Syllabus

Demographics and Human Movements

⮚ Demographic model
​Settlements and Urban Morphology
⮚ Urbanisation
⮚ Sector models
Population & Migration
⮚ Population
⮚ Migration
​Superpowers, empires and supra-national alliances and organisations
⮚ Superpowers and empires
⮚ Supranational Organisation
⮚ International Organisation
​Rights and Social Protest
⮚ Civil Rights
​Trade, aid and exchange
⮚ Trade and Equity
⮚ Peace and trade
⮚ Benefits and problems of trade
⮚ International Aid
​Economic Systems
⮚ Economic Agents
⮚ Macroeconomics and microeconomics
⮚ Circular flow of income
⮚ Types of economies
​Ecological Relationships
⮚ Biomes
⮚ Climate change
​Industrialization and technological developments
⮚ First revolution
⮚ Second Revolution
⮚ Digital Revolution
​Resource management
⮚ Resources and economic systems
Peace & Conflict
⮚ Treaty of Versailles
⮚ WW1
⮚ WW2
⮚ Cold War
⮚ Role of UN
 Trade, Aid and Exchange

Globalisation
Globalisation – The process of interaction and integration among people, companies and governments of different nations resulting in
the exchange of knowledge, transformation of the world, and cultural diffusion
* action – process of “The world is becoming a ‘global village’ because of globalisation”
* integration – coming together

Efficiency of trade depends on the efficiency of technology and vice versa. Trade and technology are DIRECTLY PROPORTIONAL.
→ Socialisation has changed because of the availability of technology through globalisation.

Social
Pros Cons
→ Greater awareness of international affairs → Cultural conflicts (e.g. Racism)
→ Better communication → De-socialization/laziness
→ Ideas shared, new inventions → Loss of own cultural traditions
→ Social media connects people from around the world → Dangerous ideas spread faster
→ Cultural diversity/exchange → Diseases spread faster
Political
Pros Cons
→ World affairs known to all → Powerful countries gain power
→ Leads to improved relations
→ Create awareness about political issues
Political coordination and diplomacy???
Wars + weaponry???
Economic
Pros Cons
→ Urbanization → Economies suffer if they import more than they export
→ rural development → Intellectual property rights
→ Increased employment → Brain drain
→ Remittances in developing countries

Multi-national Corporations (MNCs)???

Trade, aid & exchange

* Trade – Buying and selling of goods and/or services through barter and money.
* Aid – Taking/providing help (only one, not both).
* Exchange – Not through buying and selling; incorporates mostly ideas.

Trade Barriers intended for the protection of domestic industries:

* Tariffs – Tax on each product; as much as required
* Quota – Quantity allowed to be traded
* Sanction – Forbidding certain import of good/service
* Subsidy – Financial aid given to locals
* Embargo - A total ban on the import of goods

International trade - the exchange of capital, goods, and services across international borders or territories because there is a need or
want of goods or services.
Free Trade Zones – a geographical area where goods may be landed, stored, handled, manufactured, or reconfigured, and re-exported
under specific customs regulation and generally not subject to customs duty (e.g. European Union).
Fair Trade - trade between companies in developed countries and producers in developing countries in which fair prices are paid to the
producers.

Benefits of Trade
→ Brings in raw material
→ Reduce conflicts
→ Countries become interdependent
→ Profit through export

Unilateral Trade - done or made by one person who is involved in something without the agreement of the other person or people
Bilateral Trade – Two parties
e.g. CPEC – China Pakistan Economic Corridor
Multilateral Trade – More than two parties
e.g. EU – European Union
ASEAN – Association of SouthEast Asian Nations
NAFTA – North American Free Trade Agreement
WTO – World Trade Organization

Aid

→ Support/help
→ Debt (unless forgiven, in form of a grant2)
→ Service
→ Assistance
 Tied – Foreign aid that must be spent in the country providing the aid or in a group of selected countries. Decide where aid is to be
spent by the donor.

Untied aid – Given to developing countries which can be used to purchase goods and services in virtually all countries – Decide
where aid is to be spent.
Forms of aid
→ Technological – Machinery
→ Relief – For natural disasters
→ Humanitarian - For humans

CPEC – It is a massive bilateral project to improve infrastructure within Pakistan for better trade with China and to further integrate
the countries of the region. The goal is to transform Pakistan’s economy and to connect the deep-sea Pakistani ports of Gwadar and
Karachi to China’s Xingjiang province and by overland routes.

EU – Organization of European countries dedicated to increasing economic integration and strengthening cooperation among its
members. Main members include – Belgium, France,Germany, Italy, Luxembourg, and the Netherlands.

ASEAN – A regional intergovernmental organisation comprising ten Southeast Asian countries which promote Pan-Asianism3 and
intergovernmental cooperation and facilitates economic, political, security, military, educational, and socio-cultural integration
amongst its members and other Asian countries, and globally.

NAFTA – An agreement signed by Canada, USA and Mexico in 1994, creating a trilateral trade bloc in North America.

WTO – An intergovernmental organisation that regulates international trade.

Economics

Term Definition

Economic Growth Economic growth is the increase in the quantity and quality of the economic goods
and services that a society produces and consumes.
→ increase in real national income / national output

Economic Economic development means an improvement in the quality of life and living
Development standards,
 → e.g. measures of literacy, life-expectancy and health care.

GDP Gross Domestic Product

→ market value of all the final goods and services produced in a specific time period
by countries
→ made by only the country’s citizens/businesses

GDP per capita A country's GDP divided by its total population.

→ economic output of a nation per person

Nominal GDP GDP measured using current prices

→ does not consider inflation

Real GDP GDP measured using a base year’s price

→ more reliable because it considers inflation

GNP Gross National Product

→ measures the value of goods and services produced both domestically and abroad
→ production inside a country no matter who makes it

HDI Human Development Index

→ socio-economic index
→ measures 3 dimensions of welfare:
- Longevity (life expectancy)
- Knowledge (literacy rates, access to education)
- Standard of living (GNI/GDP per capita)

Unemployment Unemployment refers to the condition wherein someone who is capable of working
does not work.

Poverty Poverty refers to the lack of or scarcity of resources for an individual

Two main types:
→ Absolute: individual does not have the financial means to obtain necessities
→ Relative: standard of living compared to economic standards of living within the
same surroundings
Population Population growth refers to the increase in population over a period of time, and
poverty refers to the lack of or scarcity of resources for an individual.

Inflation/Deflation Inflation: rate of increase of prices for goods and services over a set period of time
→ ideal rate is between 2-3%
→ either value of currency decreases or value of goods increases

Deflation: reduction of price levels of goods and services over a set period of time

Business Cycle

Terms Definition

Business The ups and downs in business activity throughout the economy
Fluctuations

Expansion National economic activity is speeding up

Contraction National economic activity is slowing down

Recession Rate of growth of a business is consistently less than its long term trend
→ or growth rate is negative

Depression Extremely severe recession

Peak Highest point b/w the end of an economic expansion and the start of a
contraction

Leading Indicators Events that occur before changes in business activity

Ex:
→ decrease in prices of raw materials
→ rise in unemployment insurance claims
→ drop in quantity of money circulating
→ reduction in the average workweek
 The Idealised
Course for
Business
Fluctuations

Economic Systems
Economics

- A social science that focuses on goods and services

- The choices made by businesses, governments, individuals and nations
- Everything has costs → weighing benefits and disadvantages
- Scarcity: limited resources, unlimited wants

Terms Definition

Asset A resource with economic value that is owned by an individual, business, firm or
country in order to provide future benefit

Budget Estimate of revenue and expenses

Capital resources Money to start a new business, tools, building, machinery and any other goods people
make to produce goods and provides services

Creditors A person or company from whom you have borrowed money/resources

Debt Amount of money that owed to a lender/creditor

Debtor The individual who borrows the resources

National debt Total of all all debts owed by government of a country

Deficit Amount by which money you receive is less than the money you have spent

Dividends A rewards, cash or otherwise that a company gives to its shareholders

Externalities Benefits or disadvantages experienced by a third party in an event.

Fiscal Relating to taxation, public revenue or public debt

Fiscal Year One-year time period given to a government or firm for budgeting and accounting.

Interest Cost of money borrowed from a lender

Law of demand At a higher price, consumer will demand a lower quantity of good

Law of Supply As the price of a good or service increases, the quality increases

Liability Resources owed by a company (mainly money.)

Similar to debt.

Market Means by which individuals interact to buy or sell; mechanism coordinates the
independent intentions of buyers and sellers

Opportunity Cost Profit lost from one choice by making a different one
Profit lost by forgoing one opportunity.

Quarterly Three-month period on a company's financial calendar that acts as a basis for the
reporting of earnings

Rational Act in their own best interest, would not make choices that would make them worse off

Scarcity Shortage of resources.

There are finite resources and unlimited wants.

Share Percentage ownership of company

Utility Satisfaction received from consumption, sense of well being.

Macroeconomics

→ National + international economy

→ Aggregate economic variables
→ Environmental external issues
→ National income, price level, distribution, employment, money
→ Fallacy of composition, generalised information
→ Objectives:
* Sustainable economic growth (real and potential GDP)
* Price stability
* Full employment
* Balance of payment equilibrium (export and import)
* Fair income distribution
* Macroeconomic objectives are difficult to achieve and are a utopian concept
* Focusing on one causes macroeconomic conflict and leads to lost opportunities (opportunity cost)

Microeconomics

→ Decisions made by people, individuals and businesses

→ Internal issues
→ Demand, supply, price, production, consumption
→ Factors of production
→ Unrealistic standards, assumptions made: fully employed population etc

What are economic agents?

Any entity or being that can make a decision, manipulate or change the economy.
- ‘Big businessman’
- People who contribute to the economy
- Companies
- People who can manipulate the economy
Groups of entities
→ Consumers
→ Producers
→ Governments
→ Banks

Consumers

* Buy goods and services in exchange for money/barter

* People, companies, factories etc.
* THEY decide which good is produced. They are the DEMAND.

Types of Consumers

- LOYAL CONSUMERS: Valuable, stays loyal and promotes favourite

brands. 70% of sales.
- DISCOUNT CONSUMERS: Tendency to visit favourite brands. Discounts!
Deals!
- IMPULSIVE CONSUMERS: Vast majority of consumers, buy based on
emotions; whenever, wherever
- NEED-BASED CONSUMERS: Full-fill basic/man-made/artificial needs4.

Barter System: Exchange of goods and Services

Goods: Tangible Products
Services: Actions that an economic agent may conduct in exchange of payment

Factors influencing individual consumer choice:

* Income
* Price
* Price of substitutes
* Price of complements
* Preference/taste
* Advertising
* Quality and Quantity
* Need
Consumerism – Belief of creating a need to consume constantly
Materialism – Emphasis on goods and services

Producers
Any economic entity/agent that supplies goods and services to
consumers
* Primary → Raw materials/Agriculture
* Secondary → Processed; manufactured goods
* Tertiary → Services
* Quaternary → Knowledge based industries

Interest of Producers:

- Maximising profit
- Creating a need
- Monopolising the economy for that good

Role of Producers:

- Manipulate consumers and governments

- Provide goods
- Produce goods
- Easy access to goods (transport)
- Provide employment
- decrease poverty
- Stimulate economic growth
- Negative impact: Adversely affects environment (maximising profit)

Governments

Elected and appointed officials, whose role is to make decisions/rules

for the country.

Levels of Government

i. Municipal - City
ii. Provincial/State – Province
iii. National – Country

Role of a government:

- Taxation
- Law and order:
* Implementation
* Accountability
- Funding infrastructure/ public spending
- Provide services
- Stabilise the economy
- Investment
- Redistribution of wealth
- Introduce immigration policies
- Participate in trade
- global and domestic
- Representation of national interests
- Alliances and diplomacy (relationships with other countries)
- Bureaucracy
- Policies

Interests of a government:

* Smooth running of a country

* Stability
* Internationally competitive
* Power
* Military
* Sustainable use of natural resources

Banks

Central Bank – Amount of money and credit in an economy.

