotten FYM/leaf mould etc. and fill the
mixture in these seedlings raising structure. Arrangement should be made to drain excess
water from these structures by making a hole in the bottom of all types of pots.
Raised nursery beds
• Length of the bed may be kept 3 to 5 meter; however, width is restricted to 1 meter only
which facilitates intercultural operations.
• The beds are raised 15 to 20 cm high from the ground level. A space of 30 - 40 cm is leaft in
between two beds.
• The space between two beds helps in weeding, nursery care against diseases and insect pest
and also for draining out the excess rain water from the nursery beds.
• The number of beds depends on the particular crop, season and growing area of crop.
• The beds should be prepared in the east and west direction and line should be made from
north to south direction on the beds.
 Sowing of seeds in the nursery
After the seed bed preparation seeds are sown in the nursery bed either by broadcasting or in
lines depending upon the nature and season of crop.
Broad casting method: In broadcasting method seeds are broadcasted on the well prepared
nursery beds and later on the seeds are covered with well rotten fine sieved and treated FYM
or compost.
• The major disadvantages of this method are:
• Uneven distribution of seeds in the nursery beds.
• Growth and development of seedlings is poor.
• Sometimes nursery becomes so dense to look like as patches of grasses. In such cases there is
more possibility of damping off disease occurrence.
Line Sowing
• Line sowing is the best method of seed sowing in nursery.
• Lines are made 0.5 to 1.0 cm deep parallel to the width at an distance of 5.0 cm from the line
and seeds are sown or placed singly at a distance of about 1.0 cm apart.
• Cover the seeds with fine mixture of sand, soil and well rotten and sieved FYM or leaf
compost etc. (1:1:1). After the seed covering a light irrigation must be given.
Seed covering material and its treatments
Seed cover: After seed sowing the seed that are sown either by broadcast method or line
sowing method required cover for better emergence. Therefore, a mixture of sand: soil: FYM
in the ratio of 1:1:1 is prepared, well mixed together and treated with any method of soil
treatment as discussed above. It will be better to treat this mixture while treating the nursery
soil. Apply 3-4 g thiram or captan per kg mixture if, it is not treated. Care should be taken
that every seed is well covered by seed covering material.
Use of mulch: To maintain the soil moisture for seed germination cover the seed bed with a
thin layer of mulch of paddy straw or sugar cane trash, or sarkanda or any organic mulch
during hot weather and by plastic mulch (plastic sheet) in cool weather.
It has following advantages:
• It maintains the soil moisture and temperature for better seed germination.
• It suppresses the weeds.
• Protects from direct sunlight and raindrops.
• Protects against bird damage.
 Removal of mulch: Due attention is given to remove the covered mulch from the seedbed.
After three days, observe the seed beds daily. As and when the white thread like structure is
seen above the ground, remove the mulch carefully to avoid any damage to emerging
plumules. Always remove mulch in the evening hours to avoid harmful effect of bright sun
on newly emerging seedlings
Use of shedding net: After seed germination during the seedling growth, if there is very high
temperature (> 30o C) then beds should be covered by 50% or 60% shedding nets of
green/green + black coloured, about 60 - 90 cm above ground by the use of suitable support.
Watering
• The nursery beds require light irrigation with the help of rose can till the seeds get
germinated.
• Excess rainwater or irrigated water should be drained out from the field as and when it is
required otherwise plants may die due to excess of water.
• Watering in the beds depends upon the weather condition. If temperature is high, open
irrigation is applied. Need not to irrigate the beds during rainy days.
Thinning
• It is an important operation to remove weak, unhealthy, diseased, insect pests damaged and
dense plants from the nursery beds keeping distance of about 0.5 to 1.0 cm from plant to
plant.
• The thinning facilitates balance light and air to each and every plant. It also helps in watching
the diseased and insect pest attacked plants while moving around the nursery.

Weed control
• Timely weeding in nursery is very important to get healthy seedling. If there are some weeds
in the seed bed, remove them manually either by hand or by hand hoe (thin forked Khurpi).
• Pre emergence herbicides can also be sprayed soon after seed sowing to control the weeds.
Stomp @ 3 ml/litre of water should be sprayed on the nursery beds after the seed sowing and
seed covering with mixture of FYM. soil and sand.
Plant protection
Adaptation of plant protection measures in the nursery against the incidence of insect pest
and diseases is very important task to get the healthy seedlings. Damping off seedlings, leaf
curl, leaf blight diseases and leaf miner and borer infect the seedling in the nursery. The care
for controlling them time to time is essential.
Damping off
• This is very serious disease of nursery.
• Pre-emergence death of seeds is seen.
• In first instance girdling takes place on the stem near base of the stem and seedlings bent
down near the ground and die.
• The causal organisms are pythium, phytopthora, rhizoctonia and Fusarium fungi.
• Treat the nursery bed either by soil solarization, formalin solution or formalin dust or
fungicides like thiram or captan as discussed earlier.
• Treat the seeds as discussed in seed treatment. If the disease appears after the seed emergence
drench the nursery beds with 0.1% solution of brassicol or 0.7% captan or thiram after
germination. It will be better to remove and buried the affected seedlings from the beds
otherwise spread will be more.
The disease can be controlled to some extent by applying treated sand, soil and FYM mixture
up to the level from where the seedlings are falling.
Leaf miner
It is very small sized insect enter in the leaves from margin side and move from one place to
other by eating the chlorophyll. Initially the infected part of the leaves become brown and
later on dry.
Control
• Spray 4% neem seed kernal extract on the plants (crush 40 g of neem seed kernal, add some
water and allow them for overnight. In the morning filter the extract and makeup the volume
1000 ml.)
• Spray Monocrotophos or Metasystox 1.5 ml/litre of water.
Selection of seedlings for transplanting: After attaining proper growth, seedlings
are transplanted in main field. At the time of transplanting, seedling should be:
• Stocky and sturdy
• Should have good rot system
• Should be free from any insect pests and diseases.
Hardening of the plants in the nursery
• The term hardening includes
"Any treatment that makes the tissues firm to withstand unfavourable environment like low
temperature, high temperature and hot dry wind."
• Hardening is physiological process .Plants accumulate more carbohydrates reserves and
produce additional quiticle on the leaves.
• In this process seedlings are given some artificial shocks at least 7-10 days before uprooting
and transplanting. These shocks includes
• Exposure to the full sunlight,
• Removal of all the shedding nets, polythene sheets
• Irrigation is stopped slowly and slowly.
Techniques of hardening
The hardening is done by the following ways.
• By holding the watering to the plant by 4-5 days before transplanting
• Lowering the temperature also retards the growth and adds to the hardening processes.
• By application of 4000 ppm NaCl with irrigation water or by spraying of 2000 ppm of
cycocel (Chadhdha, 2006).
Duration and degrees of hardening
• It is very necessary that plants should be hardened according to their kind so that there is an
assurance of high percentage of survival and slow growth under the condition to be expected
at the time of transplanting.
• Hardening should be gradual to prevent or check the growth.
• Warm season crops like tomato, brinjal and chillies do not favour severe hardening. In Indian
condition allowing the soil to become dry for 5-6 days does the hardening.
Effect of hardening
The following effect may be observed by the hardening
• Hardening improves the quality and modifies the nature of colloids in the plant cell enabling
them to resist the loss of water.
• Hardening increases the presence of dry matter and regards in the plants but decrease the
percentage of freezable water and transpiration per unit area of leaf.
• Decreases the rate of growth in the plants
• Hardened plants can withstand better against unfavourable weather conditions like hot day
winds or low temperature
• Hardening of the plants increases the waxy covering on the leaves of cabbage.
Inter cultural operations of flower and vegetable crops
Earthing in cauliflower
• Cauliflower is a shallow rooted crop, so do shallow hoeing to remove weeds and to
avoid any injury to the roots.
• Regular hoeing operations keep crop weed free and provide aeration to the root
system.
 • Crust formation in medium heavy and clay soils hinder water and air penetration in
root system and should be broken otherwise adversely affect plant growth.
• Earthing up is important in rainy season as roots get exposed after every shower and
should be done 4-5weeks after transplanting.
• Critical period for crop- weed competition is between 30-50days after transplanting.
• Use herbicides in initial stages followed by hand weeding in later stages of plant
growth along with fertilizer top dressings.
• Application of Alachlor (Lasso) @2kg a.i. /ha before transplanting is beneficial for
controlling annual and broad leaved weeds.
• Pendimethalin (Stomp) @1.2kg a.i. /ha or Oxyflurofen (Goal) @ 600ml/ha can also
be used beforetransplanting if there is problem of annual weeds only.
Staking in tomato:

1. Tie the plants loosely to stakes with twine to keep them upright as they grow. Use plastic
garden clips where necessary to secure the twine.

2. In peak growing season, the plant will grow up to 6 in (15 cm) per week and will need
tying each week.

3. Commercial operations save on materials by stringing a wire over each row, with a support
post every 20 ft (6m). Wrap the twine around each plant and fasten to the overhead wire.

4. For smaller home gardens, you can place a tomato cage over each plant when it is small.
These don't require as much maintenance as staking.

