ME 464

INSTRUMENTATION

LECTURE V

Dr. F. W. Adam
Temperature Measurement
INTRODUCTION
• Temperature measurements are amongst the most common
and the most important measurements made in controlling
industrial processes.
• However, it poses particular problems, since temperature
measurement cannot be related to a fundamental standard
of temperature in the same way that the measurement of
other quantities can be related to the primary standards of
mass, length and time.
• Precise control of temperature is key factor in process
industry especially those which involve chemical operations.
• Consequently: It is most important to make a comprehensive
survey of methods of measurements of temperature and
their advantages and disadvantages.
 Applications
Measuring temperature of Information about the
• Household oven, operating limitations that
• Distant Planet, will permit one to select
• Red hot bloom of iron being rolled, the best method of
• Parts of human body,
measurement.
• Refineries,
• Oil burners,
• Tire vulcanizers, • Time of response.
• Hot solder tanks, • Temperature range.
• Hot wire heaters, • Distance of operation
• Tempering tanks, and
• Impregnating tanks. • Compatibility with
• Simple on–off temperature devices other control
(thermostats)
elements.
Important note on temperature measurement.
• Temperature is not measured directly like displacement,
pressure or flow, but is measured through indirect means.
• Change of temperature of a substance causes a variety of
effects And may be used for the measurement of
temperature through use of proper temp sensing devices.
• Physical,
• Chemical,
• Electrical or
• Optical
• Pressure, Volume, electrical resistance, expansion
coefficients, colour of radiation etc., are all related to
temperature through fundamental molecular structure.
• They change with temperature and these changes can be
used for measurement of temperature.
Definitions of temperature
• The degree of hotness or coldness of a body or an environment
measured on a definite scale.
• A condition of a body by virtue of which heat Is transferred to or
from other bodies.
• Difference between a quantitie’s temperature and heat.
• Temperature = “degree” of heat
• Heat = “quantity” of heat.
• The fundamental law used in temperature measurement is the
zeroth law of thermodynamics. This states that

“if two bodies are in thermal equilibrium with a third body, then
they are all in thermal equilibrium with each other”.
TEMPERATURE SCALES
• Two temperature scales in common use are the
Fahrenheit and Celsius scales.
• These are based on a specification of the number
of increments between freezing point and boiling
point of water at the standard atmospheric
temperature.
• The Celsius scale has 100 between these points,
while the Fahrenheit scale has 180 units. The
• Celsius scale is currently more in use because of
the adoption of metric units.
 TEMPERATURE SCALES
• However, the absolute temperature scale based
on the thermodynamic ideal Carnot cycle has
been correlated with the Celsius Fahrenheit
scales as follows:
• K (Absolute temp. Kelvin scale) = T°C +273.15
where °C is temp on Celsius scale.
• R (Absolute temp. Rankine scale) = T°F + 459.69
Where °F is the temperature on the
Fahrenheit scale.
T°F=(1.8 T°C)+32
Classification of Temperature measuring devices
1. Nature of change produced in the temp sensing element:
a) Those which are primarily electrical or electronic in nature.
b) Those which do not employ electrical or electronic
methods for their working.

Electrical and non-electrical operating principles.