Role of bank
- Lend money
- Used to store money
- Central Bank controls
interest rates
- Creation and distribution of money amongst producers and consumers
- Currency exchange
- Secure storage of money
- Provides capital
- Credit cards
Interest: Principal + Extra
Principal: Amount borrowed
Credit: Debt
Deal: Promise to repay credit
Credit worthy: Ability to repay
Spender: Collateral

Transactions
* Productivity growth
* Short term debt cycles
* Long term debt cycle
Economy is made up of transactions – market
Total spending makes economy

Prices/interest rise – Inflation

Prices/interest decrease – Deflation
**Because of borrowing (controlled by banks) there are cycles
Credit – Settlement between two or more people with liability and assets
Debt Burden – Debt = Income
Market – Sum of total buyers and sellers in an area or a region under consideration
Reserve – Wealth of a country

Market: Where demand and supply operate, consumers and producers interact (directly or through intermediaries) to trade a group of
goods and services for money or barter.

Role of a market:

- Determine prices
- Communicating prices
- Facilitating deals/prices/transactions
- Affecting distribution

Economy: Large set of interrelated production and consumption activities that aid in determining how resources are distributed
amongst a city/country/continent etc.

Free Market Economy

- Profit oriented
- Consumer sovereignty determines what goods are produced
- Price mechanism: people willing and able to pay the price can acquire the goods through their income
- Income is determined by demand and supply of work
- Firms make goods → competition provides variety of goods → innovation
- No government intervention
- Adam Smith: Father of Capitalism
- Strong, repressive governments are not essential to the economies
- Division of labour and specialisation leads to more economic output
 - Dividing labour into specific components makes people more efficient
- Invisible Hand of Markets: demand and supply
- Economic activities can be boosted in a system through self-interested individuals

Pros Cons

→ Transactions entered voluntarily – people can → Exploitation

buy or sell whatever they want → Monopolies are created
→ Allocation of goods is efficient and productive → Environmental externalities
→ Division of labour leads to more economic → Can lead to inequality
output → profit motives, the rich get richer as the poor grow
→ “Invisible Hand” leads to more efficient usage poorer, income inequality
of resources → Market failures
→ Based on needs of consumers - economy could spiral out of control (example:
→ Wider range of goods and services for real estate market crash of 2008)
household → The economy is not “perfect”
- larger firms have larger hold over consumers,
which impacts competition
- information asymmetries: producers know
more about products than consumers do
→ Free market economy encourages spending and is
mainly profit-based
- Thus encourages consumerism
- Consumerism encourages the depletion of
resources, urban sprawl, waste disposal etc.

Impact on government-

- No public debt- allowing the economy to remain in surplus

- Maintaining a successful economy, has allowed singapore to grow their GDP
- They overall maintain a low unemployment and inflation rates.

Impact of firms -

- Impact of free economy on bank is not very compared to over types of economies
 - This is because free economy is the economy which is purely based on supply and demand of the public with almost no
government control

Impact on banks

- 0 tax laws impose on capital gains of a business either firms

- There is a very low rate of unemployment because Singapore, also being a primary English speaking country, means that the
people can communicate with foreign companies.

Command Economy

- An economy in which production investment and prices and incomes are determined centrally by the government.
- Common ownership of resources
- Private property
- Social equality
- Classless society
- Removal of feigned democracy
- Government controls production levels and distribution quotas
- Public ownership of major industries
- Government controls prices and salaries
- Main misconceptions:
- Stalin was not a communist
- USSR was not a failure of communism but was Fascism hidden by communism
- You do not lose your personal belongings or identities
- Communists are not radical

Pros Cons

→ Embodies equality → Limited financial freedom

→ Accessible healthcare, education, employment → Susceptible to control and fascist ideologies
→ No more monopoly of non-state entities → Could hamper personal growth under a particular
→ Reduce inequality leader
→ High employment → Not ideal: humans are greedy
→ Command good rather than profit → Incentive issues: government decides fate of
→ Invest and develop in certain sector economy
 → Information vacuum: government control and
central planning leads to large gaps in information
→ No innovation

Types of command economy

- Government control
- Budget and allocation
- Competition- basically the government owns and controls all businesses therefore there is no competition between private and
public sectors.
- Prioritisation
- Public ownership
- The role of households in the command economy- they are the producers because some of them own production units. They are
the final consumers of the goods and services produced by the firms. They are taxpayers because households are the main sources of
revenue.
- Role of government in command economy- Is that government plans out to the distribution and production of the money

Financial institutions (banks)

- Resources are allocated by the government according to centralised plans for the economy. Many government businesses and
firms are given more money by the government bank.

Mixed Economy

- Is a society in the process of commit suicide

- Which combines the benefits of capitalism and socialism while avoiding drawbacks of both.
- The most popular economy in the world
- Best of both worlds
- Traditional and command and market economies
- Governmental interference is allowed and necessary to achieve social aims
- Economic freedom + protection of private property

Pros Cons
→ The government. can provide public goods, → Govt. taxes will be imposed, which will raise
necessities and merit goods. The private businesses prices and also reduce work incentive.
can provide most-demanded goods (luxury goods,
superior goods). Thus, everyone is provided for. → Govt. laws and regulations can increase
production costs and reduce production.
→ The government. will keep externalities,
monopolies, harmful goods etc. in control. → Public sector organisations will still be inefficient
and will produce low quality goods and services.
→ The government. can provide jobs in the public
sector (so there is better job security).

→ The government. can also provide financial help to

collapsing private organisations, so jobs are kept
secure.

Shared Economy

- Sharing of assets between two parties

- Generally through the internet
- Examples:
Crowdfunding: method of earning and providing funds for causes, ideas, events etc.
Peer-to-peer lending: borrowing money without needing to go to a traditional bank
Couchsurfing/Apartment and Housing: Platforms like Airbnb provide ways for tourists in need of accommodation to collaborate
with landlords. When not in use by the owners, the housing facilities are used by the tourists.
Ridesharing: convenient access to a city without need for other public transport like buses. Example: Uber
Coworking: splitting the expenses of office space, utilities, storage, mail, and office supplies with other professionals. Useful for
freelancers and business owners.

Pros Cons

→ Greater flexibility → May require forfeiture of some amount of privacy

→ Greater reach for a wider range of users → May become vulnerable market fluctuations
→ Sense of belonging to a community → Potential risk of fraud and scams
→ Build loyalty based on trust → Need to rely on close cooperation between people on
→ Eliminate unnecessary investments each side of a transaction
→ Creativity and Innovation
→ Job Creation
→ Opportunity to earn extra income
→ More efficient allocation of resources
→ Monetizing underutilised assets
→ Save money and resources
→ Reduce environmental impact

Circular Flow of Income

- Illustrates the flow of goods, services, and money between households and firms in an economy.
- Households: Provide factors of production, receive income.
- Firms: Produce goods/services, pay wages, rent, interest, profits.
- Product Market: Goods/services bought and sold.
- Factor Market: Factors of production traded.
- Goods/Services Flow: From firms to households through the product market.
- Money Flow: From households to firms for purchases, and vice versa for factor payments.
- Equilibrium: Total spending equals total income, maintaining stability.

Overconsumption
Over consumption – The excessive demand and supply, and purchase of goods and services within a society
Obsoletion – Perceived and actual
→ Perceived – When a customer is convinced that s/he needs an updated product, even though his/her existing product is working
well.
→ Actual – When a customer actually requires an updated product, and his/her existing product does not work up to par.
Consumerism – Ideology which drives the capitalist structure creating the need to consume more
Capitalism – Maximising profit by efficiency in production

***Demand and supply are cyclical; for sustainable development equilibrium needs to be found between the two.

Equilibrium
Equilibrium - in economics refers to a state where economic forces such as supply and demand are balanced, resulting in stable prices
and quantities exchanged in a market.

Types of Equilibrium:

* Market Equilibrium: This occurs when the quantity demanded by

consumers equals the quantity supplied by producers at a specific price.
At this point, there is no excess demand or supply in the market.
* Static Equilibrium: This is a situation where the market is stable at a
given point in time. Supply and demand are balanced, and there is no
tendency for prices or quantities to change.
 * Dynamic Equilibrium: In dynamic equilibrium, markets are constantly adjusting to changes in supply and demand over time. Prices
and quantities may fluctuate, but they tend to move towards a new equilibrium as the market adjusts.

Factors Affecting Equilibrium:

* Changes in Demand: An increase in demand leads to higher prices and quantities exchanged in the market, while a decrease in
demand leads to lower prices and quantities.
* Changes in Supply: An increase in supply leads to lower prices and higher quantities exchanged, while a decrease in supply leads to
higher prices and lower quantities.
* External Factors: Factors such as government policies, technological advancements, and changes in consumer preferences can also
influence equilibrium in markets.

Population and Migration

Population: All the people inhabiting a country, city, or other specified place

Term Definition

Population All the persons inhabiting a country, city, or other specified place

Carrying Capacity It refers to the largest population that the resources of a given environment can support

Population A rapid increase in the size of a population

Explosion

Under population The population cannot fully utilise the resources available. Quality of life can only slowly be
improved. An increase in population would lead to an increase in quality of life

Optimum population The population is such that it can maximise the benefits from the resources available. It is
only when we have an optimum population that the quality of life is maximised.

Overpopulation The resources cannot sustain the current population. As long as there is overpopulation the
quality of life will decline through unemployment, pollution, degradation of the environment

Total Fertility Rate It refers to the average number of children born or likely to be born to a woman in her lifetime.

Birth Rate Number of live births per 1000 population in a year.

Death Rate Number of deaths per 1000 population in a year.

Mortality Rate It is the average number of deaths during a particular period of time among a particular type
or group of people

Demographers People who study human population

Factors Affecting Population

→ Natural Growth Rate of Population = Birth Rate – Death Rate

→ Net Migration = Immigration Rate – Emigration Rate
→ Immigration Rate- Number of immigrants per 1000 population in the host country per year.
→ Emigration Rate- Number of emigrants per 1000 population in the parent country per year.

Population Density

→ The number of persons living per square unit of area.

→ Many people in a small area = high density
→ Few people in a large area = low density
→ = Total Population/Total Land Area

Population Distribution - distribution describes how the individuals are distributed, or spread throughout their habitat.

Demographic
Demographic – Statistical data relating to the population and particular groups within it. Includes the following:
Socioeconomic – Relating to the interaction of social and economic factors
Economic Growth – An increase in the capacity of an economy to produce goods and services, compared from one period of time to
another.
Economic Development – The process where low income national economies are transformed into modern industrial economies

Demographic Model

● Economically inactive (dependents)-

 * Young dependents- 0-14 years age
* Elderly dependents- 65 years above
● Economic Growth leads to economic development and economic development leads to economic growth.

Stage 1 Stage 2

● No birth control/family planning ● No birth control/family planning

● High infant mortality ● High infant mortality
● Agrarian economy-more hands to work ● Agrarian economy-more hands to work
● Religious beliefs ● Religious beliefs
● Disease and plague ● Improved medical care
● Famine ● Improved water supply & sanitation
● Poor hygiene and diet ● Quantity & quality of food production improved
● Lack of medical facilities ● Improved transportation
 ● Decrease in child mortality

Stage 3 and 4:

● Family planning
● Lower infant mortality
● Industrial economy, mechanisation
● Increased desire for luxury, higher cost of living, small family
● Improved condition of women.
● Improved medical care
● Decrease in child mortality
● Laws against child labour, hence fewer children are needed

Economic Development
includes:
- Infrastructure
- Education
- Political stability
- Environment
- Safety
- Healthcare
TECHNOLOGY + INNOVATION → AGRICULTURE

Demographics and Human Movements - Glossary

Population Density – A measurement of population per unit area
Birth rate – The number of live births per 1,000 population in a given year

Death rate – The number of deaths per 1,000 population in a given year

Growth rate – The number of people added (or subtracted from) a population in a year due to natural increase and net migration
expressed a percentage of the population at the beginning of the time period.

Natural Increase/Decrease – The surplus (or deficit) of births in a population in a given time period.

Migration – The movement of people from one place to another with the intentions of settling, permanently or temporarily in a new
location

Refugee – A displaced person who has been forced to cross national boundaries and who cannot return home safely

Brain Drain – The emigration of a significant proportion of a country’s highly skilled, highly educated professional population, usually
to other countries offering better economic and social opportunity.