Intercultural Operations in chrysanthemum

Weed Control: Weeding and hoeing are yield generally done manually as and when
required, normally 8-10 times yearly. Crop suffers heavily if timely weeding is not given.
Besides, control of weeds the soil is made loose porous to provide aeration.
Pinching: Pinching is one of the most important operations in chrysanthemum culture.
Pinching refers to the removal of the growing tips of the plant to induce the growth of
vegetative laterals. It reduces the plant height, promotes axillary branching, delays flowering
and helps in breaking rosetting. Pinching is performed both in suckers and in cuttings. It is
normally done with thumb and forefinger. Pinching is most essential for small flowered
chrysanthemum. First pinching is done when the plants reach a height of 15-20 cm with 3-4
pairs of leaves. A second pinching may be necessary if the plants make straggly and lean
growth. Two types of pinching are performed in chrysanthemum. In soft pinching the soft tip
of the shoot along with 2-3 open leaves is removed while in hard pinching a longer portion
upto hard shoot is removed. In case of standard chrysanthemum only single bloom on a
branch is usually allowed to produce. The pinching is not done if only one central bloom is
desired on the main branch. Single pinching is done, if two flowers are desired, whereas
double pinching is done for four flowers. In spray chrysanthemum numerous small to
medium sized flowers are produced, therefore, two pinchings are required to encourage
lateral growth. As a general rule rooted cuttings are pinched 2 weeks after planting or
approximately 100 days before full bloom.
Disbudding: This operation is mostly performed for large flowered and decorative type
chrysanthemum. Disbudding method vary according to the type of chrysanthemum grown.
Many of the varieties are disbudded or standard types, in which the largest terminal bud is
retained and all axillary buds are removed. Disbudding of spray varieties is very easy because
in this case only the large apical bud is removed and the axillary buds are allowed to develop.
There is no specific rule for disbudding of spray varieties; it varies with the type of spray
produced. When growers want to develop three blooms per plant or one bloom per plant these
operations are most essential. Disbudding operations is an important factor in the
maintenance of high-quality product
De-suckering: During the vegetative growth phase, plants grow upwards. New suckers
continue to develop from base of plants. For proper and vigorous growth of plants, suckers
are removed from time to time.
 Exercise No: 3 Date:
Title: Green bending, disbudding and deshooting in roses
Bending in roses:
• After planting, shoots will develop quickly.
• Only after the flower bud becomes clearly visible the shoots are bend-out towards the
path and the flowers are removed, this process is known as ‘bending’.
• Since the plants grow about 40 cm above the ground, it is possible to bend down the
stems deeply.
• Be careful not to break the shoots, the plant should remain capable of transporting
sugars from these areas to the new developing shoots.
• The shoots should be bending down so the grafting place or, if a cutting is used, the
old top of the cutting will become the top of the plant.
• The flower buds on these bend-out shoots have to be removed. This system allows the
leaves to continue their production of energy.
• When the dominating primary shoots (apical dominance) is removed, causing the
plant to respond by developing more basal buds.
• In the plant hormonal changes take place, which promote shoot development (balance
cytokinins/ auxins).
• After cutting or bending out results in an increased cytokine level, causing buds to
break. The shoots formed are producing auxins, so restoring the hormonal balance in
the plant.
Basal Shoots
• Depending upon the growth and potentiality of a cultivar the number of basal shoots
are formed.
• Per plant 2 to 3 well-formed shoots are allowed to continue growing, if more shoots
were formed it is recommended for bending out of these shoots.
• This way a plant has got the use of more active leaf canopy to supply enough energy
for development of a heavy crop with first quality flowers.
Deshooting: Sprouting of buds just below flower, from the point between shoot and leaf lead
to smaller bud size. So these shoots should be removed regularly is termed as deshooting.
Bud Capping in roses: The flower buds are inserted with nylon a cap which helps for
increasing bud size, avoids damage in transportation and maintains the microclimate in
package.
Disbudding: Disbudding is the practice of removing undesirable buds. It is achieved by
placing the bud between thumb and index fingers and rocking it back and forth until the bud
breaks off at the base. The earlier in the bud’s life this is done, the easier it snaps off and the
less scar that remains on the stem.
Disbudding for One-Bloom-Per Stem: For entries of one-bloom-per-stem hybrid teas and
miniatures, it is essential to remove the side buds, or the entry will be disqualified.
Exercise No: 4 Date:
Title: Supporting, Pinching and Disbudding in Carnation
Carnation: Support system (Netting): Good support material is metal wire mesh width of
7.5 x 7.5 cm to 15 x 15 cm. The cheapest support material is net with nylon. Minimum at
every 3 meters, the wires should be supported with poles. The poles at the beginning and the
end of each bed should be strong enough and be in cast concrete. For an optimal support of
the crop, an increasing width of meshes may be used. Eg. The bottom net of 7.5 x 7.5 cm,
then 12.5 x 12.5 cm and the upper nets 15 x 15 cm.
Pinching: Pinching refers to breaking out the tip of shoot with few leaves and encouraging
growth of side shoots.
There are three types of pinching a) single b) one and half and c) double pinches
Pinching is done at a stage when the plants are young and between of 7-15cm height. Since
very tender shoots are usually pinched, no special tool is required. It is done by snapping the
shoot tip manually. A sharp knife or blade may be used for pinching. When the plant attains 6
nodes, the first pinch is given. This is referred as ‘single pinch’. This would give rise to six
lateral shoots. With a one and half pinch 2-3 of these lateral shoots are pinched again. For the
‘double pinch’ all the lateral shoots are pinched off. Other than carnation, pinching is also
practiced in marigold, Gomphrena (single pinch), and spray types of chrysanthemum (double
pinch).
Disbudding: Disbudding refers to removal of side shoots so that the central/terminal bud
receives maximum food for the full development. In standard carnations, side buds should be
removed where as in spray carnations; the terminal bud has to be removed.
Exercise No: 5 Date:
Title: De leafing, disbudding in gerbera
De leafing: Sanitation helps in keeping the disease and pest infestation below the economic
threshold level. The old, dry, infested leaves should be removed from the plant and removed
from the production site.
Disbudding: Removal of inferior quality flowers at the initial stage after plantation is called
disbudding. The normal production of gerbera plants starts after 75 - 90 days from the date of
plantation. Production of flowers starts 45 days after plantation but initial production is of
inferior quality, hence these flowers should be removed from the base of the flowers stalk.
This helps in making the plant strong and healthy.
Disbudding
1. Up to eight weeks flowers are removed from base of flower stalk
2. Right stage 12-14 leaves or two months removal of old leaves
3. Removal of old leaves allow producing new plants
4. Goal sanitation
 Exercise No: 6 & 7 Date

Title: Training, pruning of tomato, bell pepper, cucumber.

Training and pruning of tomato
What is Pruning?
▪ Pruning is defined as pinching of all side shoots, so that plant may utilize all its food and
energy for fruit development.
▪ Plants are supported by wires, strings or stacks in green houses and by bamboo sticks and
wire/ rope in field.
▪ Pruning and training are generally followed in indeterminate tomatoes.
Advantages:
▪ Pruning besides removing the unwanted growth of plants, improves the size, shape and other
qualities of the fruits.
▪ It also breaks the apical dominance, eliminates the crown set and enhances the plant vigor. To
reduce incidence of disease, mature old leaves should be removed. However during
summer season, foliage should not be removed as it works as protective structure for fruit
against sun scald.
▪ Apart from pruning in indeterminate tomato, early and total yield and quality are increased to
a greater extent by training.
▪ The plants are trained with wires, strings or stacks in green houses. In field, plants are staked
with support of bamboo sticks and wire or rope.
▪ Training helps in better utilization of light and air. Fruits are protected from sunscald.
Number of fruits is increased, uniformity of size is maintained, consequently, yield and
quality of fruit is improved.
Advantages of training tomato plants:
▪ It induces earliness in the fruits.
▪ It keeps the fruit above the ground, helps in producing healthy, large sized, uniform fruits.
▪ There are fewer chances of diseases and pests incidences.
▪ It facilitates various inter-culture operations and rapid picking and collection of produce.
▪ It increases plant stand per unit area (about one and a half time).
Disadvantages of training tomato plants:
▪ Cost of cultivation is increased.
▪ There may be blossom end rot, sun scald and cracking of fruit, it not managed properly.
▪ There is danger of spread of virus infection.
 Pepper plants are indeterminate plants, that is, they continually grow new stems and
leaves. For this reason the plants have to be pruned and trained on a regular basis in order to
ensure a balanced growth for maximum fruit production. Pepper plants are managed with two
main stems per plant, resulting in a density of 12 stems/m² from an initial planting density of
6 plants/m2. Pruning also improves air circulation around the plant which helps to reduce
disease. Plants are generally pruned every two weeks. As new leaves and lateral side shoots
develop from the axils of the new nodes on the growing stems, they have to be pruned to
maintain the two main-stem architecture of the plant. The pepper flowers also develop at the
nodes. A node is defined as a point on the stem from which leaves arise and the length of
stem between nodes is called an internode. The term "axil" refers to the upper angle formed
by the junction of a leaf (or lateral) with the stem.
After about 1 week in the greenhouse all the plants will have developed 2 to 3 stem
shoots at the fork. At this point the plants should be pruned to leave the two strongest stems.
These two stems will be managed to carry the full production of the plants throughout the
year. Each stem will grow to a height of up to 4 meters (13 feet) and require support in order
to remain upright. Twine hung from the overhead support wires is used to support each stem.
The twine is tied to the main stem about 30 cm (12 inches) up from the block, one length of
twine per stem. Ensure that the twine is not tied too tightly to the stem or the stem can be
damaged as it expands. One other approach with the twine is to lay the twine on the grow bag
just before transplanting the plant onto the coco coir. As the plant roots into the coir it secures
the twine. Enough slack is left in the twine so that it can be twisted around the stem as it
grows and develops throughout the year.
Early in the season the plants are pruned to one leaf per node that is the main leaf at
the node is allowed to develop and the lateral stem developing from the node is removed.
Beginning in April, a second leaf can be left to develop at every node on the main stem. The
lateral stem is allowed to develop to its first node, at which point a leaf develops as well as
another secondary lateral stem. The secondary lateral stem is pruned out, leaving the first leaf
on the original lateral stem as well as the primary leaf on the main stem. The reason for
leaving this second leaf is to increase the leaf area of the canopy to both make better use of
the increasing light levels and to provide shade for the developing fruit. In May a third leaf
(two leaves on the primary lateral) can be allowed to develop on plants that are in perimeter
rows. These plants receive more light because of their position next to the walls and the
additional leaves provide the required shading to the fruit as well as increased photosynthetic
area.
 Care has to be taken when pruning to ensure that the main stem is not "blinded", that
the growing point of the main stem is not pruned out. If this occurs the main stem will not
develop any further. The main approach to avoid blinding the main stem is to allow the
lateral to develop 1.5 to 2.0 cm (0.5 to 1.0 inches) before pinching it out. This allows the
lateral to be clearly identified an makes it easier to be very clear on what is being removed to
ensure that the main stem growing point is left intact.
It is important to keep the pruning current with the development of the plant. Once
pruning falls behind, there is really no catching up without sacrificing some yield, as too
much of the plant's resources were allowed to go into undesirable leaf and stem production.
Pruning is done using the fingers or small scissor cutters to ensure precise removal of
the laterals and avoiding any damage to the main stem or main stem growing point.
Training and pruning of cucumber
Step: 1 Prune cucumbers when they grow 1–2 ft (0.30–0.61 m) tall. For best results, prune
cucumber plants after they grow to a decent size. On average, prune them 3-5 weeks after
they start to grow.
• If prune a cucumber too early, it may not develop properly and the vine may get damaged.
• This ensures the plant can support cucumbers later in the growing season.
Step: 2 Prune cucumbers every 1-2 weeks for best results. Regular pruning conserves
plants’ nutrients and keeps them disease-free. If we don’t have to prune them on a particular
schedule, it is best to prune them at least 1-3 times a month.
• In particular, prune plants when they develop suckers.
Step: 3 Remove damaged, diseased vines or flowers whenever noticed. To keep plant in
optimal health, inspect your plants in between your regular pruning’s. If found any brown or
wilted areas, cut them off using pruning shears.
• Damaged areas will take away vital nutrients from the rest of your plant.
Step: 4 Follow the main vine up the plant to find the suckers. Cucumber plants grow long,
skinny vines early in their blooming season. The vine runs down the center of the plant.
Locate main vines so we can find the suckers, which grow laterally off the main vines.
Step: 5 Get rid of 4-6 suckers growing from the bottom of the cucumber plant. Suckers
are the small lateral stems that grow off the main vine. Either pinch them off with fingers or
cut them off with pruning shears. Prune them away at the base of the stem, and make cut at a
45-degree angle.
• To identify the sucker, look for the fuzzy, floral-like end coming off of the main plant stem.
• If we leave the suckers on the plant, we will have a smaller overall yield and may grow
smaller cucumbers.
Step: 6 Cut off any damaged or unhealthy cucumbers using pruning shears. Get rid of
any browning or rotting cucumbers as soon as you noticed. Make cut where the cucumber
grows from the main vine, and make cut at a 45-degree angle.
• This keeps plants healthy by distributing the nutrients to the growing cucumbers rather than
the damaged ones
Step: 7 Avoid removing the leaves or flowers of the plant. When pruning, only cut off the
suckers. The stems of the cucumber grow leaves and flowers as part of its natural growing
cycle. If cut off the flowers of the plant will not grow cucumbers.
Training in cucumber
Step: 1 Train your plants as soon as the flowers first appear if using a trellis. When first
see flowers, your plants are mature enough to begin training. Trellises are a good if you train
your plants too early, their stems may grow unevenly.
Step: 2 Secure the main vine to the trellis with gardening clips. To train plants to grow on
a trellis, we have to attach the vines to it as they grow. Open up 1 gardening clip, place it
around the vine of plant, and clip the vine to the trellis. Attach another clip about 4–6 in (10–
15 cm) above the first clip.
• Growing cucumbers on vines saves space in and keeps them off the ground, which minimizes
diseases.
Step: 3 Continue adding clips as your cucumber vines grow. When you first train your
cucumber plant, we may only use 1-3 clips to hold the main vine in place. As the vines
continue to grow, add more clips to reinforce the structure and keep the vines vertical.
Step: 4 Remove any lateral suckers you notice as you clip up your vine. Lateral suckers
grow off the main vine in between the flowering shoots. As you clip up your vine, keep an
eye out for any sprouting suckers. Then, use your pruning shears to snip them off.
Step: 5 Avoid trimming away the thin, vine-line tendrils. Your cucumber plant will also
grow thin, light green shoots that help the vines grasp onto a surface and grow vertically.
These tendrils grow immediately next to the suckers. When pruning, keep these tendrils in
place so your plant has extra support.
• If you accidentally cut off the tendrils, you may need to use extra clips to support your main
vine on the trellis.
Exercise No: 8 Date