2. Temperature range of the instrument.

 Principles of temperature measurement
• The International Practical Temperature Scale (IPTS) defines six
primary fixed points for reference temperatures in terms of:
• the triple point of equilibrium hydrogen -259.34°C
• the boiling point of oxygen -182.962°C
• the boiling point of water +100.0°C
• the freezing point of zinc +419.58°C
• the freezing point of silver +961.93°C
• the freezing point of gold (all at standard atmospheric
pressure) +1064.43°C
• The freezing points of other metals are also used as secondary
fixed points to provide additional reference points during
calibration procedures
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Principles of temperature measurement
Instruments to measure temperature can be divided into separate
classes according to the physical principle on which they operate.
The main principles used are:
• The thermoelectric effect
• Resistance change
• Sensitivity of semiconductor device
• Radiative heat emission
• Thermography
• Thermal expansion
• Resonant frequency change
• Sensitivity of fibre optic devices
• Acoustic thermometry
• Colour change
• Change of state of material
Thermo – Electric sensors
(Thermocouples)
• The most common electrical method of
temperature measurement uses the thermo-
electric sensor, also known as the thermocouple.
• The construction of a thermocouple is quite simple.
• It consists of two wires of different metals twisted
and brazed or welded together with each wire
covered with insulation which may be either:
1. Mineral (magnesium oxide) insulation for normal
duty, or
2. Ceramic insulation for heavy duty .
 Thermoelectric effect sensors (thermocouples)
• Thermoelectric effect sensors rely on the physical principle that, when
any two different metals are connected together, an e.m.f., which is a
function of the temperature, is generated at the junction between the
metals (Seebeck effect). The general form of this relationship is:
𝑒 = 𝑎1 𝑇 + 𝑎2 𝑇 2 + 𝑎3 𝑇 3 + ⋯ + 𝑎𝑛 𝑇 𝑛
• where e is the e.m.f. generated and T is the absolute temperature.
• This is clearly non-linear, which is inconvenient for measurement
applications.
• Fortunately, for certain pairs of materials, the terms involving squared
and higher powers of T (𝑎2 𝑇 2 , 𝑎3 𝑇 3 etc.) are approximately zero and the
e.m.f.–temperature relationship is approximately linear according to:
𝑒 ≈ 𝑎1 𝑇
• Wires of such pairs of materials are connected together at one end, and
in this form are known as thermocouples.
• Thermocouples are a very important class of device as they provide the
most commonly used method of measuring temperatures in industry.

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Thermocouples
The basic principle of temperature measurement
using a thermo-electric sensor was discovered by
Seebeck in 1821 and is illustrated in figure.
 Thermocouples
• The e.m.f. generated at the point
where the different wires are
connected together is represented by
a voltage source, E1, and the point is
known as the hot junction.
• The temperature of the hot junction is
customarily shown as Th on the
diagram.
• The e.m.f. generated at the hot
junction is measured at the open ends
of the thermocouple, which is known
1
as the reference junction.
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 Laws of thermo – electricity
Law of intermediate Temperatures
This states that the emf generated in a thermocouple
with junctions at temperatures T1 and T3 is equal to the sum of the
emf's generated by similar thermocouples, one acting between
temperatures T1 and T2 and the other between T2 and T3 when T2
lies between T1 and T3 (See figure).
This law is useful in practice
because it helps in giving a
suitable correction in case
reference junction
temperature (which is
usually an ice bath at 0°C)
other than 00C is employed.
 Thermocouples
• It is clearly impractical to connect a voltage-measuring
instrument at the open end of the thermocouple to measure its
output in such close proximity to the environment whose
temperature is being measured,
• and therefore, extension leads up to several metres long are
normally connected between the thermocouple and the
measuring instrument.
• This modifies the equivalent circuit to that shown.

𝐸𝑚 = 𝐸1 + 𝐸2 + 𝐸3 + 𝐸4 + 𝐸5

𝐸1 = 𝐸𝑚 − 𝐸2 − 𝐸3 − 𝐸4 − 𝐸5

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 Thermocouples
• Thermocouples are manufactured from various combinations
of the base metals copper and iron, the base-metal alloys of
alumel (Ni/Mn/Al/Si), chromel (Ni/Cr), constantan (Cu/Ni),
nicrosil (Ni/Cr/Si) and nisil (Ni/Si/Mn), the noble metals
platinum and tungsten, and the noble-metal alloys of
platinum/rhodium and tungsten/rhenium.
• Only certain combinations of these are used as thermocouples
and each standard combi nation is known by an internationally
recognized type letter, for instance type K is chromel–alumel.
• The e.m.f.–temperature characteristics for some of these
standard thermocouples are captured in Thermocouple Tables
• These show reasonable linearity over at least part of their
temperature-measuring ranges.
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Symbols used for thermocouples
Material used for the Symbol Working Temperature
thermocouple range ⁰C
Copper - Constantan T 3 – 673
Chromel - Constantan E 3 - 1273
Iron - Constantan J 63 - 1473
Chromel - Alumel K 3 - 1643
Platinum – Platinum S 223-2033
(10% Rhodium)
Platinum 13%, Rhodium R 223-2033
- Platinum
nickel-chromium- N −270 to 1300
silicon/nickel-silicon
 E.m.f. temperature characteristics for some
standard thermocouple materials

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Thermocouple Materials
The choice of materials for thermocouples is governed by the
following factors:
1. Ability to withstand the temperature at which they are used.
2. Immunity from contamination/oxidation, etc. which ensures
maintenance of the precise thermo-electric properties with
continuous use. and
3. Linearity characteristics.
It may be noted that the relationship between thermo-electric
emf and the difference between hot and cold junction
temperatures is approximately of the parabolic form:
E=aT+bT2
 Thermocouple tables

All values are in mV.