Emigration – The number of emigrants departing an area of origin per 1,000 population in that area of origin in a given year

Infant Mortality Rate – The number of deaths of infants under age 1 per 1,000 live births in a given year

Immigration – The process of entering one country from another to take up permanent or semi-permanent residence

Gross National Income (GNI) [formerly GNP] – The sum of value added by all resident producers plus any product taxes (less
subsidies) not included in the valuation of output plus net receipts of primary income (compensation of employees and property
income) from abroad8.

Cohort – A group of people sharing a common temporal demographic experience who are observed through time

Age-Dependency Ratio – The ratio of persons in the ages defined as dependent (less than 15 years and over 64 years) to persons in
the ages defined as economically productive (15-64 years) in a population.

Age-Sex structure – It is the composition of a population as determined by the number or proportion of males and females in each
category. The age-sex structure of a population is the “cumulative result of past trends in fertility, mortality, and migration. (having
sex is haram)

Population Pyramid – It is a vertically arranged bar chart that shows the distribution of a population by age and sex.
Push-Pull Hypothesis – A migration theory that suggests that circumstances at the place of origin repel or push people out of that
place to other places that exert a positive attraction or pull.

Least Developed Countries – 50 countries according to the UN’s definition, including Afghanistan, Bangladesh, Cambodia, Cape
Verde, Democratic Republic of Congo, Maldives, Myanmar, Nepal, Somalia, Sudan, and Uganda.

Less Developed Countries – Countries in Africa, Asia (except Japan), Latin America and the

Caribbean, and Oceania (except Australia and New Zealand).

More Developed Countries – Industrialised countries (or regions) that include Europe (all of Russia), the United States, Canada,
Australia, New Zealand, and Japan.

MENA Countries – The Middle East and North Africa (MENA) is an economically diverse region that includes both the oil-rich
economies in the Gulf and countries that are
resource-scarce in relation to the population. The region’s economies have been influenced by two factors – the price of oil and the
legacy of economic policies and structures that emphasised a leading role for the state.

Settlements and Urban Morphology

Urban Management

Characteristics and Classification of Urban Areas

● Suburbs lie just outside of the city, whereas exurbs are areas farther out, beyond the suburbs. Exurbs tend to be situated in more
rural areas.
Dormitory Town – a town that people live in and from where they travel to work in a bigger town or city.

Megacity – cities with over a certain amount of inhabitants. A city with over ten million inhabitants is the most widely accepted
definition. The term was first coined by the University of Texas in 1904. New York was the first megacity by modern standards. The five
most populated cities today are Tokyo, Shanghai, Jakarta, Delhi and Seoul. 70% of the current 47 megacities are found in Asia.

Primate City – the leading city of a country. This city is disproportionately larger than the other cities in the country. Also defined as
the largest city. The rank-size rule does not apply for countries with a primate city. Cultural and political centre, hub for national
economics and development. Disproportionately large population (over two times larger than next largest city in country)

Counter-urbanization – the movement of people from urban areas to rural areas. Reasons are push factors from cities, i.e. pollution,
noise, congestion. Reasons also include pull factors of rural areas, i.e. cleanliness, greenery, less noise and calm.

Settlement – a place where people live

- Dispersed settlements
- Temporary camps of hunters/herders
- Permanent settlements
- Large urban agglomerations

Conurbation/ metropolitan Area – A super-city consisting of multiple

cities and towns; Population is usually several million

Large city – A city with a large population (1 million ppl) and many services
provided

City – Having abundant services, population of over 100, 000 people

Large town – A population of 20,000 to 100, 000; urban area with a

particular administration/legal/historical status

Town – a population of 1000 to 20,000 people

Village – Generally doesn’t have many services, population of 100 to 1000; clustered human settlements/community

Hamlet – Tiny population (> 100) and very few services and buildings

Isolated Dwelling – Only 1-2 buildings or families, negligible services

***A conurbation is an urban area comprising a number of metropolitan areas23 that are connected with one another and are usually
interdependent with one another economically and socially. Merged after continual population growth and physical expansion to form a
continuous urban and industrially developed area

Site – Actual piece of ground on which settlement is built; the settlement’s exact location

EXAMPLE CITY – PARIS (15 minute city)

→ Capital of France, largest city in Europe, population of 10 million

→ Began in 3 BC
→ Sited on a small island in river Seine
→ Site good for defence and a good crossing point across the river
→ Fertile soil of Seine was excellent for farming
→ Under Roman rule, Paris grew and became the centre of a network of roads across Europe
→ Center of many international air routes, railways and roads (based on site)

Settlement Patterns

Dispersed – Far apart from each other

Linear – Long and narrow settlements
Nucleated – Clustered settlements

* Dispersed settlements are usually farms (field land) or in

mountainous regions (hard to live in areas)

* Linear settlements follow features of land (roads, shape,

railways, rivers etc.)
* Buildings clustered around a central point (crossroad,
church, water supply, market etc.) in a nucleated settlement
* Planned settlements have a regular pattern

City Layout – The easy a city’s streets and buildings are distributed
TYPES:

- Irregular: Unplanned urban growth, no particular order, narrow and winding streets, few open spaces (mediaeval/Muslim towns)
- Grid Plan: Streets run at right angles to each other, typical of North American cities
- Radio-centric: Streets radiate out from a central point

Problems of Urban Growth

1. Housing – Lack of housing, affordability of proper housing; leads to development of squatter settlements
i. Provide high rise flats (e.g. Singapore & Hong Kong)
ii. Low cost housing to relocate slum dwellers
iii. Improve living conditions of squatter settlements (piped water and sanitation)
iv. Reduce rural-urban migration by improving rural services/opportunities

2. Water Supply – Shortage of water and poor piping system

i. Build water reservoirs
ii. More treatment plants, remove and replace deteriorating pipes
iii. Awareness of water conservation

3. Transport – Too many cars, poor public transport system

i. Extensive framework of roads and railways
ii. Build expressways and wider roads for traffic flow
iii. Encourage and develop public transport

4. Pollution – Domestic and industrial waste contribution to land pollution

i. Impose heavy fines
ii. Collect waste 3x a day
iii. Increase sewage pipelines
iv. Piling work to be done in daylight
v. More tree plantation
vi. Awareness of health, hygiene and pollution

Urbanisation

Causes of Urbanization

1. Man’s control of Nature

 - Man has exploited natural resources through technological improvements
- Now, a few people can supply the needs of many people
- Whenever a society or group within a city gains control over resources, the city grows

2. Industrialization
- After the Industrial Revolution, cities became important centres for commerce and production
- The Industrial Revolution included the invention of machinery, the development of steam power, a large capital in industrial
enterprises, large manufacturing plants etc., which are the factors responsible for the mobility of immovable workers
- People get new job opportunities in industries that pay more than rural agriculture
- Big cities like Peshawar, Karachi and Faisalabad are some examples of industrialization causing urbanisation

3. Commercialization
- Trade and commerce also play a significant role in urban expansion.
- In ancient societies, there was also a type of commercialization, in which goods were distributed and commercial transactions
were carried.
- Nowadays, the development of modern marketing institutions and methods of exchange has greatly contributed to the growth of
cities rex.
4. Transportation and Communication
- Transportation and Communication is another reason for urbanisation.
- Industries depend on transportation, so that the raw materials and manufactured goods can be transferred in large volumes.
- The cities are connected with other parts of the country. Communication facilities usually available in urban centres, such as
telephones, telegraph, far, computer, wireless and postal services etc.
- These are the facilities due to which the people move from rural centres to cities. So, in the development of society, transport and
communication play a significant role and are the best source of urbanisation.
5. Economic Pull of the City
- Cities provide more opportunities of employment and economic facilities than rural areas.
- Many people move towards cities for the sake of employment. The businessmen also come to the city from the village to gain
better opportunities for employment and economy.
6. Better Opportunities of Education
- In cities, there are better opportunities for education as compared to rural areas.
 - The best standard schools and colleges are available in the urban areas.
- Professional colleges and universities such as medical and engineering are situated in urban areas.

Factors Affecting The Rate of Urbanization

● Migration- When people move from one area to another. In many LICS people move from rural to urban areas (rural-urban
migration).
● Natural Increase- when birth rates are above death rates and the population increases
● Rural to Urban Migration- the movement of people from the countryside to the city usually in search of economic
opportunities (jobs) and a better life (both "pull" factors of migration)
● Push Factors- can force or encourage people to move away from an area
- War (social/political)
- Lack of employment (economic)
- Drought (environmental)
● Pull Factors- Attractions that draw migrants to a certain place
- Access to better education (social)
- Variety of job opportunities (economic)
- Less risk of natural disasters (environmental)
● Death Rates fall in cities- as people have better access to medical care, improved water supplies, improved sanitary
conditions, improved wealth so improved food supply
● Birth rates take longer to fall in cities- as more babies survive as infant mortality falls and young people move to towns and
cities, which boost the birth rate.

Problems of Rapid Urbanization

- Deprives rural areas of labour for agriculture.
- Increase prices of commodities in urban areas. Because there is more demand, the prices are being increased.
- Increases unemployment rate in urban areas because of higher demand for jobs.
- Economic decline in rural areas- resources not utilised due to labour shortage.
- Breaking family and cultural bonds.
- Shortage of social services in urban areas due to increase in population.

Pros Cons
* Economic Growth * Increasing separation of wealthy and poor
* Social mobilisation * Urban sprawl results in inefficient usage of land and
* Empowerment of women slum development
* Greater access to education and health services * Risky and unhealthy living conditions in slums
* Helps decrease population growth * Increase in slum dwellers
* Enormous opportunity for sustainable urban * Global urbanisation is an inevitable trend, slum
living in Africa and Asia growth due to bad decisions
* Violence & unemployment
* Pressure on resources and infrastructure

Urban Models
US/MEDC MODELS:
- These are only suited for the United States and some other MEDCs
- Concentrated levels of pollution (CBDs and
Factories + commuting
- Class division
- Cities do not grow in concentric zones
- Disturbances like rivers/mountains
could hinder growth in a certain
direction
- Cities do not grow in a concentric circle
- They grow in sectors
- Every class has access to the CBD

- Cities are built surrounding not one CBD but

multiple different nuclei
- Several industrial locations
LEDC MODELS

- Zone of Maturity:
- Disamenity:
- In-Situ Accretion: transitional zone between zone
of maturity and peripheral squatter area
- Spine: extension of CBD
- Zone of Peripheral Squatter Settlements: homes of
the impoverished and unskilled
- richer ⇒ closer to CBD
- industry is opposite to high class residences
- based on latin american and colonial cultures
- cities made near the coast cannot expand in all
directions
- similar to sector model
- expands from port
- no specific CBD
- alien commercial zone

- colonialism
- 2 CBDs: ethnic and colonial
- Residential areas separated by class and ethnicity
Smart Cities
- Technologically advanced cities
- Promotes interconnectedness and convenience
- Uses information and communication technology to be more efficient and improve standards of living
- HOWEVER: everything is online— could be hacked into
- Dubai:
- technology such as police smartphone apps and smart parks and beaches for tourists and residents
- Open access to data and internet from many forums
- includes modern and useful jobs in more technologically advanced sectors as well as having a relatively high amount of
individuals in the quaternary sector which is for research and development
- Mass amount of income coming from oil trade, and fossil fuels being the most used source of energy makes this a
profitable sector
- Sizable income from the tourism industry such as making hotels, parks, beaches etc.