Soil and water EC and pH measurement as per crop need

pH

Nutritional deficiency and toxicities are often caused by improper substrate pH, even when
the proper amount of nutrient exits in the growing medium .For typical soilless media, most
greenhouse crop should have a pH of 5.4 and 6.2.

Nutrients are only able to be absorb by a plant when they are soluble in the substrate water
solution .Many micronutrients (like Iron, Manganese, Copper, Zinc and Boron) Become very
soluble at low pH .Therefore when substrate pH falls below 5.4, some of these micronutrients
may be absorbed in excess, causing a nutritional toxicity (photo1).if substrate solution,
making that nutrient virtually unavailable to the plant causing a nutritional deficiency.

EC

EC is an abbreviation for electrical conductivity and is a measure of the soluble salts in the
substrates .Most fertilizers contribute to the soluble salts concentration in the substrate. EC
that is to high can result in a physiological drought which restrict root water uptake by the
plant, even when the substrate is moist.

To correct for high EC, irrigate with clear water to the point of excessive leaching to wash
out the extra salts .EC that is too low indicates insufficient nutrition. To correct for low EC,
apply fertilization.

In-house monitoring of pH and EC

Both EC and pH are easily measured at the growing facility. Combination EC and pH
measuring devices are available relatively cheaply .

There are many ways to collect substrate samples to properly perform an IN-house EC and
pH test .

Measuring Electrical Conductivity

Measuring the electrical conductivity (EC) of either the soil solution or a soil water extract is
the common method to quantify the concentration of soluble salts in growing media. Ec is the
ability of a solution to conduct an electrical current. As soluble salts increase the media, the
solution becomes a better conductor of electricity and the EC increases.

Extracting Solutions and Test Results

Soil or media samples themselves are not actually analyzed during a soil test, but rather plant
available nutrients are pulled out or “Extracted” from the sample using an “Extracting
Solution “.
There are three commonly used methods of extracting soluble salts based on the use of water
as an extracting solution .They are :saturated media extract (SME), 1:2 dilution method ,and
leachate pour thru .

The amount of water used to extract plant available nutrients and other details of the tests can
give large differences in the results of the tests .these is illustrated by a comparison of soluble
salts values in the tables note that the 1:2 method results in the lowest level. Results of SME
and leachate pour thru (soilless media) are closer, but some differences exist.

Always use the interpretative data that match the test you ,made otherwise you could make an
incorrect interpretation of the results .e.g,a result of 2.6 for soilless media would be
“Extreme “(Too high ) for the 1:2 method ,”normal” for SME , and “low” for leachate
pourthru . What a difference in how you would think about your results!

There is also a difference in the data depending if the media is the soil less media or contains
20% or more soil .Table 1 contains interpretation values for soilless media and Table 2 for
soil.

Saturated Media Extract (SME)

SME is currently “the” method of testing soilless greenhouse media and it is almost
universally done by commercially and university labs, including the U mass soil and plant
tissue testing lab. In these test a paste is made using soil and water and then the liquid portion
(The Extract) is separated from the solid portion for pH, soluble salts, and nutrient analysis.
Special skills and laboratory equipments are required to perform this test. This method is a
more representative measurement of total soluble salts in the solution.

1:2 Dilution Method: This method has been used for many years and has good interpretative
data to back it up. In these test an air dried sample of soil and water are mixed together in the
volume ratio one part of soil to 2parts water (e.g. using a measuring cup, 1ft.oz.of soil
+2ft.oz. of water). The liquid extract is then separated from the solids using laboratory grade
filter paper or a common coffee filter. Then the extract is ready for analysis this is a very easy
test to master and quite suitable for on –greenhouse testing of pH and soluble salts using the
so called pH and EC “pens” available from greenhouse suppliers .The 1:2 method is very
good choice for occasional pH and soluble salts testing by growers on-site .

Leachate pourThru : Leachate pourThru is method that would be used for plants grown in
containers .one of the major advantages to leachate pourThru is that there is no media
sampling or preparation . Unlike SME and 1:2 methods, plants donot have to be sacrificed or
disturbed for testing because the extract is the leachate collected from container during
routine irrigation .The leachate can be analyzed on –site using the pH and EC pens it can be
sent to a commercial laboratory for a complete nutrient analysis .

Leachate pourThru is best used for continues monitoring and graphical tracking of pH and
soluble salts .To make this method work best an irrigation and leachate protocol must be
established and carefully followed when sampling takes place .Leachate pour Thru is not a
good choice or casual checks (use 1:2 method for this ) . Some growers like to “Whip out”
the old pH or EC pan now and then and check the drainage from some pots. Unfortunately,
with casual use like this, the “Numbers “are often quite variable, inconclusive, and probably
unreliable.