It is necessary to carry
out linear interpolation
when the values fall
between measurements.

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 Non-zero reference junction temperature
• In order to still be able to apply thermocouple tables,
correction then has to be made for this non-zero reference
junction temperature using a second thermoelectric law
known as the law of intermediate temperatures.
• This states that:
𝐸(𝑇ℎ, 𝑇𝑜 ) = 𝐸(𝑇ℎ, 𝑇𝑟 ) + 𝐸(𝑇𝑟, 𝑇𝑜 )
where: 𝐸(𝑇ℎ, 𝑇𝑜 ) is the e.m.f. with the junctions at temperatures Th
and To, 𝐸(𝑇ℎ, 𝑇𝑟) is the e.m.f. with the junctions at temperatures Th
and Tr, and 𝐸(𝑇𝑟, 𝑇𝑜 ) is the e.m.f. with the junctions at
temperatures Tr and To, Th is the hot junction measured
temperature, To is 0°C and Tr is the non-zero reference junction
temperature that is somewhere between To and Th.
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 Example
Suppose that the reference junction of a chromel–
constantan thermocouple is maintained at a temperature
of 80°C and the output e.m.f. measured is 40.102mV when
the hot junction is immersed in a fluid. The quantities
given are Tr =80°C and 𝐸(𝑇ℎ, 𝑇𝑟 ) =40.102 mV
From the tables, 𝐸(𝑇𝑟, 𝑇𝑜) = 4.983 mV
Now applying equation
𝐸(𝑇ℎ, 𝑇𝑜 ) = 𝐸(𝑇ℎ, 𝑇𝑟 ) + 𝐸(𝑇𝑟, 𝑇𝑜)
𝐸(𝑇ℎ, 𝑇𝑜) = 40.102+4.983= 45.085 mV
Again, referring to the tables, this indicates a fluid
temperature of 600°C.
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Thermocouple
When connected in parallel, a group of thermocouples will give a
reading that is the numerical average of the individual ones
provided, the resistance of each individual thermocouple being the
same.
 Thermopile
• The thermopile is a temperature-measuring device that
consists of several thermocouples connected together in
series, such that all the reference junctions are at the
same cold temperature and all the hot junctions are
exposed to the temperature being measured.
• The effect of connecting n thermocouples together in
series is to increase the measurement sensitivity by a
factor of n.
• A typical thermopile manufactured by connecting
together 25 chromel–constantan thermocouples gives a
measurement resolution of 0.001°C.
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Thermopile
The output is then the numerical sum of the voltages expected from
each of the single couples
 Varying resistance devices
• Varying resistance devices rely on the physical principle of
the variation of resistance with temperature.
• The devices are known as either resistance thermometers or
thermistors according to whether the material used for their
construction is a metal or a semiconductor, and both are
common measuring devices.
• The normal method of measuring resistance is to use a d.c.
bridge.
• The excitation voltage of the bridge has to be chosen very
carefully because, although a high value is desirable for
achieving high measurement sensitivity, the self-heating
effect of high currents flowing in the temperature transducer
creates an error by increasing the temperature of the device
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 Resistance Thermometers
• Resistance thermometers, which are alternatively known
as resistance temperature devices (or RTDs), rely on the
principle that the resistance of a metal varies with
temperature according to the relationship:
𝑅 = 𝑅𝑜 1 + 𝑎1 𝑇 + 𝑎2 𝑇 2 + 𝑎3 𝑇 3 + ⋯ + 𝑎𝑛 𝑇 𝑛
• This equation is non-linear and so is inconvenient for
measurement purposes.
• The equation becomes linear if all the terms in 𝑎2 𝑇 2 and
higher powers of T are negligible such that the resistance
and temperature are related according to:
𝑅 = 𝑅𝑜 1 + 𝑎1 𝑇
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 Resistance Thermometers
• The nominal resistance at 0°C is typically
100 Ω or 1000 Ω, though 200 Ω and 500 Ω
versions also exist. Sensitivity is 0.385 /°C
(100 Ω type) or 3.85 /°C (1000 Ω type).
• A high nominal resistance is
advantageous in terms of higher
measurement sensitivity, and the
resistance of connecting leads has less
effect on measurement accuracy.
• However, cost goes up as the nominal
resistance increases.
• Besides having a less linear characteristic, both nickel and copper are inferior
to platinum in terms of their greater susceptibility to oxidation and corrosion.
• This seriously limits their accuracy and longevity.
• However, because platinum is very expensive compared with nickel and
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copper, the latter are used in resistance thermometers when cost is important.
Typical resistance–temperature
characteristics of metals
• Another metal, tungsten, is also
used in resistance thermometers in
some circumstances, particularly
for high temperature
measurements.
• The working range of each of these
four types of resistance
thermometer is as shown below:
• Platinum: -270°C to +1000°C
(though use above 650°C is
uncommon)
• Copper: -200°C to +260°C
• Nickel: -200°C to +430°C
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2 • Tungsten: -270°C to +1100°C
Resistance thermometers
• Metals such as platinum, copper, tungsten and nickel exhibit
small increase in resistance as the temperature rises because
they have a positive temperature coefficient of resistance.
• For the measurement of lower temperatures, up to 600°C,
metallic resistance thermometer are very suitable for both
laboratory and industrial applications because of their high
degree of accuracy as well as long-term stability.
Metallic Resistance Thermometers
Metallic Resistance Thermometers
• Metallic resistance thermometers are constructed in many
forms, but the temperature sensitive element is usually in the
form of a coil of fine wire supported in a stress free manner.
• A typical construction is shown., where the wire of metal is
wound on the grooved hollow insulating ceramic former and
covered with protective cement.
• The ends of the coils are welded to stiff copper leads that are
taken out to be connected in one of the arms of the
Wheatstone bridge circuit.
 Metallic Resistance Thermometers
• In some cases, this arrangement can be used directly
in the medium whose temperature is being measured,
thus giving a fast speed of response.
• However, in most applications, a protective metal
sheath is used to provide rigidity and mechanical
strength.
• Platinum, in spite of its low sensitivity and high cost as
compared to nickel and copper is the most widely
used material for metallic resistance element.
 Metallic Resistance Thermometers
This is because of following:
1. The temperature-resistance characteristics of pure
platinum are well defined and stable over a wide range
of temperature.