Eco-Cities
- Ecologically healthy cities!
- Modelled on the self-sustaining and natural ecosystem it is built upon
- Resources are only used up as much as they are produced
- Inhabitants have ecologically friendly lifestyles

Resilient Cities
- Cities that have the ability to prepare for and recover from shock events (economic, environmental etc)
- Factors:
- Economy:
- A diverse number of industries
- Dynamic economy to generate growth
- Innovation is encouraged
- Employment, education, services, skills training are accessible

- Governance:
- Clear leadership and management
- Strategic and integrated approaches taken by leaders
- Public sector has the right skills
 - Open and transparent government

- Society:
- Society is cohesive and inclusive
- Citizens’ networks are active in communities
- Neighbourhood is safe

- Environment:
- Ecosystem is sound and diverse
- Infrastructure can meet basic needs
- Adequate natural resources are available
- Coherent policy towards land use

Sustainable City Models

- All promote:
- Access to green space
- Reducing car-dependent infrastructure
- Increasing physical activity

1. Compact City:
- reduces need of long-distance commuting
- good use of public space
- reduced energy consumption
- Denser residential areas + mixed land use (commercial and residential)
- HOWEVER: areas are more at risk during natural disasters

2. Superblocks
- Traffic is restricted
- Pedestrian-first zones, open to pedestrians and cycling
- Barcelona
- Green spaces, promotes physical activity

3. 15-minute-city:
- Work, school etc is only 15 minutes away
 - Circular arrangement
- Sectors that are like mini-cities
- Example: Paris

4. Car-free:
- reduces unnecessary private transport
- easy access to public transport
- reduces air pollution, more physical activity, green spaces

Urban Stresses
- Tension or problems in cities
- City living
- physical/chemical/emotional problems
- Microclimate: climate in a restricted area
- Urban Heat Island Effect: natural land cover replaced with urban infrastructure
- Causes cities to be hotter/have a higher temperature when compared to rural areas
- Due to less air flow, more cars and industries
- Solution:
- Buildings with higher albedo/reflecting ability (lighter colours)
- Singapore:
- Bay area water cooling (circulating cooled water)
- More greenery
- Buildings of varying heights (air circulation)
- Reflective surfaces placed on roofs
- Air pollution: dust particles, greenhouse gases
- Causes: industrialization, overpopulation (resource exploitation), urbanisation, private transportation
- Consequences: lung diseases, heart diseases, respiratory tract infections
- Case study: China
- Motorcycles cause the increase in concentration of sulphur oxides, carbon monoxides and hydrocarbons
- Usage of solid fuels increases risks of carbon monoxide poisoning
- Coal burning practices increase air pollution
- Solution: Air Pollution Prevention and Control Action Plan
- Technology that can capture wasted heat and use it to heat homes
- Replaced coal-powered energy with renewable sources
 - Became global leader in solar energy and solar plants and using them effectively
- Traffic Congestion: capacity of roads is at its peak
- Longer travel time, slower speeds, larger queueing of vehicles
- Recurring: happens every day (office rush etc)
- Non-recurring: occurs at random (accidents, temporary construction work etc.)
- Case study: India
- Caused by:
- Private encroachments
- Non cooperation among drivers
- Unscientific road design
- Lack of free ways/exit ways where local roads and main roads intersect
- Lack of demarcated footpaths
- Lack of bus bays
- Lack of cycle tracks
- Lack of coordination between government departments (e.g. digging of roads by telecom/water
department and leaving it open)
- Consequences:
- Wasting time, non-productive activity
- Delays, resulting in late arrivals and personal losses
- Wasted fuel consumption, directly impacting the environment
- Efficiency of the vehicle is brought down
- Promotes Road Rage
- Traffic jams may interfere with Medical Emergencies
- Increased rate of minor accidents

- Solutions:
- Better road Infrastructure
- Increasing the Road Capacity
- Allowing specific vehicle lanes
- Making more organised junctions
- More efficient toll plazas
- Better parking facilities
- Organisation in general
- Flyovers
 - Organised service lanes
- Underpasses and bridges
- Increase in highway exists and network
- Better road accommodations and quality
- Expressways

Centripetal Movement
- Into towns and cities
- Causes: overpopulation, resource exploitation, disparities, social stresses

Gentrification - Renewal of rural areas by businessmen

- Causes people to move in
- Also causes house prices to rise, therefore forcing people who can’t afford the
housing to leave
- Caused by:
- Increasingly high costs for housing in the rest of the city
- Low housing costs due to poor quality of buildings
- Willingness of city authorities to support redevelopment
- Historic buildings were vacant and could be renovated
- Reduced population density as previous inhabitants become more affluent
and move elsewhere
- Minority groups grouping together in these areas for community and safety,
e.g. the LGBT quarters of many HIC cities
- Young people get married and have families much later in their lives than
they used to, so they are more willing to live in a less ‘family friendly’ area
- The process can be ‘jump started’ by infrastructure development such as rail
or metro stations
- Positives:
- Generates economic activity in the area
- Changing population structure
- Negatives:
- House prices are pushed upwards
- Displacement of people outside of
Urban - Also called reurbanization
Renewal - Movement of people back into areas that have been previously abandoned
- Done by the government
- Involves:
- Government policies
- Injection of capital to improve areas
- Similar to gentrification but is done by governments
- Improvement and renovation of neglected city areas

Rural-Urban - Caused by social disparities between rural and urban areas

migration - Pull factors for urban areas:
- Better infrastructure
- More job opportunities
- Access to modern basic facilities

Centrifugal Movement
- Movement from urban areas to rural/suburban areas
- Workforce decreases
- Less stress on resources → improvement of standard of living
- Deindustrialization → less pollution
- Multiple Nuclei Model: implies CBD is losing power → causes formation of suburbs

Counter urbanisation

1. The economy is no longer dominated by agriculture and employment in agriculture (mechanised farming)
2. Farm diversification (changing use of area)
3. Higher house prices and lack of affordable housing
4. Formation of metropolitan villages
5. Rural depopulation
6. Decline of rural services and public transport (everyone has cars)

Brownfield site – Derelict or underused industrial building and land that have potential for redevelopment

Counter-urbanization – A process involving the movement of population away from urban areas to a new town/estate/village
Re-urbanization – The development of activities to increase population densities within the existing built-up area of a city; may
include redevelopment of brownfield sites or new business enterprises

Suburb – A residential area within or outside the boundaries of a city

Suburbanization – The outward growth of towns and cities to villages and rural areas

Urban sprawl – Uncontrolled and unplanned physical expansion of an urban area into countryside

Residential segregation – The physical separation of population by culture, income, or other criteria

Resource Management
Resources
● Resource – An economic or productive factor required to accomplish an activity, or as a means to undertake an enterprise and
achieve a desired outcome
1. Human resources - People who are the workforce of business sector
2. Human-made resources – Infrastructure, technology, and machinery
3. Natural resources – Classified according to development, origin and availability

Resource management – Effective use and allocation of valuable resources in the economy (physical resources and labour)

Natural resource management – Putting resources to their best use for human purposes in addition to preserving natural systems

Based on Origin
Biotic Have life, obtained from biosphere

Abiotic Composed of non-living things

Based on Exhaustibility
Renewable Replenishable and can be refreshed/renewed
— example: solar and wind energy

Non-renewable Non-replenishable resources, take a long long time to be refreshed

— example: fossil fuels

Based on Ownership
Individual Resources owned by individuals
— example: land owned by individuals

Community Resources owned by a community (all members)

— example: village commons, public parks

National Resources owned by a nation

— example: roads and railways

International Resources regulated by certain international organisations

— example: the oceanic resources beyond 200km of the Exclusive Economic Zone

Based on Development
Developed Resources that have been surveyed and determined for utilisation
— both qualitatively and quantitatively
Development depends on feasibility and technology

Potential Found in a region, can be used but have not been utilised
— example: wind and solar energy development in Gujarat and Rajasthan
Stock Materials that have the potential to satisfy human needs but technology or “know-how” is
not available
— example: water is made up of hydrogen and oxygen, if we could develop technology, it
could be used as a source of energy

Reserves Subset of Stock

Yet to be put to use with existing “know-how”
Can be used for meeting future requirements
→ example: river water could be used to generate hydroelectric power but is only being used
to a limited extent, therefore it is a reserve for the future

● Problems created by indiscriminate use of resources

→ Resource depletion
→ Society is divided into rich & poor (resources get accumulated in the hands of certain people)
→ Global warming
→ Ozone layer depletion
→ Environmental degradation

● Sustainable development
● Resource Planning: technique/skill of proper utilisation of resources
1. Identification and listing of resources (surveying, mapping, measuring of quantity and quality)
2. Planning for exploitation (develop a planning structure with suitable technology, skill and institutional setup)
3. Match resource development with national development plans
→ importance of resource planning:
- Necessary for balanced development of India
— some regions are rich and some are poor
— some are self-sufficient while some are not
— wastage of resources can be prevented with planning
- Environmental pollution can be reduced
- Overexploitation of resources can be prevented

● Resource conservation: planned use of resources in order to meet present needs and store part for future generations
→ importance:
- Many resources are exhaustible, conserving them helps save them for a long time
- Helps in economic progress and reducing wastage
- Helps in protecting environment
Future Energy Resources
→ Hydroelectric Power – Created by water used to power a turbine
→ Solar Power – solar panels that use photovoltaic cells to capture the sun’s energy and change it into electrical energy
→ Wind power – Generated by wind turbines
→ Tidal power – By waves
→ Nuclear power – Fission of radioactive elements like Uranium

* Non-renewable energy sources include

gas, coal, oil etc.

Five Sectors of Economy

PRIMARY – Extraction/Growing of raw material
SECONDARY – Manufacturing and processing
TERTIARY – Service
QUATERNARY – Knowledge based
QUINARY – Government

***Five sectors of economy are made up of the various industries

mentioned below

Industry – a field of production of certain goods or services

Factory – The place where the manufacturing/processing actually takes place

Types of Industries

→ Primary – Based on producing natural resources (logging)

→ Generic – Reproduction of certain species for sale (agriculture, cattle rearing etc.)

→ Extractive – Extraction of resources from soil, water and air (e.g. mining)

→ Manufacturing – Transformation of raw materials into finished products

→ Construction – Building up infrastructure

→ Service – Based on human resources, services provided by humans (E.g. transport, education, call-centres)

What’s a biome?
- A very large ecological area on the earth’s surface, with fauna and flora adapting to their environment; it is defined by abiotic
factors; not an ecosystem

Five major biomes

• Desert
- Hot and dry
- Semi-arid
- Coastal
- Cold
• Aquatic
- Freshwater
- Marine
• Grassland
- Savanna
- Temperate
• Tundra
- Arctic
- Alpine
• Forest
- Tropical
- Temperate
 - Boreal
- Rainforest

Industrialisation
Industrialization – The process of mechanisation of production from
artisanal labour/crafts to mass mechanised production due to increased
technological development.

- Began in Britain in the 1750s and spread across Europe and North
America.
- Change in the way goods are manufactured - Revolutions in agriculture

First Industrial Revolution

Cause Meaning

Agricultural New farming methods & machinery → increased production

Revolution → seed drill
→ more food

Population Explosion - People eat better

- Women gave birth to healthier children
- Better medical care → slows death rate
→ More demand for goods
→ Needed jobs, moved to city

Energy Revolution - New inventions improved & created products

- New machines allowed mass production of goods
- Ex: water wheels power machines, coal used to fuel steam engines
- Faster production of goods
 Important Discoveries (all revolutions):

* Coal -> Steam Engines -> Railways

* Spinning Jenny
* Contraceptives
* Light Bulb -> Electricity
* Penicillin
* Weaponry & gun powder
* Microchips
* Artificial Intelligence

First Industrial Revolution

Inventor Inventions Function Impacts Yea

r

James Steam Converts heat to Improvement in transport, powers factories 1769

Watt Engine energy

Eli Cotton Gin Cleans seeds out Increased cotton demand, more slaves, more land 1793
Whitney of cotton

Robert Steam Boat Steam engine Improved transport, easier & cheaper shipping 1807
Fulton used to power
boat

Elias Sewing Stitch clothing Improvements in other sewing machines 1846

Howe Machine

Henry Bessemer Iron to Steel It was a strong and inexpensive source of building 1856
Bessemer Process material. Allowed the expansion of the railroad
industry. Construction of machinery .

Why did it happen in Europe?

1. Cultural Superiority
2. Culture of Science and Invention
 3. Freer Political Institutions encouraged innovations and strong property rights created incentives for inventors
4. Small Populations of Europe required labour-saving inventions
5. Large supplies of coal near the surface
6. High wages in Britain
7. Economically efficient for manufacturers to depend on machinery
for production instead of expensive labour

What were the effects of the Revolution?