Table 1. EC Interpretation Values (ms/cm) for Saturated Media and Pour thru for
Soilless Media

Indications SME 1:2 pour Thru

Very low 0-0.75 0.25 0-1.0
Low 0.76-2.0 0.3-0.75 1.0-2.6
Normal 2.0-3.5 0.76-1.25 2.6-4.6
High 3.5-5.0 1.26-1.75 4.6-6.5
V.High 5.0-6.0 1.76-2.25 6.6-7.8
Extreme >6.0 >2.3 >7.8

Gerbra water quality should be as follows: a. pH -6.5-7.0 b.EC -<0.7mS/cm.c.T.D.S.<450

ppm d.Hardness <200 ppm.
Exercise No: 9 Date

Title: Regulation of irrigation and fertilizers through drip, fogging and misting
Drip irrigation and fertigation systems in greenhouse cultivation
The plant is required to take up very large amounts of water and nutrients, with a
relatively small root system, and manufacture photosynthates for a large amount of flower per
unit area with a foliar system relatively small in relation to required production.
Watering system: Micro irrigation system is the best for watering plants in a greenhouse.
Micro sprinklers or drip irrigation equipments can be used. Basically the watering system
should ensure that water does not fall on the leaves or flowers as it leads to disease and
scorching problems. In micro sprinkler system, water under high pressure is forced through
nozzles arranged on a supporting stand at about 1 feet height. This facilitates watering at the
base level of the plants.
Equipments required for drip irrigation system include
i) A pump unit to generate 2.8kg/cm2 pressure
ii) Water filtration system – sand/silica/screen filters
iii) PVC tubing with dripper or emitters
Drippers of different types are available
i) Labyrinth drippers
ii) Turbo drippers
iii) Pressure compensating drippers – contain silicon membrane which assures uniform flow
rate
For years
iv) Button drippers- easy and simple to clean. These are good for pots, orchards and are
available with side outlet/top outlet or micro tube out let
v) Pot drippers – cones with long tube
Water output in dripper’s
a. 16mm dripper at 2.8kg/cm2 pressure gives 2.65 litres/hour (LPH).
b. 15mm dripper at 1 kg/cm2 pressure gives 1 to 4 litres per hour
Filters: Depending upon the type of water, different kinds of filters can be used.
Gravel filter: Used for filtration of water obtained for open canals and reservoirs that are
contaminated by organic impurities, algae etc. The filtering is done by beds of basalt or
quartz.
Hydrocyclone: Used to filter well or river water that carries sand particles.
Disc filters: Used to remove fine particles suspended in water
Screen filters: Stainless steel screen of 120 mesh (0.13mm) size. This is used for second
stage filtration of irrigation water.
Fertigation system: In fertigation system an automatic mixing and dispensing unit is
installed which consists of three systems pump and a supplying device. The fertilizers are
dissolved separately in tanks and are mixed in a given ratio and supplied to the plants through
drippers.
Fertilizers: Fertilizer dosage has to be dependent on growing media. Soilless mixes have
lower nutrient holding capacity and therefore require more frequent fertilizer application.
Essential elements are at their maximum availability in the pH range of 5.5 to 6.5. In general
Micro elements are more readily available at lower pH ranges, while macro elements are
more readily available at pH 6 and higher.
Forms of Inorganic Fertilizers
Dry fertilizers, slow release fertilizer and liquid fertilizer are commonly used in green houses.
Slow release fertilizer: They release the nutrient into the medium over a period of several
months. These fertilizer granules are coated with porous plastic. When the granules become
moistened the fertilizer inside is released slowly into the root medium. An important thing to
be kept in mind regarding these fertilizers is that, they should never be added to the soil
media before steaming or heating of media. Heating melts the plastic coating and releases all
the fertilizer into the root medium at once. The high acidity would burn the root zone.
Liquid fertilizer: These are 100 per cent water soluble. These come in powdered form. This
can be either single nutrient or complete fertilizer. They have to be dissolved in warm water.
Fertilizer Application Methods
1. Constant feed: Low concentrations at every irrigation are much better. This provides
continuous supply of nutrient to plant growth and results in steady growth of the
plant. Fertilization with each watering is referred as fertigation.
2. Intermittent application: Liquid fertilizer is applied in regular intervals of weekly,
biweekly or even monthly. The problem with this is wide variability in the availability of
fertilizer in the root zone. At the time of application, high concentration of fertilizer will be
available in the root zone and the plant immediately starts absorbing it. By the time next
application is made there will be low or nonexistent. This fluctuation results in uneven plant
growth rates, even stress and poor quality crop.
Fertilizer injectors
This device inject small amount of concentrated liquid fertilizer directly into the water lines
so that green house crops are fertilized with every watering.
Multiple injectors
Multiple injectors are necessary when incompatible fertilizers are to be used for fertigation.
Incompatible fertilizers when mixed together as concentrates form solid precipitates. This
would change nutrient content of the stock solution and also would clog the siphon tube and
injector. Multiple injectors would avoid this problem. These injectors can be of computer
controlled H.E. ANDERSON is one of the popular multiple injector.
General problems of fertigation
Nitrogen tends to accumulate at the peripherals of wetted soil volume. Hence, only roots at
the periphery of the wetted zone alone will have enough access to Nitrogen. Nitrogen is lost
by leaching and denitrification. Since downward movement results in permanent loss of NO3
–N, increased discharge rate results in lateral movement of N and reduces loss by leaching.
Phosphorous
It accumulates near emitter and P fixing capacity decides its efficiency. Low pH near the
emitter results in high fixation.
Potassium
It moves both laterally and downward and does not accumulate near emitter. Its distribution
is more uniform than N&P.
Micronutrients
Excepting boron, all micronutrients accumulates near the emitter if supplied by fertigation.
Boron is lost by leaching in a sandy soil low in organic matter. But chelated micronutrients of
Fe, Zn can move away from the emitter but not far away from the rooting zone.
Exercise No: 10 & 11 Date:

Title: Harvesting, Precooling, Grading, Packing, Storage of – Rose, Carnation,

Chrysanthemum, Gerbera, Orchid, Anthurium, Lilium, Tulip

Harvesting, Precooling, Grading, Packing, Storage of Rose:

Harvesting:

Stage of harvest: It varies with the varieties. It also depends on the market local, distant and
export markets. For local market the half to full opened flowers are harvested. For distant and
export market flowers are harvested at tight bud stage when the petals shows the colour.

Time of harvest: Harvesting should be done early in the morning and late in the evening.
Number of harvesting depends on temperature and variety in the green house. Second
harvesting is done in late afternoon or evening

Pre cooling: Roses are pre cooled at 20C.

Grading: Grading is done on the bases of stem length

1. Long stemmed roses (60 – 70cm)
2. Medium stemmed roses (50 – 70cm)
3. Short stemmed roses (30 – 50cm)
4. Spray roses
5. Miniature roses
Packing: The corrugated fiber boxes are used for packing of the flowers depending on the
destination. Before exporting the flower bunches they are packed in tight boxes. These
bunches are tied to the bottom of the box to avoid movement and damage. The boxes are
usually 100 cm long, 40 cm wide and 30 cm deep. These boxes have holes at both ends for
pre cooling.

Storage: The packed flowers are stored in refrigerated truck maintaining a temperature of
20C and carried to the market.

Harvesting, Precooling, grading, packing, storage of Carnation

Stage of harvest: The standard types of flowers are should be harvested at a large bud (tight
bud) or at cross bud (petal visible) stage. In case of spray types harvesting should be done
when at least two flowers have opened and the other buds are showing colour Stems are cut
with sharp knife. The cut flowers are immediately placed in clean water.
Pre cooling: The carnation flowers are precooled at 0.5 - 10C
Grading: Standard carnations are graded according to length and strength of stem and flower
size. The following are the quality standard for carnation flowers.
Standard carnations are graded according to length and strength of stem and flower size. The
following are the quality standard for carnation flowers.
A. Stems should be free from pest, diseases or mechanical damage.
B. Flowers should be uniform in size, not immature or over mature.
C. Flowers should be harvested at appropriate stage.
D. Stem should be upright with little bending.
Grading of spray carnation in quality classes is as follows.
1. 3 buds: 50 cm
2. 4 buds: 60cm
3. 4 buds: 70cm
or
3 and 4 buds: 55 cm
5 or more buds: 65cm
Packing: Standard carnation are bunched into 20 stems per bunch with 24, 28 or 32 bunches
per box according to grade. Spray are bunched into 5 stems per bunch and placed in a plastic
sleeves with 100 sleeves per telescopic corrugated boxes with a lid of 122 x 50 x 30 cm size.
The side of box should have vent holes naps carton are pre cooled with 00C at 95% RH for 2
hrs.
Storage: It can be stored at 4 to 60C temperature in cold storage for longer period.
Harvesting, Pre cooling, grading, packing, storage of Gerbera

Harvesting: Harvesting of flowers is done when 2 to 3 rows of disc floret are perpendicular
to the stalk. The flowers are harvested by bending the flower stalk at 400 and pulled gently so
that it separates from the mother plant. The heal of the talk should be cut about 2 cm above
the base and kept in fresh chlorinated water.
Pre cooling: It is done at 40C till sent to the market
Grading: 1. based on straight, strong, length of stem (40 cm minimum)
2. Flowers uniform in size, not less than 7 cm.
Packing: Flowers immediately after harvest, are made into bunches of 5, 10, 12 or 20
stems and loosely tied with rubber hand at the base and close to the bunched head.
• Bunching should be done carefully to avoid bruising.
• Remove lower leaves, uniform fresh basal cut is given manually or mechanical.
 • Bunching helps for easy packing and handling.
• Flowers such as gerbera are packed individually.
• The bunches are held in polyethylene sleeves or the buds are wrapped in corrugated
paper to protect them from mechanical damage.
Storage: Place gerbera in a 34 - 38˚ F cooler with 80 - 90% humidity.
Harvesting, Precooling, grading, packing, storage of Tulip
Harvesting: In midhills, tulips flower during February-April and in high hills during April-
June. The scapes along with 2 leaves are cut when 25-50% colour develops on petals. The
flowers are packed in bundles of 10 or 20 each. They are sent to markets after covering with
newspaper to avoid bruishing injury.
Pre cooling: Place the flowers in a 33o-35o F cooler as soon as possible with a relative
humidity of more than 90%. This process causes the petals to quickly close up, thereby
reducing the mechanical bruising of petals that occurs during bunching. In addition, storage
at this temperature reduces the consumption of the limited amount of stored carbohydrates as
well as reduces water loss from the flowers.
Grading: Bunch the flowers by lining up the buds to the same height. Trim ½ to 1 inch off
the end of the stems. Place the flowers upright in clean, cold (32o -35o F) water for at least 30
minutes. It is critical that the stems are kept upright during this time (especially of those that
have been left dry for some time) as tulip stems will assume whatever shape the stems are in
during the rehydration process. Make sure that the buckets are clean by washing them with a
dilute bleach solution before use.
Packing

• Storage: Store the flowers in an upright position for, preferably, no more than 2 days. If
flowers are to be stored for more than 2 days, extra handling steps should be taken to
assure good postharvest quality. Steps include leaving the bulb attached to the flowers
when harvested (this will allow the continued transport of the stored carbohydrates from
the bulbs to the flowers), wrapping the bunched flowers tightly before storage, and storing
the flowers dry (not in water) and in a horizontal position. Make sure that the temperature
in the cooler is around 33o F and the relative humidity is high in order to prevent
desiccation of the petals. With this method, the flowers can be stored for several days in a
cooler. Before selling the flowers, cut off the ends but leave the wrapping on the bunch.
Bunches should remain in an upright position and tightly wrap during rehydration (6 to 8
inches of 100o F lukewarm water) to prevent stems from becoming wavy.
Harvesting, Precooling, grading, packing, storage of Orchid
Harvesting: Cattleya flowers should be cut 3 – 5 days after the bud dehisces. Phalaenopsis
flowers are cut when they are fully open, either individually or as an entire spray. Cymbidium
flowers can be cut individually but more after the entire spike is removed and the individual
flowers are cut at the time of grading and packaging
Time of harvest: Flowers are harvested early in the morning or in the evening hours
Pre cooling: Cattleya flowers are placed in water and kept at temperature of 13 to 150C.
Grading: Generally, based on spathe size, straightness of stem, freshness, colour, etc.
According to USA and Holland based on:
Grade No. of flowers/ Spike
A 3-5
B 6-8
C 9 - 11
D More than 11
Packing: The flower stem are inserted through gum rubber caps into small tubes filled with
water. The opening of the rubber cap must be sufficiently large so that it does not restrict
water movement in the stem. The tuber are taped to the bottom of the boxes, with the flowers
on crumpled or shredded wax paper enough shredded wax paper is used around the flowers
so that they do not rub on each other in transport.
Storage: orchids are stored at lower temperature even at 5°C in cold chambers whereas
tropical and subtropical orchids are stored at 7-10°C and 90-95% relative humidity.
Harvesting, Precooling, grading, packing, storage of Lilium
Harvesting:
Stage of harvest:

Time of harvest:

Pre cooling:

Grading:

Packing:

Storage:

Harvesting, Pre cooling, grading, packing, storage of Anthurium

Harvesting: As the flowers mature a change in colour occurs from the base of the tip of the
spadix within a period of 3 – 4 weeks. Most Anthurium blooms are harvested at about three
quarters maturity because at this time it is believed they have the largest shelf life as cut
flowers. Anthurium blooms are usually harvested once in a week.
Time of harvest: Flowers are harvested early in the morning or in the evening hours
Pre cooling: Flowers are precooled at 130C
Grading: Flowers for export are classified into different grades according to te size of the
spathe. The size is determined by averaging the length and width of the spathe.
Packing: Flowers are packed into small plastic bags with moist paper to prevent dehydration
before placing in cartons. The boxes vary in size as follows.
Big – 964 x 295 x 65 mm
Medium: 964 x 190 x 65 mm
Small: 964 x 137 mm x 65 mm
Boxes and blooms of different sizes amy be placed in one container or a master box.
Container or a master box is constituted of the following
a. Six big carton boxes containing 25 blooms (Super) i.e. 120 flowers
b. Nine big carton boxes containing 25 blooms (Super) i.e. 225 flowers or 30
large i.e. 270 or 40 medium i.e 360 blooms
c. Twelve small carton boxes containing 45 blooms (small) i.e. 540 flowers or 80
mini i.e. 960 flowers
Storage: Anthurium flowers can be stored for at least one week if packed in moist shredded
newsprint and held at 15°C. They also respond favorably to storage in controlled atmosphere.
Vase life after storage was increased by 50% when flowers were stored at 12.5°C in 2%
oxygen for up to 2 weeks.
Harvesting, Precooling, grading, packing, storage of Chrysanthemum
Harvesting: When the flower buds are big enough the central bud (which are big enough
others then the spray) has to be removed to arrive at a well formed and uniform flowering
spray. When out of the total numbers of the flowers from the spray three have opened 80%
the stem can be harvested. The time of harvest is very important since from one day to other
the flower can be too open already. Flowers which are completely open will not remain for
long time, get damaged during transport, produce pollen and give an old appearance which is
not accepted in the market. The stems are harvested by cutting them out and breaking of the
root system leaving it behind in the bed.
Pre cooling: Flowers are pre cooled at 0.5 – 40C
Grading: Grading is done on the basis of flower diameter and stem length in various colours
of flowers
Particulars Blue Red Green Yellow
Maximum flower diameter (cm) 15 12 10 Less than 10
Minimum flower diameter (cm) 75 75 60 60
Packing: The flowers or bundles are laid in waxed boxes lined with sheets of polyethylene
and are placed at the prescribed temperature, where they remain for 3 weeks period.
Storage: Although Chrysanthemum keeps well at a cool temperature in water their life can
be extended by storing them at 10C temperature.
Exercise No: 12-13 Date:

Title: Harvesting, Pre - cooling, grading, packing, storage of tomato, bell pepper,
cucumber, Straw berry, and pot plants.