→ Innovation/Industrialization:
➢ Inventions like the Spinning Jenny boosted productivity while minimising human effort.
➢ Advancements in the 18th-century iron industry made iron and steel vital materials for various applications, from appliances and
tools to ships and infrastructure.
➢ The steam engine, pioneered by Thomas Newcomen and refined by James Watt, revolutionised industries by powering
machinery, locomotives, and ships.

→ Transportation:
➢ Prior to the steam engine, transportation relied on horse-drawn wagons and boats along canals and rivers.
➢ Introduction of steam-powered ships and locomotives transformed transportation.
➢ Construction improvements in the early 1800s led to smoother, more durable roads and railways, facilitating easier movement of
goods and people.

→ Medicine:
➢ Urbanisation led to overcrowded housing and poor living conditions, contributing to the spread of diseases like tuberculosis.
➢ This prompted research and experimentation to develop treatments and cures for prevalent diseases.
➢ Scientific advancements replaced the previously prevalent superstitions and speculation regarding medical treatments.

Factory Acts Details

1819 - Banned factories from hiring children under 9

- 12 hour work day (max) for children of 9-16 years

1833 - Investigation lead by Michael Sadler – called Sadler Report (good conditions in
some factories but horrific treatment in most)
- Banned children of any age from working before 5:30am or after 8:30pm
 - 1 hour long lunch break
- Education made a right
- Factory inspection system

1901 - Banned children under 12 from working

- More safety equipment rules (ex: fire exits)

Industries Information

Metallurgy Britain’s wood shortage caused a shift between wood to coke (a coal product)
→ The substitute fuel proved helpful for iron production
→ Experimentation lead to further advances in processes
ex:
– a certain furnace that separated coal and kept it from contaminating the metal
– a process of “puddling” or stirring the molten iron
– these made it easier to make wrought iron
– wrought iron is much more malleable than molten iron and is suitable for fabricating
machinery & other heavy industrial applications

Energy Deforestation lead to shortage of wood for lumber and fuel

– Transition to coal in England was more or less done by the end of 17th century
– Mining and distribution set in motion the dynamics that lead to the industrial revolution
– Steam power was first used to pump water out of coal mines
– Windmills were established (in the Netherlands) – wind was readily available but was
irregular
– Water was more popular for grinding grain etc. in pre-industrial Europe

→ 18th century, last quarter:

– James Watt and business partner Matthew Boulton made the steam engine
– Which were more efficient and versatile
– These swiftly became the standard power supply for Britain and later the rest of Europe.

Textiles The production of fabrics, specifically cotton, was fundamental to Britain’s economic
development in 1750 to 1850.
 – Organisation of cotton production shifted from small-scale cottage industry performed by
rural families in their home, to a large, mechanised factory-based industry

– Innovations made:
→ Spinning Jenny
→ Spinning Mule
→ Power Loom (human, water & steam power)
→ Carding machines etc.
→ Cotton Gin – US in 1793

Categories Impacts

Political - Started in Britain, lead to rise in global power

- British took advantage of new inventions and rose to power
- Lead to communism

Cultural/Social - Many rural folk moved to the cities

- Family communities in villages were safe and stable – when moving to cities they
did not have the same amount of stability
- Lacked support of any kind.

Economical - New methods of making goods were introduced – Made work more efficient and
productive
- Employers got rich, leading to increase in wealth

Environmental - Resource depletion due to mining etc.

- Deforestation
- Pollution of air, water and land

2nd Industrial Revolution

→ Mid 1850 - 1970

→ Growth of previous industries + expansion of new ones like steel, oil, electricity
→ Public transport & planes
 → Electricity

Industry Information

Steel - Steel replaced iron in building

- Facilitated construction of ships, skyscrapers and larger bridges
- Steel was cheaper than and stronger than iron.

Electricity - Michael Faraday started playing around with the idea of electricity
- Edison & Swan perfected incandescent lightbulb
- Swan took lightbulbs to England

Transport - Aeroplanes and public transport

- Internal combustion engine – used air & gas, inefficient
- but liquid fuels could be used

Other - Fountain pen

Invention - Mass-produced pencil
s - Steak-driven rotary press

- 1876 – Telephone by Alexander Graham Bell

- 1901 – Guglielmo Marconi sent radio waves across the Atlantic Ocean

Categories Impacts

Social - Urbanisation increased rapidly

- Jobs became unpredictable and lost their seasonal quality
- Pace of work increased dramatically
- Health of workforce declined due to working conditions
- Artisans and craftsmen lost their livelihoods
- People married younger
- Public health improved due to sewage system construction in cities & laws about water
quality and filtered water
Economic - Economic productivity boom
- Fewer people in fields – population engaging in agriculture dropped significantly
- Ships & assets went obsolete
- People lost money & unemployment rates increased

The Digital Revolution: 3rd Industrial Revolution

→ 3rd Industrial Revolution

→ Advancement of technology from analog electric & mechanical to that of today
→ Negatives: not everyone can afford technology, lessened security
Categories Impacts

Political - Political parties can reach a wider audience w/ a smaller budget

- Storage of records and data is easier & more efficient

Cultural/Social - More ways to talk long-distance

- Developed learning
- Better communication
- Exposure to more of the world

Economical - More job openings & opportunities

- Companies can generate more revenue

Inventor Inventions Function Impacts Year

Alan Turing Concept of a Theoretical Laid foundation for computer science 1936
universal groundwork for and digital technology
machine modern computers

U.S. ARPANET Precursor to the Laid foundation for modern internet 1969
Department internet, facilitating infrastructure
of Defense communication
(ARPA) between computers
MITS (Micro Altair 8800 First successful Sparked home computing revolution 1975
Instrumenta personal computer kit
tion and
Telemetry
Systems)

IBM IBM 5100 First portable Enhanced computing mobility 1975

Portable computer, precursor
Computer to laptops

Motorola Motorola First handheld mobile Revolutionised personal 1973

(Martin DynaTAC 8000X phone communication, paving the way for
Cooper) modern smartphones

Bluetooth Bluetooth Wireless technology Enabled wireless connectivity for 1994

Special for short-range various devices, from phones to
Interest communication peripherals
Group between devices

Tim World Wide Web Network of Revolutionised information sharing 1989

Berners-Lee hyperlinked and communication
documents accessible
via the internet
 Superpowers, empires, & supra-national alliances & organisations
Colonialism – The practice of acquiring full/partial control over another country, occupying it with settlers and economically
exploiting it
Imperialism – A policy of extending a country’s power through colonisation, use of military force or other means
Power – The capacity/ability to direct or influence the behaviours of others or the course of events
Balance of power – A state of stability between competing forces, alliances formed to prevent any one entity from becoming too
strong
Mercantilism – Belief in the benefits of profitable trading

COLONIALISM IMPERIALISM

One nation assumes control over the other Political or economic control, formally or informally

A practice An idea driving the practice

A nation conquers and rules other regions, exploits Creating an empire, expanding into neighbouring
the resources of conquered region for benefit of regions and expanding its dominance far
conqueror

Can alter social, physical and economic structure of Foreign government governs a territory without
colonised region; usually traits of conqueror are significant settlement
inherited by conquered

Greater movement of people to new settlements; Exercising power over conquered regions either
living as permanent settlers through sovereignty

India, Australia, North America, Algeria, New American domination of Puerto Rico and the
Zealand, and Brazil (by European Powers) Philippines

Term Definition
Supranational An organisation of three or more nations with similar political, economic and/or
Organization cultural goals and beliefs.
→ decisions are binding
→ members cedea portion of their authority or sovereignty to organisation (willingly)
→ works towards mutual benefit of the members

International An organisation similar to a supranational organisation, however there are differences:

Organization → decisions are not enforceable
→ no authority is ceded to the organisation
→ has less say in international/global affairs when compared to supranational
organisations

● EU:
→ founded 1st November, 1993
→ economic alliance between European countries
→ 27 member states
→ making improvements in Europe’s economy
→ Britain left the EU on 31st January, 2020.
→ Germany is thinking of leaving.
→ criticisms:
- Has too much say in the matters of the country/Too much control over countries
- Members have less say in what is bought/sold in their borders
- Countries are restricted by regulations

● NATO (North Atlantic Treaty Organization):

→ political & defence alliance
→ anti-Soviet and anti-communist
→ alliance b/w North America & Europe
→ any violence or conflict against one member of the organisation will be considered an attack against the others.
→ pros: defence & security
→ cons: long process to join, limited member countries, depends too much on the USA, continuing to expand – causes conflict
→ Case Study: Resolute support mission in Afghanistan
- Afghanistan has a lot of conflict
- But doesn’t have enough trained personnel
 - RSM was a mission to train Afghanistan troops
- Around 17,000 NATO personnel were sent to train the soldiers.
- Lasted from 2015 to 2021

● ASEAN (Association of Southeast Asian Nations):

→ Formed on 8th August, 1967
→ 11 member states – Brunei, Burma (Myanmar), Cambodia, Timor-Leste, Indonesia, Laos, Malaysia, the Philippines,
Singapore, Thailand and Vietnam
→ Accelerate economic growth, social progress and cultural development in South East Asian countries
→ Infrastructure development
→ Collaboration with India in Science and Technology and Infrastructure
→ Development in e-commerce

Warfare & Peacekeeping

Term Definition

Peace Absence of conflict, condition where individuals live in harmony.

Positive Peace Beyond stopping conflict, aims for a just and fair society. Aims for harmony.

Negative Peace Absence of violent conflict.

Power Ability to influence people.

Unipolarity One great power.

Bipolarity Two great powers.

Multipolarity More than two great powers.

Democracy Democracy promotes peace → is transparent and less unstable.

Peace Theory → democracy promotes dispute regulation through diplomacy

Conflict Disagreements or competition over ideas, thoughts, resources, identity or

territory.

Non-Violent Disagreements or deadlocks happen but there is no violence.

Conflicts → resolved with consultation mechanisms that are used to reach a mutually
assured consensus

Violent Violence is present.

Conflicts → happens when there is a lack of trust or the issue is long-lasting.

Traditional In case of external threats like war

Security → attacks from the outside

Modern Notion Involves protection from internal threats and threats that kill more people than
of Security war does
→ ex: diseases, terrorism, poverty, global warming etc.

WW1 (1914-1918)
Dates from 1879-1914
* 1879 – Dual Alliance (Germany + Austro Hungary)
* 1881 – Austro-Serbian Alliance (Didn’t want Russia to take control of Serbia)
* 1882 – Triple Alliance (Germany + Austro Hungary + Italy)
* 1907 – Triple Entente (Britain + France + Russia) (no peace treaty)
* 1908 – Austro Hungary forcefully takes over Bosnia
* July 29th, 1914 - Gavrilo Princip of the Black Hand (Serbian militant group) kills Archduke Franz Ferdinand of Austro Hungary
o Hungary gives Serbia 24 hours to surrender Princip (and publicly execute him) or claim that they
have caused the assassination. Threatens to declare war on Serbia
o Serbia does nothing
o Gavrilo Princip is not hanged, given life sentence
* Austro-Hungary at war with Serbia
* Russia supports Serbia, at war with Austro-Hungary AND Germany (since Germany was an ally)
o This leads to Germany declaring war on France (Ally of Russia)
o UK sides with France (alliance)
o Ottoman Empire joins Germany

CAUSES OF WWI

* Nationalism (After French Revolution)

* Economic Rivalry (France/Germany/Britain)
* Military Expansion

Central Alliances Allied Forces

Germany Russia
Austro-Hungary Serbia
Ottoman Empire (Turkey, Iraq, Saudi Arabia) France
Britain
Japan
US (Joined in 1917)
Italy (Originally part of central
alliance, betrayed Germany and joined the Allied
Forces because they offered more compensation)
A FEW FACTORS IN WWI

Imperialism – Africa and South Asia

Militarism – Military Centric (Britain and Germany had a DAMNED GOOD navy, part of the economy)
Nationalism – Bosnians wanted to be part of Serbia, not Austro-Hungary

IMPORTANT DATES

→ 1914: Assassination of Archduke Franz Ferdinand of Austria-Hungary triggers war.

→ 1915: Germany sinks the Lusitania; Italy joins the Allies.
→ 1916: Battle of the Somme and Battle of Verdun.
→ 1917: United States enters the war; Russian Revolution leads to Russia's exit.
→ 1918: German spring offensive fails; Allies launch Hundred Days Offensive; Armistice signed, ending the war
WW II (1939-1945)

What's happening in the World RN?