Harvesting, Pre – cooling, grading, packing, storage of tomato

Harvesting of Tomato: Depending on the variety, fruits become ready for first picking in
about 60-70 days after transplanting. The stage of harvesting depends upon the purpose to
which the fruits are to be used. The different stages of harvesting are as follows
1. Dark green colour- Dark green colour is changed and a reddish pink shade is observed on
fruit. Fruits to be shipped are harvested at this stage. Such fruits are then sprayed with
ethylene 48 hours prior to shipping. Immature green tomatoes will ripen poorly and be of low
quality. A simple way to determine maturity is to slice the tomato with a sharp knife. If seeds
are cut, the fruit is too immature for harvest and will not ripen properly.
2. Breaker stage- Dim pink colour observed on ¼ part of the fruit. Fruits are harvested at this
stage to ensure the best quality. Such fruit are less prone to damage during shipment often
fetch a higher price than less mature tomatoes.
3. Pink stage- Pink colour observed on ¾ parts of the fruit.
4. Reddish pink- Fruits are stiff and nearly whole fruit turns reddish pink. Fruits for local
sale are harvested at this stage.
5. Fully riped- Fruits are fully riped and soft having dark red colour. Such fruits are used for
processing. Fruits are normally harvested early in the morning or evening. The fruits are
harvested by twisting motion of hand to separate fruits from the stem. Harvested fruits should
be kept only in basket or crates and keep it in shade. Since all the fruits do not mature at the
same time, they are harvested at an interval of 4 days. Generally there will be 7-11 harvests in
a crop life span.
Pre – cooling: tomatoes are pre cooled at temperature less then 100C. The method of pre
cooling used is hydro cooling.
Grading: During grading of fruits, damaged, rotten and cracked fruits should be removed.
Only healthy, attractive, clean and bright fruits should be selected. The grades are mostly
based on the condition and the quality of the fruits and not specifically on their size.
However, on the basis of the size of the fruits three grades are formed: small (255 g).
Retailers normally do size grading for the local market. Internal urban markets have
differential prices for size grades as against ungraded fruit. Bureau of Indian Standards has
specified 4 grades viz., Super A, Super, Fancy and Commercial for tomato crop.
Packaging: For local markets, the fruits are packed in bamboo baskets or plastic crates.
Plastic crates can be conveniently stacked one on the other and a contoured rim keeps the
product safe and natural and allows sufficient air circulation. The packing should ensure
careful handling i.e. rigid enough to protect the fruits from being crushed. For exports, the
fruits are packed in cardboard telescopic boxes with capacities of not more than 15 kg, should
be used. Size graded tomatoes are pattern packed in layers to make best use of the box.
Storage: The main objective in storage after harvest is to control the rate of ripening to
extend the marketing period. As the tomatoes are chilling sensitive, the recommended storage
temperatures differ O depending on the fruit maturity. A storage temperature of 130 C with
90-95% relative humidity is recommended for slow ripening. At this temperature, most
varieties keep in good condition for 2-3 weeks and change colour very slowly. In cold
storage, unripe tomatoes can be stored for 4 weeks at a O O temperature of 8-10 C with 85-90
% relative humidity. Fully ripe fruits are stored at 7 C with 90% relative humidity for 1 week.
Transport: Tomatoes are highly perishable in nature hence quick means of transportation is
necessary. Tomatoes are transported by road through tractors, trucks and also by rail and air
to distant markets. Village produce is transported to the nearby towns and city market only by
road.
Cool Chain: Cool chain is essential during the transport of export quality commodity all the
way from the farm to the customer. This helps in maintaining the temperature inside the box
at the same low level as in the cold storage. The various stages of the cool chain are:
1. Cold store at the farm.
2. Refrigerated truck from farm to the airport
3. Cold store at the airport.
4. Building up of the pallet in a cold store at the airport.
5. Loading the aircrafts directly from the cold store in a short time.
6. Cargo aircraft maintains cold store temperature in hold.
7. Off loading direct into a cold store in the receiving country.
8. Refrigerated truck to the customers.
Harvesting, Pre – cooling, grading, packing, storage of bell pepper
Harvesting: Harvesting of capsicum is done at green, breaker and coloured (red/yellow, etc.)
stage. It depends upon the purpose for which it is grown and distance for the ultimate market.
In India, fruits are harvested at breaker stage for long distance markets. For local market, it is
better to harvest fruits at coloured stage. Breaker stage is the one when 10% of the fruit
surface is coloured and when more than 90% of the fruit surface is coloured it is considered
as coloured a stage. Fresh pepper is covered from direct sunlight while being transported on
tracks or pickups to local markets. Pepper pods should be taken to the market on the same
day they were harvested preferably late in the afternoon. Fresh pods for export and
processing require refrigerated tracks in which temperatures can be maintained at 8˚C.
Pre cooling: Pepper should be pre cooled at 80C to remove field heat
Grading: Capsicum fruits are graded to size and colour to ensure uniform attractive pack.
Packaging: Chilies for making fresh pre packs need to be washed in clean water with 15%
chlorine to remove contaminants. Shrink wrapping of each fruit is done and are packed in
cartons and should be hold about 10 kg of fruits. Most of the farmers use apple boxes for
packaging for local markets. Fresh hot chilies should be handled using gloves to avoid
irritation of eyes and nose during processing. Post harvest loss through dehydration can be
limited by storing pods under shade usually near the harvested field.
Storage: Chilies can remain fresh for three to five weeks when stored at a temperature of 7˚C
to 10˚C and 95% relative humidity.
Harvesting, Pre – cooling, grading, packing, storage of straw berry
Harvesting: Strawberries are generally harvested when half to three fourths of skin develops
colour. Depending on the weather conditions, picking is usually done on every second or
third day usually in the morning hours. Strawberries are harvested in small trays or
baskets. They should be kept in a shady place to avoid damage due to excessive heat in the
open field.
Pre cooling: The recommendation for maximum quality retention of strawberries is pre
cooling to near 0°C (32°F) within 1 hour of harvest and maintaining at 0°C (32°F) throughout
the marketing channels
Grading: Fruits are graded on the basis of their weight, size and colour.
Storage: Fruits can be stored in cold storage at 320C upto 10 days. For distant marketing,
strawberries should be pre-cooled at 40C within 2 hrs. of harvesting and kept at the same
temperature. After pre-cooling, they are shipped in refrigerated vans.
Packing: Packing is done according to the grades for long distance markets. Fruits of good
quality are packed in perforated cardboard cartons with paper cuttings as cushioning
material. Fruits of lower grades are packed in baskets.
Harvesting, Pre – cooling, grading, packing, storage of Cucumber
Harvesting: Harvesting maturity and harvesting method. For table or slicing cucumbers
quality is primarily based on uniform shape, firmness, and a dark green skin color. Additional
quality indices are size, freedom from growth or handling defects, decay and absence of
yellowing. Cucumbers are harvested at a range of developmental stages. Depending on
cultivar and temperature, the time from flowering to harvest may be 55 to 60 days.
Cucumbers generally are harvested at a slightly immature stage, near full size but before
seeds fully enlarge and harden. Firmness and external glossiness are also indicators of a pre-
maturity condition. At the proper harvesting maturity a jellylike material has begun to form in
the seed cavity. Harvesting is done by hand by cutting free of the vine with a sharp knife,
rather than by tearing. Cucumbers are packed in two layer boxes, cardboard, wooden or
plastic.
Pre cooling:
Grading: As per the USDA (United States Agriculture Department following are the grades
of Cucumber
U.S. Fancy: Consists of cucumbers which are well colored, well formed, not overgrown, and
which are fresh, firm, and free from decay, sunscald, and from injury caused by scars and
from damage caused by yellowing, sunburn, dirt or other foreign material, freezing, mosaic
or other disease, insects, cuts, bruises, mechanical or other means.
a. The maximum diameter of each cucumber shall be not more than 2-3/8 inches and the
length of each cucumber shall be not less than 6 inches.
U.S. Extra No. 1: Consists of a combination of U.S. Fancy and U.S. No. 1 cucumbers:
Provided that at least 50 percent of the cucumbers in the lot shall meet the requirements of
the U.S. Fancy grade and the remainder shall meet the requirements of the U.S. No. 1 grade.
a. The maximum diameter of each cucumber shall be not more than 2-3/8 inches and the
length of each cucumber shall be not less than 6 inches.
U.S. No. 1: consists of cucumbers which are fairly well colored, fairly well formed, not
overgrown, and which are fresh, firm, and free from decay, sunscald and from damage caused
by scars, yellowing, sunburn, dirt or other foreign materials, freezing, mosaic or other
disease, insects, cuts, bruises, mechanical or other means.
a. Unless otherwise specified, the maximum diameter of each cucumber shall be not more
than 2- 3/8 inches and the length of each cucumber shall be not less than 6 inches.
U.S. No. 1: Small consists of cucumbers which meet all requirements for the U.S. No. 1
grade except for size.
a. The diameter of each cucumber shall be not less than 1-1/2 inches or more than 2 inches.
There are no requirements for length.
U.S. No. 1 Large consists of cucumbers which meet all requirements for the U.S. No. 1 grade
except for size.
a. The minimum diameter of each cucumber shall be not less than 2-1/4 inches and, unless
otherwise specified, the length of each cucumber shall be not less than 6 inches. There are no
maximum diameter and length requirements.
U.S. No. 2: Consists of cucumbers which are moderately colored, not badly deformed, not
overgrown, and which are fresh, firm, free from decay and free from damage caused by
freezing, sunscald, cuts and from serious damage caused by scars, yellowing, sunburn, dirt or
other foreign material, mosaic or other disease, insects, bruises, mechanical or other means.
a. Unless otherwise specified, the maximum diameter of each cucumber shall be not more
than 2-3/8 inches and the length of each cucumber shall be not less than 5 inches.
Packaging:
Storage: Storage of cucumbers at 10 to 12o C and 95% Relative Humidity is generally less
than 14 days as visual and sensory quality deteriorate rapidly. Short term storage or transit
temperature such as 7o C is often used but after 2 to 3 days chilling injuries 73 will result.
Cucumbers are highly sensitive to ethylene present in the storage room or in the transport
vehicle. Do not mix bananas, melons, tomatoes and other ethylene producing products with
cucumbers.
Exercise No: 14 & 15 Date:
Title: Pest & Disease Management of Flowers and Vegetable crops

Major Diseases of Chillies, Tomato, Brinjal, Onion, Bhendi, Gourds and water melon
and their management
In vegetable crops, Damping off, root rot, leaf spots, powdery mildew and downy
mildew and virus diseases (Mosaic and leaf curl) cause severe yield loss.
Damping off: Pythium aphanidermatum is observed in most of the vegetables (Chillies,
Tomato, Brinjal, Cabbage, Onion)
Symptoms: Occurs as pre emergence and post emergence damping off. In the pre-emergence
the phase the seedlings are killed before emergence where young radical and the plumule are
killed leads to rotting of the seedlings. The post-emergence phase is characterized by the
infection of the young seedlings which become soft and water soaked at the collar region at
the ground level and leads to toppling or collapse of the seedlings.
Favourable conditions: pathogen Survives in soil and excess soil moisture favours disease.
Management Provide raised seed bed in nursery and fumigate with formaldehyde Treat the
seeds with Thiram @ 3 g/kg seed or Trichoderma viride @ 4 g kg seed or Pseudomonas
fluorescens @ 10 g /kg of seed 24 hours before sowing. Soil application of Pseudomonas
fluorescens @ 2.5 kg/ha mixed with 50 kg of FYM. Avoid stagnation of water. Drench with
Copper oxychloride @ 2.5 g/l or Bordeaux mixture 1%.
Wilt: Wilt caused by Fusarium sp affects most of the vegetable crops (i)Tomato -Fusarium
oxysporum f. sp. lycopersici (ii) Chillies-Fusarium oxysporum f. sp. vesicatoria (iii) Bhendi-
Fusarium oxysporum f. sp. vasinfectum (iv) Water melon- Fusarium oxysporum f. sp.
Niveum (iv) Water melon- Fusarium oxysporum f. sp. Niveum
Symptoms: Wilting of the plant is characterised by an initial of yellowing of the upper leaves
that turn yellow and droop. Finally the vascular system of the plant is discoloured,
particularly in the lower stem and roots and plants ecome wilted
Favourable conditions: Soil and seed borne. Survives in soil for more than 10 years.Spreads
through irrigation, farm implements.
Management
1. Drenching with 1% Bordeaux mixture or Copper oxy chloride @ 2.5 g/lit.
2. Seed treatment with Pseudomonas fluorescens Pf1@ 10 g /kg of seed, followed by nursery
application of Pf1@ 20 g/m2 and seedling dip with Pf1 @ 5g/ l along with soil application of
Pf1 @ 2.5 kg mixed with 50 kg FYM /ha at 30 days after transplanting.
3. Spot drench with Carbendazim @ 1g/lit for wilt affected plants
Leaf spots: Leaf spots caused by Cercospora sp., Septoria sp.,Alternaria sp. and Botrytis sp
occurs at all stages of the crop and leads to yield loss .
(i) Chillies:Cercospora capsisci
(ii) Tomato : Septoria lycopersici
(iii) Bhendi: Cercospora malayensis, C. abelmoschi
(iv)Brinjal: Cercospora solani –melongenae, C.solani, Alternaria melongenae, A. Solani
(v.) Onion leaf blight and Purple blotch : Botrytis sp.,Alternaria porri
(vi)Water melon: Alternaria cucumerina, Colletotrichum orbiculare
Symptoms Leaf spots are brown and circular with small to large light grey centres and dark
brown margins or dark black irregular spots with concentric rings or specks which coalese
and cause drying and defoliation. Stem, petiole and pod lesions also have light grey centres
with dark borders.Severely infected leaves drop off prematurely resulting in reduced
yield.Favorable conditions: High humidity , drizzling , wind favors disease development and
spread. Survives in infected crop debris.
Management
1. Seed treatment with Carbendazim @2g/kg of seed.
2. Spraying Mancozeb @ 2 g/lit or Copper oxychloride @ 2.5 g/lit.
3. For purple blotch of onion,spray Tebuconazole @ 1.5 ml/lit. or Mancozeb @ 2g/lit. or
Zineb @ 2g/lit.
Virus diseases: Mosaic and Leaf curl
Mosaic: Transmitted by aphids. Affected plant appears stunted with light and dark green
mottling on the leaves that becomes distorted, puckered and smaller than normal leaves. This
disease is common in Tomato, Chillies, Brinjal, and Gourds.
Leaf curl : Transmitted by white fly.Leaves are curled have margins that curl upward, giving
them a cup-like appearance ,reduced in size ,yellowing between the veins ,shortened
internodes giving the plant a stunted appearance . This disease is common in Tomato and
Chillies.
Management
1. Protected nursery in net house or green house.
2. Placing yellow sticky traps @ 12/ha to monitor the vectors
3. Raising barrier crops, cereals around the field.
4. Raise two rows of Maize or Sorgnum for every 5 rows of chilli. .
5. Removal of weed host regularly
6. Spray Imidacloprid @ 0.5 ml/lit. or Dimethoate @ 0.5 ml/lit. Or Monocrotophos @1.5
ml/lit. or Acephate @1g/lit at 15, 25, 45 days after transplanting to control vector.
7. Virus perpetuates in cucurbits, legumes, pepper, tobacco, tomato and weed hosts so care
should be taken.
DISEASES OF TOMATO
(Refer previous page for damping off, wilt, Leaf spot and virus diseases)
1. Early blight: Alternaria solani
Symptoms: Small, black spots enlarge and concentric rings in a bull's eye pattern can be seen
in the center of the diseased area. Tissue surrounding the spots may turn yellow. Lesions on
the stems may occur and girdle..On fruis, dark brown concentric rings are seen that affects
the market quality. Shedding of immature fruits occur
Favourable conditions: Survives in seeds and soil.High soil moisture creates high humidity
that favors disease development initially on lower leaves.
Management Removal of infected plant debris. Use of disease free seeds . Crop rotation with
non solanaceoues crops. Spraying Mancozeb @ 2g/lit. or copper oxychloride @ 2.5 g/lit
twice at 15 days interval.
2. Late blight: Phytophthora infestans
Symptoms: Leaves stem and fruits are attacked Lesions appear as purplish to brown colour
whicg leads to blighting under humid conditions. Marbbled areas on green fruits which later
becomes brown and completely shriveled.
Favorable conditions: Pathogen survives in infected debris. Disease occurs in rainfed crops
unde irrigation where dew is frequent and develops quickly in ariny season accompanied with
high humidity.
Management
1. Crop rotation Over head irrigation to bre avoided.
2. Sparying with mancozeb 0.2% or captafol @0.2% or Metalaxyl 0.2% or copper
oxychloride @ 0.2% 3.
3. Bacterial wilt: Burkholderia solancearum
Symptoms: Young seedling show yellowing and wilt. Curling of leaves occurs. More
adventitious roots are formed.. Later black discoloration of vascular tissues with gummy
bacterial ooze is the characteristic symptom of severely infected plant.
Favorable conditions: Survives in soil and in infected plant debris. spreads through
irrigation water and farm implements.
Management
1. Crop rotation.
2. Spraying with Agrimycin-100 @ 0.1g /lit. thrice at 10 days intervals effectively controls
the disease.
DISEASES OF CHILLIES
1. Fruit Rot and Die Back: Colletotrichum capsici (refer previous page for damping off ,
wilt, leaf spot and virus diseases)
Symptoms: Necrosis of tender twigs from the tip backwards, profuse shedding of flowers.
Drying up spreads from the flower stalks to the stem and subsequently causes die-back of the
branches and stem which later on wither. Partially affected plants bear few fruits of low
quality. Fruits rot appears on ripe fruits where small circular spost initially appear and
spreads as oblong black greenish colour or markedly delimited by a black or straw colored
area. Badly diseased fruits turn straw coloured with less pungency. The diseased fruist later
shrivels nad dries up. Favorable conditions: Seed borne and secondary spread by wind
during [periods sof high humidity accompanied with rain.Disease appears after rains has
stopped nad when there is prolonged deposition of dew on plant.
Management 1.Use disease free seeds Seed treatment with Thiram or Captan @ 4g/kg Spray
Mancozeb @ 2 g/lit or Copper oxychloride @ 2.5 g/lit thrice at 15 days interval starting from
noticing the die-back symptoms or at 60 days after planting .
2. Powdery mildew: Leveillula taurica
Symptoms: White powdery growth on lower side of leaves leads to shedding of foliage
causing severe reduction in fruit yield.
Management Spray Wettable sulphur @ 3 g/lit or Carbendazim @ 1 g/lit, 3 sprays at 15 days
interval from the first appearance of symptom
3. Bacterial leaf spot: Xanthomonas campestris pv. Vesicatoria
Symptoms: The leaves exhibit small circular or irregular, dark brown or black greasy spots
that form irregular lesions. Severely affected leaves become chlorotic and fall off.Stem
infection leads to formation of cankerous growth and wilting of branches.On the fruits round,
raised water soaked spots with a depression in the centre where in shining droplets of
bacterial ooze is observed.
Management Field sanitation and crop rotation Spray seedlings with Bordeaux mixture @ 1%
or copper oxychloride @ 2.5g/liter
DISEASES OF GOURDS
Downy mildew: Pseudoperonospora cubensis
Symptoms: Disease affects pumpkin, Snake gourd, Ribbed gourd, Bottle gourd, Bitter gourd
and Ash gourd.Whitish growth of fungus is seen on lower surface of leaves and
corresponding upper leaves show pale green areas separated by dark green areas The entire
leaf dries up quickly. Favorable conditions: High humidity with drizzling , low temperature
of 15 to 25 ᵒC accompanied with drizzling and dew favours disease.
Management
1.Seed treatment with Metalaxyl @ 2 g/kg.seeds Spraying with Mancozeb @ 2g/lit. or
Chlorothalonil @ 2 ml/lit. or Metalaxyl + Mancozeb @ 1g/lit.
Powdery mildew: Erysiphe cichoracearum
Symptoms: Disease occurs in Pumpkin, Snake gourd, Ribbedgourd ,Bottle gourd, Bitter
gourd and Ash gourd.White or brown growth on upper and lower surfaces of leaves and
stems and leads to drying
Favorable conditions: Dry season and high temperature. Favours disease development.
Survives in infected plant debris.
Management: Spray Dinocap @1 ml/lit. or Carbendazim @ 0.5 g/lit.
Mosaic : Cucumber mosaic virus
Symptoms: Infected plants show cupping of leaves downward, severe mottling with
alternating light green and dark green patches. Plants are stunted, and fruits are covered with
bumpy protrusions. Severely affected cucumber fruit may be almost entirely white. The virus
is readily transferred by aphids and survives on a wide variety of plants.
Management: Removal of weed host. Spray Dimethoate@ 2ml/lit.or Monocrotophos @1.5
ml/lit. or Acephate @1g/lit. to control insect vectors. Place yellow sticky traps @ 12/ ha .
DISEASES OF FLOWERS AND THEIR MANAGEMENT DISEASES
ROSE
1. Powdery mildew: Sphaerotheca pannosa var. rosae Symptoms: The disease appears as
slightly raised blister-like areas on the young leaves. Soon leaves are covered with a grayish
white, powdery fungal .growth, become curled and distorted. On older leaves, large white
patches of fungal growth appear.. Buds may also be attacked and covered with white mildew
before they open. Diseased buds fail to open. The infection spreads to theflower parts and
they become discoloured, dwarfed and dried. Favourable conditions: The fungus overwinters
as mycelium in dormant buds and shoots spread is through wind-borne conidia. The disease
is favoured by dry weather with maximum day temperature of 20 to 25°C with cool nights
Management:
The diseased and fallen leaves should be collected and burnt. Four sprayings at 10 days
interval with wettable sulphur 0.3 per cent or dinocap 0.07 per cent or carbendazim 0.1 per
cent or Azoxystrobin @ 1ml/ litre controls the disease effectively. Sulphur dust can be used
at 25 kg/ha. Wettable sulphur or sulphur dust should not be used when the temperature is
above 30°C as it may cause scorching. Resistant Varieties like Aawliver, Abisharika, Adolf
Morstman, African Star, Ambika, Angeles, Anvil Sparks, American Pride, Apollo, Arizona,
Ashwini, Baby Masquerade, Banjaran-9, Barbara, Bewitched, Blue Moon, Bon Soir, Bon
Accord, Bonnie Scotland, Boque Dayal, Belle Vue, Bovinchor, Bulls Red, Canasta, Careless
Love, Carcusar, Celebration, Crimson Glory, Dame De Cour, Deep Secret, Dutch Gold,
Dwarf Queen, Dearest Durina, Eiffel Tower, Priti, Paradise, Queen Elizabeth, Royal Ascot,
Red Master Piece, Red Dene, Rachel Grawshey, Ranjana-1 0, Sonia, Spartan, Super Star,
Summer Days, Starina can be grown. Excess fertilization especially with nitrogenous