Asia for Asiatics

* Aim: Remove colonial powers
o But Japan wants to colonise these areas (Already in mainland China)

USA – Neutrality Acts, Land lease, stop spread of communism

Britain & France – Let Hitler expand, 1939 declare WWII
Nazi-Soviet Pact – Territory Pact with Germany and USSR
* This shocked allies (No ally on East of Germany???, oh shit)
* Russian Revolution 1917
* Communist Stalin, received US Aid and eventually joined Allies

GERMANY?? – POST WW1

Treaty of Versailles (TOV) led to hyperinflation (printing more money than they have)
Weimar Period – First free elections in Germany
*** Increased gap in classes (Lower, Middle, Rich)
1933 – Chancellor of Germany -> Adolf Hitler
*By going against TOV, Hitler builds self-esteem of Germany
- Militarism
- Land grabbing
- Stop paying money to League of Nations

Useless League of Nations:

- Precursor of the United Nations

- Britain, France, Italy & Japan
o All imperial powers, competing against each other anyway (don’t exactly have time to listen to other problems)
- Trying to avoid WWII, that’s why not doing anything against Hitler when he does things against the TOV
- Dealing with various independence wars over the world
- In debt from WWI already, need Germany to pay that money, so that they can pay back the USA
- Does not have an army (peace and other bullshit)

Why did League of Nation dissolve

Ineffectiveness:
➔ Struggled to maintain peace and prevent conflicts.
➔ Failed to enforce decisions effectively, especially evident in its handling of Japanese aggression in Manchuria and Italian invasion
of Abyssinia.
Rise of Aggressive Powers:
➔ Nazi Germany under Hitler and fascist Italy under Mussolini openly defied League decisions.
➔ Pursued expansionist agendas, undermining League's authority.
Failure to Prevent World War II:
➔ Inability to prevent the outbreak of World War II dealt a severe blow to its credibility.
➔ Despite mediation attempts, it lacked power and consensus among member states to deter aggression.
United States' Non-membership:
➔ Absence of the US weakened the League's effectiveness.
➔ The Senate's refusal to ratify Treaty of Versailles and join the League limited its ability to enforce collective security.
Weak Enforcement Mechanisms:
➔ Depended on member states' willingness to contribute troops and resources for collective action.
➔ Member states are often hesitant to intervene, fearing entanglement in conflicts or prioritising national interests.
Axis Powers' Withdrawal:
 ➔ Germany, Italy, and Japan withdrew from the League in the late 1930s.
➔ Departure further undermined the League's legitimacy and effectiveness.
Formation of the United Nations:
➔ The League's dissolution led to the establishment of the United Nations (UN) in 1945.
➔ UN designed with more robust structure, including Security Council with power to enforce decisions and maintain peace.
Legacy:
➔ Despite shortcomings, the League laid the groundwork for future international organisations.
➔ Lessons learned informed development of the UN and subsequent efforts to prevent conflicts and promote global stability.

Nazism (Germany) – Idea of authoritarianism rule (racism + nationalism)

Fascism (Italy) – Radical authoritarianism nationalism, characterised by dictatorial power, forcible suppression of opposition and
control of industry and commerce

Militarism (Japan) – The belief that a country should maintain a strong military capability and be prepared to use it aggressively to
defend or promote national interests

Axis Power Allied Power

Germany Britain & colonies

Italy France
Japan USA
Soviet Union
China

→ Involved countries, colonies, and territories around the entire world.

→ By the end, over 70 million were dead.
→ It lasted from 1939 until 1945.
→ Causes:
- WW1 and the Treaty of Versailles (unfair on Germany)
- Appeasement (Giving someone something to make them happy and leave you alone, showed Hitler he could do whatever he
wanted)
- Totalitarianism (A system in which the state and its leader have nearly TOTAL control– individual rights mean nothing.)

***It’s literally a game of ‘HOW FUCKING DARE YOU?!’

IMPORTANT DATES

→ 1939: Germany invades Poland, starting the war.

→ 1940: Germany conquers France; Battle of Britain begins.
→ 1941: Japan attacks Pearl Harbor; Germany invades the Soviet Union.
→ 1942: Turning point battles at Midway and Stalingrad.
→ 1943: Allies gain ground in North Africa and Italy; Tehran Conference.
→ 1944: D-Day invasion; Allies advance in Europe; Yalta Conference.
→ 1945: Germany surrenders; Potsdam Conference; Japan surrenders.

Cold War (1945-1991)

* The Cold War was a period of geopolitical tension between the Soviet Union and its allies (the Eastern Bloc) and the United States and
its allies (the Western Bloc) after World War II.

* Key factors contributing to the Cold War included ideological differences (communism vs. capitalism), competition for global
influence, and mistrust stemming from wartime alliances.
 * The Cold War was as much a conflict of ideologies as it was geopolitical competition. The United States promoted democracy, free
markets, and individual freedoms, while the Soviet Union advocated for communism, state control of the economy, and collective
ownership.

End of the Cold War:

* The Cold War came to an end in the late 1980s and early 1990s with the collapse of the Soviet Union and the Eastern Bloc.

* Factors contributing to the end of the Cold War included economic stagnation in the Soviet Union, reforms initiated by Gorbachev
(glasnost and perestroika), and internal pressures within Eastern European countries.

→ Major Parties:
- NATO (North Atlantic Treaty Organization) – alliance b/w USA + European countries
- Warsaw Pact – alliance b/w USSR and satellite states

Causes Effects

→ Ideological differences: communism vs. → Global division into two opposing blocs.
capitalism. → Arms race and militarization, leading to the
→ Geopolitical tensions between the United States doctrine of Mutually Assured Destruction (MAD).
and the Soviet Union. → Proxy wars and conflicts in various regions.
→ Historical mistrust and rivalry exacerbated by → Advancements in science, technology, and space
World War II. exploration.
→ Strategic considerations: competition for global → The eventual end of the Cold War with the collapse
influence and strategic advantages. of the Soviet Union, leading to significant geopolitical
realignments.

Iron Curtain:
→ Coined by Winston Churchill in a speech in 1946, the "Iron Curtain" referred to the ideological and physical division between the
Soviet-dominated Eastern Bloc and the Western democracies after World War II.
→ It symbolised the isolation of Eastern Europe from the West, both politically and economically, as communist regimes were
established under Soviet influence.

Berlin Blockade and Airlift (1948-1949):

→ In response to the introduction of the Deutsche Mark in West Berlin by the Western Allies, the Soviet Union blockaded all land routes
into West Berlin in an attempt to starve out the Western powers.
→ In response, the Western Allies organised the Berlin Airlift, delivering food, fuel, and other supplies to West Berlin by air.
→ The Berlin Airlift lasted for nearly a year and demonstrated the determination of the Western powers to defend their interests in
Berlin against Soviet aggression.

Cuban Missile Crisis (1962):

→ A 13-day confrontation between the United States and the Soviet Union over the presence of Soviet ballistic missiles in Cuba.
→ The crisis brought the two superpowers to the brink of nuclear war, with tensions escalating until a negotiated settlement was
reached, in which the Soviets agreed to remove the missiles in exchange for a pledge from the United States not to invade Cuba and the
removal of U.S. missiles from Turkey.

Space Race Milestones:

→ Sputnik (1957): The Soviet Union launched the first artificial satellite into orbit, sparking fears in the United States of falling behind
technologically.
→ Yuri Gagarin (1961): Gagarin became the first human to travel into space and orbit the Earth aboard the Vostok 1 spacecraft.
→ Apollo 11 (1969): The United States achieved the first manned moon landing, with Neil Armstrong and Buzz Aldrin becoming the
first humans to set foot on the lunar surface.

Proxy Wars:
→ Korean War (1950-1953): Fought between North Korea (supported by China and the Soviet Union) and South Korea (supported
by the United Nations, primarily the United States), the Korean War was a significant early conflict of the Cold War.
→ Vietnam War (1955-1975): Fought between communist North Vietnam (supported by the Soviet Union and China) and the
anti-communist South Vietnam (supported by the United States and other allies), the Vietnam War was another major proxy conflict
with global implications.

IMPORTANT DATES

→ 1945: End of World War II and beginning of the Cold War tension
→ 1947: Truman Doctrine announced, outlining American commitment to containing communism.
→ 1948-1949: Berlin Blockade and Airlift.
→ 1949: NATO formed; Soviet Union tests its first atomic bomb.
→ 1950-1953: Korean War.
→ 1955: Warsaw Pact formed by the Eastern Bloc countries.
→ 1961: Construction of the Berlin Wall.
→ 1962: Cuban Missile Crisis.
→ 1972: Strategic Arms Limitation Talks (SALT) between the US and USSR.
→ 1980s: Heightened tension with the arms race and Reagan's "Star Wars" initiative.
→ 1989: Fall of the Berlin Wall.
→ 1991: Dissolution of the Soviet Union, marking the end of the Cold War.

Balance of Power
– The posture and policy of a nation or group of nations protecting itself against another nation or group of nations by meeting its power
against the power of the other side
– States can pursue a policy of balance of power:
→ Increasing their own power (armaments race or competitive acquisition of territory)
→ Policy of alliances (currently applied, trade and globalisation more important)

– Term used to denote the power relationships in the European state system from the end of the Napoleonic Wars to World War I
→ In European Balance of Power, Great Britain played the role of ‘balancer’ or ‘holder of balance’. It was not permanently
identified with the policies of any European nation, and it would throw its weight at one time on one side, at another time on one
side, guided largely by one consideration – maintenance of balance itself

– Balance of power from the early 20th century onward underwent drastic changes and destroyed the European power structure as it
existed since the end of the Middle Ages. Prior, the political world was composed of many separate and independent balances of power
systems, e.g., European, American, Chinese and Indian. WWI and its political alignments triggered a process that eventually culminated
in the integration of most of the world’s nations into a single balance of power system.

– Bipolar balance of power → Democratic West vs. Communist East

 Rights and Social Protests
North: Generally more supportive of civil rights for African Americans, influenced by abolitionist movements and a growing awareness
of racial injustice.

South: Entrenched in segregationist ideologies, upheld by Jim Crow laws and a deeply ingrained culture of white supremacy.

Consequences of the Civil War:

The Civil War (1861-1865) resulted in the abolition of slavery through the 13th Amendment, but racial tensions persisted, leading to the
emergence of segregationist laws and practices in the South.
● 13th Amendment (1865): Abolished slavery in the United States.
● 14th Amendment (1868): Granted citizenship and equal protection under the law to all individuals born or naturalised in the
United States.
● 15th Amendment (1870): Prohibited the denial of voting rights based on race, colour, or previous condition of servitude.
Term Meaning

Stereotype A widely held but fixed and oversimplified image or idea of a particular type of person or
thing

Prejudice A preconceived opinion that is not based on reason or actual experience

Discriminat The unjust or prejudicial treatment of different categories of people, especially on the
ion grounds of race, age, sex, or disability.

Privilege A special right, advantage, or immunity granted or available only to a particular person or
group

Social Social rights are moral, legal or societal rules and an understanding of what is necessary
Rights to fulfil people’s social needs and to promote social inclusion and social solidarity.

Civil Rights The rights of citizens to political and social freedom and equality. Ex: right to vote, etc.

De Facto Segregation by tradition, practice, or custom.

Segregation - Ex: Practised in Northern USA

De Jure Segregation that is imposed by law.

Segregation - Ex: Practised in Southern USA (Jim Crow laws: required Blacks have separate
facilities etc.)

Methods of Description
Protest

Civil Nonviolent refusal to obey a law

Disobedience

Social Protest Form of political expression that seeks to bring about social or political change by
influencing the knowledge, attitudes, and behaviours of the public or the policies of
an organisation or institution

Sit In Sitting down in a public place and refusing to move

Boycott A peaceful protest where people refuse to buy or use certain goods

Marches An event/protest where people show that they disagree with something by walking

Court Cases A dispute between two parties that is decided in a court of law.
Terms Meaning

Ideology A belief system that supports a political or economic theory.

Example: liberalism, conservatism, socialism, communism, theocracy, agrarianism,
totalitarianism, democracy, colonialism, and globalism

Protest + A protest is a public expression of objection, disapproval or dissent towards an idea or

Types of action, typically a political one.
Protests
Passive action: Protesting in which an authority is challenged nonviolently.
Examples: peaceful marches or demonstrations, boycotts of products or companies, and
fasting.

Direct action: Violent protests including political violence, assault, arson, street blockades,
sabotage, and property destruction.

Segregati Segregation is the act of separating, (especially when applied to separating people by race).
on Example: African American and Caucasian children were made to attend different schools.

Racial Separation of people into racial or other ethnic groups in daily life.
Segregati Examples: discrimination in hiring and in the rental and sale of housing to certain races to
on vigilante violence
IMPORTANT EVENTS

Ku Klux Klan (KKK):

A white supremacist terrorist organisation founded in the Reconstruction era, known for violence and intimidation tactics against
African Americans and their allies.

Public Transport and Segregation:

Segregation on public transportation was a common practice in the South, with African Americans often forced to sit in the back of buses
or trains.

13th amendment (1865):

Abolished slavery in the United States, marking the end of legalised enslavement.

14th amendment (1868):

Granted citizenship and equal protection under the law to all individuals born or naturalised in the United States.

15th amendment(1870):

Prohibited the denial of voting rights based on race, allowing African American men to vote.

Plessy vs. Ferguson (1896):

Supreme Court case that upheld the constitutionality of racial segregation under the "separate but equal" doctrine, legitimising
segregation for decades.

Jim Crow Laws:

State and local laws enforcing racial segregation in the Southern United States, particularly in public facilities and transportation.

Brown vs. Board of Education (1954):

Landmark Supreme Court case that declared state laws establishing separate public schools for black and white students to be
unconstitutional, overturning Plessy v. Ferguson.

Emmett Till (1955):

African American teenager who was brutally murdered in Mississippi in 1955 after allegedly whistling at a white woman.
His death became a catalyst for the Civil Rights Movement, sparking outrage and galvanising support for racial equality.

Montgomery Bus Boycott (1955-1956):

A pivotal protest against segregated seating on public buses in Montgomery, Alabama, sparked by the arrest of Rosa Parks for refusing
to give up her seat to a white passenger.

Little Rock Nine (1957):

Nine African American students who were enrolled in Little Rock Central High School in 1957, facing violent opposition and requiring
federal intervention to ensure their safety and access to education.

Atlanta Sit-Ins (1960):

A series of sit-in protests organised by students from the Atlanta University Center in 1960, challenging segregation at lunch counters
and other public facilities in Atlanta, Georgia, and contributing to the momentum of the broader sit-in movement across the South.

Freedom Riders (1961):

Activists who rode interstate buses into the segregated Southern United States in 1961 to challenge the non-enforcement of Supreme
Court decisions regarding desegregation.

March on Washington (1963):

Massive civil rights demonstration in Washington, D.C., where Martin Luther King Jr. delivered his famous "I Have a Dream" speech,
advocating for racial equality and justice.

Birmingham Campaign (1963):

A series of nonviolent protests organised by the Southern Christian Leadership Conference (SCLC) to challenge segregation laws in
Birmingham, Alabama, known for the use of nonviolent direct action tactics and the violent response from authorities, including the use
of police dogs and fire hoses on demonstrators.

Civil Rights Act of (1964):

Outlawed discrimination based on race, colour, religion, sex, or national origin

Voting Rights Act (1965):

Landmark legislation that outlawed discriminatory voting practices, such as literacy tests and poll taxes, that had been used to
disenfranchise African American voters.

Selma to Montgomery Marches (1965):

A series of three marches in 1965 from Selma to Montgomery, Alabama, to demand voting rights for African Americans, marked by the
infamous "Bloody Sunday" where peaceful marchers were violently attacked by state troopers on the Edmund Pettus Bridge, leading to
national outrage and eventual federal intervention to protect the marchers' rights.

Assassination of Key Figures like Martin Luther King Jr (1968).:

Martin Luther King Jr., the prominent civil rights leader, was assassinated on April 4, 1968, in Memphis, Tennessee, by James Earl Ray,
sparking riots and profound mourning across the nation and underscoring the challenges still facing the Civil Rights Movement.

President Truman:

Harry S. Truman, President from 1945 to 1953, supported civil rights initiatives, including desegregation of the military through
Executive Order 9981.

Important Individuals:

- Martin Luther King Jr.

→ helped in founding the Southern Christian Leadership Conference
→ “I have a Dream”
→ March on Washington
→ Montgomery Bus Boycott
- Malcolm X
→ promoted black independence, self-defence, human rights
→ often disagreed with MLK’s nonviolent methods
→ assassinated after a speech in Audubon Ballroom in Manhattan
- Medgar Evers
→ civil rights activist
→ investigated cases for NAACP
→ helped James Meredith integrate the university of Mississippi
 - Rosa Parks
→ a civil rights activist
→ started the Montgomery Bus Boycott by not giving up her seat on a bus
→ considered the “Mother of the Civil Rights Movement”

IMPORTANT ORGANISATIONS

Name of Description
Organizatio
ns

CORE ➢ Congress of Racial Equality

➢ Founded in 1942
➢ Drew inspiration from Mahatma Gandhi’s non-violent civil disobedience
➢ James Farmer — national director, co-founder
➢ Organised the Freedom Rides
➢ Soon CORE left its non-violent ways and began supporting black separatism

NAACP ➢ National Association for the Advancement of Colored People

➢ Founded in 1909
➢ Cases include Brown v. BOE (of Topeka)

SCLC ➢ Southern Christian Leadership Conference

➢ Established by Martin Luther King Jr.
➢ Founded in 1957
➢ Main philosophy was nonviolent social change
➢ Played a large part in the March on Washington

SNCC ➢ Student Nonviolent Coordinating Committee

➢ Pronounced as “snick”
➢ Started due to sit-ins at segregated lunch counters
➢ Student-led
➢ 1960’s-1970’s

Black ➢ The Black Panther Party (originally the Black Panther Party for Self Defence)
Panthers ➢ Founded in 1966
➢ Original purpose was to patrol African-American neighbourhoods and protect them
from police brutality
➢ However they developed into a Marxist revolutionary group

IMPORTANT DATES
→ 1954: Brown v. Board of Education decision by the Supreme Court, declaring segregation in public schools unconstitutional.
→ 1955: Montgomery Bus Boycott begins after Rosa Parks refuses to give up her seat.
→ 1957: Central High School integration in Little Rock, Arkansas, met with resistance.
→ 1960: Sit-ins begin at Woolworth's lunch counter in Greensboro, North Carolina.
→ 1963: March on Washington for Jobs and Freedom, where Martin Luther King Jr. delivers his "I Have a Dream" speech.
→ 1964: Civil Rights Act signed into law, prohibiting discrimination based on race, colour, religion, sex (sex hehehe), or national origin.
→ 1965: Voting Rights Act passed, aimed at overcoming legal barriers to African-American voting.
→ 1968: Assassination of Martin Luther King Jr. sparks riots across the country.
→ 1968: Fair Housing Act passed, prohibiting discrimination in housing.
Peacekeeping peacebuilding and peacemaking
Peacekeeping:
- Peacekeeping refers to the deployment of international forces, typically military or civilian personnel, to maintain or restore peace
in conflict zones.
- Peacekeeping operations aim to monitor ceasefires, separate warring factions, facilitate humanitarian aid, and create a conducive
environment for conflict resolution and long-term stability.
- Examples: United Nations peacekeeping missions, such as those in Cyprus, the Democratic Republic of the Congo, and South
Sudan.
Peacebuilding:
- Peacebuilding involves long-term efforts to address the root causes of conflict and promote sustainable peace by fostering
reconciliation, rebuilding institutions, and addressing grievances.
- Peacebuilding aims to create the conditions for lasting peace by promoting dialogue, fostering social cohesion, supporting
economic development, and strengthening governance structures.
- Examples: Community-based peacebuilding initiatives, conflict resolution workshops, and programs focusing on reconciliation
and transitional justice.
Peacemaking:
- Peacemaking refers to diplomatic efforts to negotiate an end to conflicts and reach agreements between warring parties.
- Peacemaking initiatives aim to resolve conflicts through mediation, negotiation, and dialogue, often involving third-party
facilitators such as diplomats, mediators, or international organisations.
- Examples: Peace talks between conflicting parties facilitated by mediators or diplomats, diplomatic interventions to prevent
escalation of conflicts, and peace agreements negotiated to end hostilities.

Significant Individuals
World War I (1914-1918):

Woodrow Wilson: As President of the United States during WWI, he played a significant role in shaping the peace process and
promoting the League of Nations.
Kaiser Wilhelm II: The German Emperor during WWI, his aggressive foreign policy contributed to the outbreak of the war.
Georges Clemenceau: French Prime Minister during WWI, known for his role in negotiating the Treaty of Versailles.
David Lloyd George: British Prime Minister during WWI, led Britain through the latter part of the war and participated in the Treaty
of Versailles negotiations.
World War II (1939-1945):

Adolf Hitler: Leader of Nazi Germany, responsible for initiating World War II and perpetrating the Holocaust. (HEIL HITLER)
Winston Churchill: British Prime Minister during WWII, known for his leadership and stirring speeches.
Franklin D. Roosevelt: President of the United States during WWII, implemented the New Deal and led the U.S. through most of the
war.
Joseph Stalin: Leader of the Soviet Union during WWII, played a crucial role in the Allied victory in Europe.

Cold War (1947-1991):

Joseph Stalin: Leader of the Soviet Union during the early Cold War period, known for his expansionist policies in Eastern Europe.
Harry S. Truman: President of the United States who initiated the Truman Doctrine and Marshall Plan, marking the beginning of U.S.
involvement in the Cold War.
Nikita Khrushchev: Leader of the Soviet Union after Stalin's death, known for his role in the Cuban Missile Crisis and the process of
de-Stalinization.
Ronald Reagan: President of the United States during the latter part of the Cold War, known for his strong anti-communist stance and
for engaging with Soviet leader Mikhail Gorbachev in arms control negotiations.

Civil Rights Movement (1950s-1960s):