fertilizers and crowding of plants should be avoided. 2. Die-back- Diplodia rosarum
Symptoms: The pruned surface of the twig dries from tip downwards. Twigs become brown
to dark brown or black. The disease passes from the branch twig to the main stem and from
where it spreads to the roots. Finally it kills the whole plant. Stem and roots show browning
of the internal tissues.
Favourable conditions :
The fungus persists in dead twigs and the stalks of the withered blooms. Older plants and
neglected and weak bushes are more frequently attacked. Disease spread is faster at 30 to
32°C. Management: Pruning should be done so that the lesions on the shoots are eliminated.
Partially diseased twigs should be pruned at least 3 to 5 cm below the visible symptoms of
the disease. In all cases, the pruned ends should be immediately coated with Chaubattia paint
(4 parts of copper carbonate, 4 parts of red-lead and 5 parts of linseed oil. Application of
fertilizer should be delayed at least 10 days after pruning. Spraying with copper oxychloride
0.2 per cent or difolatan 0.2 per cent or chlorothalonil 0.2 per cent or rnancozeb 0.2 per cent
once in early September and again in late October is recommended for the control of this
disease. The varieties which are resistant include Bhim, Blue Moon, Red Gold, Quebec,
Summer Queen, Red, Ressolute, Samba, Velhiteen Sign and Whitten Sign. Agnasius,
Christian Doir, Confidence, Crimson Glory, Fantal Blue, Faryentee, Kiss of Fire, Pascali,
Royal Ascot, Vienna Charm and White Chritmas 3. Black spot: Diplocarpon rosae .
Symptoms:
The disease is characterized by the presence of black spot on the leaves. These spots are more
or less circular in outline. They have a very irregular fibrillose border due to the radiating
strands of mycelium which occur beneath the leaves and leaf buds which open late in the
season. The plant blossoms poorly. They may not flower in the following season. On the stem
the infected areas present a blackened, blistered appearance, dotted with ustules.
Favourable conditions: The fungus survives in the infected leaves on the plants. The disease
is favoured by high humidity and low temperature (21°C). Winter frosts favour the disease.
Management: As the fungus perpetuates on old diseased leaves and stems it is necessary to
collect and destroy them at the end of the season.. Diseased plants should be pruned carefully
and should be burnt. Spraying with tridemorph 0.025 per cent or captan 0.2 per cent or or
Azoxystrobin 0.1% ferbam or benomyl 0.1 per cent at weekly intervals starting with the
sprouting of the plants till the appearance of the new foliage and continuing during humid
weather effectively controls the disease. Captan sprays at 15 days interval is effective in the
control of black spot. Shade and excessive irrigation should be avoided. Hybrid Rugosa rose,
'Martin Frobisher1 is immune to black spot. Rose cultivars viz., Belaya (Rosa alba). John
Cabot and Carefree Beauty are resistant. Among the HT cultivars Show Girl, Buccaneer,
Gold Crown Mc-Gredy's Sunset and Perfecta are less susceptible. 4. Rust Phragmidium
mucronatum Symptoms: The under-side of the leaves stems show orange to lemon yellow
pustules (1.0 mm in dia) which increase in size as the season advances. In the mid-summer,
the orange yellow spots on the leaves are replaced by brick red spots .Later in the season, the
same leaves show minute black, hair-like tufts on the under surface. The affected leaves
turn yellow, deformed and fall prematurely to the ground. Sometimes blossoms
develop badly or not at all. The diseased bushes are greatly weakened and may die back.
Favourable conditions : Maximum rust infection occurs at a temperature which ranges from
18 to 21°C. Temperature between 20 and 25°C is favourable for uredospore production.
Teleutospores which are produced in autumn helps in overwintering and causing fresh
infection through basidiospore in the next spring. The fungus also overwinters as perennial
mycelium in the stem. Secondary spread is through wind-borne uredospores. Management:
Diseased, fallen leaves should be collected and burnt. Stems harbouring perennial mycelium
should be cut out and burnt. Three sprayings during Mar-Apr at 15 days interval with
mancozeb 0.2 per cent or carboxin 0.1 per cent.. The disease is controlled by spraying with
ferbam 0.2 per cent or wettable sulphur 0.3 per cent or captan 0.2 per cent. Botrytis bud and
twig blight: Botrytis cinerea
Symptoms: The disease is also known as petal fire or Botrytis mold. Infection starts from the
sepals as black-brown specks that cover the flower in due course. The buds turn brown and
decay. Sometimes partially opened buds are attacked, and the individual petals turn brown
and shrivel.. In cool moist weather the flower is covered with greenishgrey or darkish growth
of the fungus. Management: Picking and destroying old blooms and overwintered canes help
in reducing the disease. Avoiding excessive irrigation helps to check the disease. Fungicidal
spray with with ferbam 0.2 per cent or captan 0.2 per centor benomyl 0.1 per cent or
mancozeb 6.2 per cent or carbendazim 0.2 percent. The following rose varieties viz., Anieval
Sparks, Bonnienuit, Chantare, Charleston, Devine, Elizabeth, Glimpses, Golden Giant,
Joseph's Coat, Picture, Purna, Rakat Gandha, Sharella, Spartan and Zenium Mukhatis are free
from the disease. Buds and twig blight by Phomopsis gulabia from Uttar Pradesh has also
been reported
DISEASES OF CHRYSANTHEMUM
1. Blotch/Leaf spot: Septoria chrysanthemella
Symptoms:
Blackish-brown, circular to irregular spots surrounded by a yellow halo. They coalesce with
one another and form large patches coalesce to form blotches covering major portion of the
leaf. The dead leaves hang on the stem for some time. Favourable conditions: Infected debris
in the soil appeared to be the primary source of infection .The disease is particularly severe
during and after monsoon and is favoured by cool weather. Warm weather is not conducive
for its development. Management: Diseased plant debris should be collected and burnt.
Irrigation should be regulated. Fortnightly spraying with carbendazim 0.1 per cent or
benomyl 0.1 per cent or mancozeb 0.2 per cent or copper oxychloride 0.3 per cent or 0.1%
azoxystrobin, or 0.2% chlorothalonil, thiophanate methyl @ 0.1% .Chrysanthemum cultivars
viz., Alpana, Aparjito, C.L. Philips, Flirt, Liliput, Phillies and Sarad are highly resistant. 2.
White Rusts: Puccinia horiana
Symptoms: Infection by first noticed as yellow to tan spots on the upper surface of the
leaves, up to 5 mm diameter; the centers of the spots later turn brown. On the underside of the
leaves raised buff, pinkish, waxy pustules develop which later become whitish and quite.
Severe infections can lead to complete loss of the crop.
Control Regulations require that infect plants be destroyed to prevent disease establishment in
this country. Protect healthy plants with fungicides with the active ingredients 0.l%
azoxystrobin, or Difenconazole 0.05 % or chlorothalonil 0.2%, or thiophanate methyl @
0.1% 3.
Vascular Wilts: Chrysanthemums are subject to two vascular wilt diseases caused by
Fusarium oxysporum f.sp. Chrysanthemum and Verticillium dahlia. Both pathogens persist in
the soil for many years.
Fusarium Wilt: yellowing of foliage, stunting, and wilting often along one side of plant.
Plants may appear water stressed and foliage may brown and die. Stems - reddish brown
discoloration of the vascular system. Spread in contaminated soil and infected cuttings and is
favored by warm temperatures
Verticillium Wilt:
Symptoms of Verticillium wilt often appear only after blossom buds have formed; young
vigorous plants may be symptomless.Foliage becomes yellow and wilted, sometimes only
along leaf margins and on one side of the plant.Leaves begin to die from the base of the plant
upward and often remain attached. Stems exhibit dark streaks in the vascular system. Favored
when cool weather is followed by hot temperatues. Pasteurized growing media and pathogen-
free cuttings. Most cultivars are resistant. Avoid susceptible cultivars including 'Bright
Golden Ann', 'Echo', 'Glowing Mandalay', Mountain Peak', 'Paragon',, 'Pert', 'Puritan', and
'Wedgewood'., high relative humidity, overwatering, and poor drainage.
Management: Pathogen free cuttings or plants and pasteurized growing media. Adjust pH to
6.5 to 7.0 and use nitrate nitrogen fertilization. Soil drenching with Copper oxychloride 2.5 g
/ lit or Trifloxystrobin +Tebuconazole @ 0.75 g / lit or Difenoconazole @ 0.5ml / lit.Avoid
highly susceptible cultivars such as 'Bravo', 'Cirbronze', 'Illini Trophy', 'Orange Bowl', 'Royal
Trophy', and 'Yellow Delaware'. 5. Powdery mildew: Oidium chrysanthemi Symptoms: The
leaves get covered with a whitish, ash-grey powdery growth on the upper surface. Infected
leaves turn yellow and dry. Severely infected plants remain stunted and do not flower. The
disease is favoured by dry hot weather.. Shade and overcrowding of plants should be avoided
to reduce the disease. Spraying with wettable sulphur 0.2 per cent or triforine 0.03 per cent or
thiophanate-methyl 0.05 per cent or dinocap 0.025 per cent or dinocap 1.0 kg/ha or
cabendazim or benomyl 0.1 per cent at 10 to 15 days interval controls the disease.
DISEASES OF CARNATION
1. Fusarium wilt: Fusarium oxysporum f. sp. dianthi
Symptoms: In young plants, the first sign of the disease is fading or greying of the normal
colour of the leaves with wilting of the leaves and young stems. It is followed by eventual
collapse of the whole plant. When older plants are infected, similar symptoms are produced
but the older leaves may show chlorosis followed by an indistinct purple-red discolouration.
The vascular tissues of infected stems are stained dark brown. Mature plants show wilt
symptoms over a period of several months before they die and eventually become straw
coloured.
Favorable conditions:
The pathogen is soil-borne and survives and spreads through irrigation water. Warm
temperature favours the disease.
Management: The diseased plants should be removed immediately after noticing the disease.
Soil drenching with Carbendazim @ 1 g / lit or Difenoconazole@ 0.5 ml / lit at weekly
intervals.Pseudomonas fluorescens as soil application @ 15 g / m2 and foliar application @ 5
g / lit at monthly intervals.Soil drenching with Bacillus amyloliquefaciens @ 5 ml / lit
atmonthly intervals Grafting of susceptible cultivars like Alice, Fulvio Rosa, Gus Royalette
and Johy. on to resistant rootstocks i.e. Arancio 25D, Exquisite, Heidi and May Britt and
growing in soil naturally infested with fungus was also found to reduce the incidence of
disease.
2. Alternaria leaf spot: Alternaria dianthi
Symptoms: The chief symptom is blight or rot at leaf bases and around nodes, which are
girdled. Spots on leaves are ashy white. The centres of old spots are covered with dark brown
to black fungal growth. Leaves may be constricted and twisted and the tip may be killed.
Branches dieback at the girdled area and black crusts of conidia are formed on the cankers.
Favorable conditions: Conidia are spread during watering or in rains.. The conidia are
carried by on cuttings. The disease is widespread in humid weather. Management: To reduce
the disease incidence, humidity may be kept low by providing proper air circulation. Disease-
free planting material should be used. Spray Tebuconazole @ 2 ml / lit or Propiconazole @ 2
ml / lit. Bacillus subtilis as soil application @ 15 g / m2 followed by foliarapplication @ 5 g /
lit at monthly intervals. 3. Cottony rot: Sclerotinia sclerotiorum Symptoms: Stems rotted;
flower rot is similar to gray mold. Cottony, white fungal mass may occur on rotted tissues.
Black sclerotia may form inside or outside the stem. Favorable conditions Survives in soil
and in infected plant debris .Favored by high humidity.
Management: Spray foliage with iprodione or thiophanate-methyl@ 0.1% Fungicides
Exercise No: 16 Date:
Title: Visit to commercial units and mark

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