Martin Luther King Jr.: A central figure in the American Civil Rights Movement, known for his nonviolent activism and famous "I
Have a Dream" speech.
Rosa Parks: Sparked the Montgomery Bus Boycott by refusing to give up her seat to a white passenger, becoming an iconic figure in
the Civil Rights Movement.
Malcolm X: A prominent civil rights activist who advocated for black empowerment, initially as a member of the Nation of Islam and
later through his own organisation.
Thurgood Marshall: The first African American Supreme Court Justice, he was a leading lawyer in the NAACP who argued several key
civil rights cases, including Brown v. Board of Education.
Case Study
Case Study 1: NAFTA Renegotiation and Disputes between the United States, Canada, and Mexico
➔ NAFTA renegotiation initiated in 2017 due to disputes over trade imbalances, rules of origin, and labour standards.
➔ Industries like automotive manufacturing and agriculture faced uncertainty amid negotiations.
➔ Involvement of supranational organisations such as the WTO and IMF provided monitoring and analysis.
➔ Resolution required negotiation and compromise among the United States, Canada, and Mexico.
➔ The resulting USMCA, reached in 2018, addressed some concerns while straining diplomatic relations.
➔ NAFTA's substantial trade volumes in 2019 totaled $1.3 trillion, with automotive production and agricultural trade deeply
intertwined among the three nations.
Case Study 2: Trans-Pacific Partnership (TPP)
➔ Trans-Pacific Partnership (TPP):
➔ Negotiated among 12 Pacific Rim countries, including the United States, Canada, and Japan.
➔ Aimed to reduce trade barriers and promote economic integration across various sectors.
➔ Represented 40% of global GDP, stimulating increased trade, investment, and economic growth, according to proponents.
 ➔ Faced significant criticism over concerns about potential impact on labour rights, environmental standards, and access to
medicines.
➔ Withdrawal of the United States in January 2017, under the Trump administration, dealt a blow to the agreement.
➔ Highlighted complexities of international trade negotiations and emphasised the need for ongoing dialogue and cooperation
among countries.
Case Study 3: Fair Trade Coffee Movement
➔ Fair Trade Coffee Movement:
➔ Response to inequities in conventional coffee trade, where small-scale farmers face exploitation and low prices.
➔ Principles focus on better trading conditions and sustainable development, guaranteeing fair prices, decent working conditions,
and environmental sustainability.
➔ Implemented by organisations like Fair Trade USA and Fairtrade International.
➔ Certification ensures consumers can support ethically sourced products and empowers marginalised producers.
➔ Challenges include limited market access and competition from conventional products.
➔ Despite challenges, fair trade coffee sales reached $1.7 billion in 2019.
➔ Supporting fair trade contributes to positive change in global supply chains, promoting social and environmental justice.
Case study 4: Economic Aid in Ghana
➔ Ghana's economy has seen significant growth since the 1980s, fueled by aid aimed at policy reform.
➔ Strong exports of cocoa, gold, and oil have been pivotal in driving economic expansion, making Ghana the second-largest
economy in West Africa.
➔ Growth peaked at 15% in 2011 and 7.9% in 2012, with the launch of crude oil production at the Jubilee oil field playing a key role.
➔ Despite growth, challenges persist, including a high fiscal deficit (11.5% of GDP in 2012) and rising public debt (56% of GDP in
2012).
➔ Ghana's reliance on oil, cocoa, and gold (accounting for 75% of exports) exposes it to global market fluctuations.
➔ Inflation hit a 3-year high of 11% in May 2013, driven by increased import prices.
➔ Ghana's currency has depreciated significantly against the US dollar, prompting the central bank to raise interest rates from 15%
to 16%.
➔ Nonetheless, rapid growth has led to increased per capita incomes and a reduction in poverty levels to less than 30% of the
population.
➔ Nearly one-fifth of Ghanaians are now considered middle class, with daily per capita consumption ranging from $4 to $20,
according to the African Development Bank.
➔ The government aims for sustainable development, hoping to expand services and maintain economic momentum with
continued reliance on foreign direct investment and aid, particularly driven by the oil and gas sector.
Case Study 5: Nile River Conflict
➔ The Nile River conflict revolves around the distribution and consumption of its waters among upstream and downstream riparian
countries.
 ➔ Key issues include historical colonial-era agreements favouring Egypt and Sudan, leaving limited water access for upper riparian
countries like Ethiopia.
➔ Ambitious hydropower and irrigation projects, particularly Ethiopia's Grand Ethiopian Renaissance Dam (GERD), raise concerns
about downstream water flow and quality.
➔ Rapid population growth, urbanisation, and agricultural expansion across riparian nations intensify water demand, exacerbating
tensions.
➔ Diplomatic negotiations, including trilateral talks mediated by the African Union, aim to resolve disputes over the GERD's impact
on downstream countries.
➔ Cooperative frameworks like the Nile Basin Initiative (NBI) promote dialogue and joint projects, yet challenges persist in
achieving consensus on water allocation and management.
➔ Regional stability hinges on diplomatic efforts to prevent conflict escalation and foster sustainable water management practices.
➔ Balancing economic growth, energy production, and water availability requires collaborative strategies and reconciliation of
divergent interests among riparian nations.
Case Study 6: Indus Water Treaty
➔ The Indus Water Treaty, signed in 1960, is a significant water-sharing agreement between India and Pakistan.
➔ It was brokered by the World Bank to allocate the waters of the Indus River and its tributaries between the two nations.
➔ The treaty aims to prevent conflicts over water resources and promote cooperation by delineating the rights and usage of the
rivers flowing through both countries.
➔ Despite periodic tensions and conflicts between India and Pakistan, the treaty has endured and facilitated regulated distribution
of water for agricultural, industrial, and domestic purposes.
➔ Its success contributes to regional stability and cooperation, although occasional disagreements and challenges persist.
Case Study 7: Chernobyl Disaster
➔ Date: April 26, 1986
➔ Location: Chernobyl Nuclear Power Plant, Ukraine (then part of the Soviet Union)
➔ Cause: Combination of design flaws and human error during a safety test
➔ Impact: Estimated release of 400 times more radioactive material than the atomic bombings of Hiroshima and Nagasaki
combined
➔ Immediate aftermath: Evacuation of approximately 116,000 people from the nearby city of Pripyat
➔ Exclusion zone: Creation of a 30-kilometre exclusion zone around the plant, affecting the lives of over 350,000 people
➔ Environmental impact: Approximately 5 million acres of forests contaminated
➔ Health implications: Increased risk of cancer and other health issues for millions of people exposed to radiation
➔ Global impact: Spurred advancements in nuclear safety regulations and emergency response protocols worldwide.
Case Study 8: The Balkans Conflict and EU Role
➔ The Balkans conflict, rooted in the breakup of Yugoslavia and ethnic nationalism, ravaged the region in the 1990s, causing
widespread violence, displacement, and loss of life.
 ➔ The European Union (EU) played a crucial role in addressing the conflict through a combination of diplomatic efforts,
peacekeeping missions, and economic aid.
➔ EU-led peacekeeping forces, such as the European Union Force (EUFOR) in Bosnia and Herzegovina and Kosovo Force (KFOR)
in Kosovo, were deployed to stabilise the situation and facilitate peace negotiations.
➔ The EU was instrumental in brokering key peace agreements, notably the Dayton Accords in Bosnia and Herzegovina, and
promoting transitional justice mechanisms to address war crimes and foster reconciliation.
➔ Additionally, the EU provided significant financial assistance and supported economic development programs to rebuild war-torn
societies and promote regional cooperation.
➔ Despite progress achieved, challenges persist, including unresolved territorial disputes, ethnic tensions, and the slow pace of
reforms, highlighting the ongoing importance of EU engagement in the Balkans for promoting peace, stability, and European
integration.
Case Study 9: Fukushima
➔ The Fukushima Daiichi nuclear disaster occurred on March 11, 2011, following a magnitude 9.0 earthquake and subsequent
tsunami off the coast of Japan.
➔ The disaster led to the meltdown of three reactors at the Fukushima Daiichi Nuclear Power Plant, operated by the Tokyo Electric
Power Company (TEPCO).
➔ Approximately 154,000 residents were evacuated from the surrounding areas, and the exclusion zone extended up to 20
kilometres from the plant.
➔ It is estimated that over 1,600 deaths were directly attributed to the earthquake and tsunami, with additional deaths and health
impacts stemming from the nuclear disaster's aftermath.
➔ The release of radioactive materials, including cesium-137 and iodine-131, contaminated soil, water, and air, posing long-term
health risks to both humans and the environment.
➔ The cleanup and decommissioning process of the Fukushima Daiichi plant is ongoing and estimated to take several decades, with
costs projected to exceed $200 billion.
➔ The Fukushima disaster prompted a reassessment of nuclear safety regulations worldwide, leading to increased scrutiny of
existing nuclear facilities and the implementation of stricter safety measures.
➔ It also ignited debates on the future of nuclear energy, with some countries scaling back their nuclear ambitions while others
continue to invest in nuclear power as part of their energy mix, albeit with enhanced safety protocols.
Case Study 10: Vancouver Sustainable City
➔ Green Transportation: Prioritisation of public transit, cycling, and pedestrian-friendly infrastructure to minimise carbon
emissions and promote healthier lifestyles.
➔ Green Building Standards: Implementation of stringent regulations ensuring new construction projects adhere to
environmentally responsible practices.
➔ Renewable Energy Commitment: Pursuit of 100% renewable energy by 2050 through investments in hydroelectric power and
other renewable energy projects.
 ➔ Urban Planning: Emphasis on compact, mixed-use development to reduce sprawl, enhance neighbourhoods, and foster vibrant
communities.
➔ Waste Management: Implementation of comprehensive recycling, composting, and waste-to-energy programs to minimise
landfill waste.
➔ Climate Action Plans: Proactive strategies to reduce greenhouse gas emissions, increase climate resilience, and transition to a
low-carbon economy.
➔ Community Engagement: Active involvement of residents through public consultations, outreach programs, and educational
campaigns to foster a sense of ownership and collective responsibility towards sustainability.
Case Study 11: Japan Ageing Population
➔ High Life Expectancy: Japan's ageing population is driven by a remarkable increase in life expectancy, which rose rapidly
following the industrial revolution and post-World War II, reaching 85 years in 2016.
➔ Low Fertility Rate: The country's total fertility rate has consistently remained below the replacement level of 2.1 since 1974, hitting
a historic low of 1.26% in 2005. Factors contributing to this include delayed marriages, higher education, urbanisation, changing
family structures, and challenges in work-life balance.
➔ Economic and Cultural Factors: Economic aspects such as a decline in wages, lifetime employment, and a high gender pay gap,
alongside cultural shifts like smaller living spaces and the high cost of raising a child, also play significant roles in discouraging
childbirth.
➔ Employment Dynamics: About 40% of Japan's labour force consists of non-regular workers, including part-time and temporary
workers, potentially influencing family planning decisions due to employment instability.
➔ Short-term Impact: The immediate consequence of Japan's ageing population is the increase in the elderly demographic.
➔ Long-term Impact: Long-term effects include inflationary pressures, increased demand for housing tailored to the elderly, and
changes in job opportunities as the workforce composition shifts.
Case Study 12: Singapore Pro-Natalist Policy
➔ Transition from anti-natal to pro-natal policies in Singapore aimed to address its ageing population.
➔ Initiatives included providing donations to families with children in government-approved childcare centres.
➔ "Abortions of convenience" were discouraged through mandatory counselling for women.
➔ Priority in competitions and school events was given to families with two or more children.
➔ Short-term impact: Population doubled from 1947 to 1970; pro-natal policy contributed to a significant increase of 2.34 million
people from 1986 to 2010.
➔ Birth rates surged while death rates declined, resulting in a notable average annual growth rate, with immigration also playing a
role.
➔ Long-term response revealed challenges as the population reached 5.4 million, straining government resources.
➔ Labour shortages emerged due to declining birth rates, posing economic concerns.
➔ Pro-natal approach initially addressed demographic imbalances but presented new socioeconomic challenges requiring sustained
policy adjustments.
Case Study 13: China Anti-Natalist Policy
➔ China's One Child policy, initiated in the late 1970s and early '80s, aimed to control the country's population growth by limiting
most families to a single child.
➔ Unlike other birth control measures, this policy was government-mandated and enforced strict limits on family size, making it a
unique and highly controversial approach to population control.
➔ The rationale behind the policy was to curb China's rapidly increasing population, which was viewed as unsustainable by the
government.
➔ According to Chinese government data, the policy prevented an estimated 400 million births by 1970, with significant support
from the majority of Chinese citizens despite criticism from other countries.
➔ While some argue that China's fertility decline would have occurred naturally, research suggests that a substantial portion of
prevented births can be attributed to the policy.
➔ Over time, ethical concerns and domestic dissatisfaction prompted the discontinuation of the One Child policy in 2015.
➔ Since then, China has experienced a shift towards reproductive freedom, with individuals empowered to make their own choices
regarding family size.
➔ This transition has led to a more balanced demographic landscape, with the population stabilising at approximately 1.418 billion
as of 2018.
Case Study 14: Great barrier reef
➔ The Great Barrier Reef, located off the eastern coast of Australia, spans over 3000 individual reef systems, coral cays, and tropical
islands, covering more than 300,000 square kilometres.
➔ Threats to the reef include coral mining, pollution, overfishing, blast fishing, and coastal development, alongside climate
change-induced impacts like coral bleaching, extreme weather events, and ocean acidification.
➔ Consequences of these threats include biodiversity loss, increased vulnerability of coastlines to storms and flooding, and reduced
carbon absorption capacity, exacerbating climate change.
➔ Economically, the reef is valued at $56 billion, supporting 64,000 jobs and contributing $6.4 billion to the Australian economy.
➔ Protection programs include the Great Barrier Reef Gully and Streambank Joint Program targeting sediment runoff, regular
health checks conducted by the Great Barrier Reef Marine Park Authority, and government initiatives involving Aboriginal groups
to combat pollution.
➔ Despite these efforts, continued commitment and collaboration are essential to ensure the preservation of this global treasure for
future generations.

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