2. It has high resistance to chemical attack and

contamination ensuring long-term stability.

3. It forms the most easily reproducible type of

temperature transducer with a high degree of
accuracy.
Metallic Resistance Thermometers
In general, the resistance relationship of most metals
over a wide range of temperatures is given by the
quadratic relationship
𝑅 = 𝑅𝑜 1 + 𝑎𝑇 + 𝑏𝑇 2
Where
R = resistance at absolute temperature T
R0 = resistance at 00C
a and b = experimentally determined constants.
 Metallic Resistance Thermometers
• Over a limited temperature range around 0oC (273
K),
𝑅𝑡 = 𝑅𝑜 1 + 𝛼𝑡
where: α = temperature coefficient of resistance of
material ( Ω/Ω)/C or oC-1
Ro=resistance at oC
t= temperature relative to 0oC
• For a change in temperature from t1 to t2,
𝑅2 = 𝑅1 + 𝑅𝑜 𝛼 𝑡2 − 𝑡1
Or
𝑅2 − 𝑅1
𝑡2 = 𝑡1 +
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𝑅𝑜 𝛼
 Thermistors
• Thermistors are manufactured from
beads of semiconductor material
prepared from oxides of the iron group of
metals such as chromium, cobalt, iron,
manganese and nickel.
• Normally, thermistors have a negative
temperature coefficient, i.e. the
resistance decreases as the temperature
increases, according to:
1 1
𝛽 𝑇 −𝑇
𝑅 = 𝑅𝑜 𝑒 𝑜

• The form of equation (14.8) is such that

it is not possible to make a linear
approximation to the curve over even a
small temperature range, and hence the
thermistor is very definitely a non-linear
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0 sensor.
 Semiconductor devices
• Semiconductor devices, consisting of either diodes or integrated
circuit transistors, have only been commonly used in industrial
applications for a few years, but they were first invented several
decades ago.
• They have the advantage of being relatively inexpensive, but one
difficulty that affects their use is the need to provide an external
power supply to the sensor.
• Integrated circuit transistors produce an output proportional to the
absolute temperature.
• Different types are configured to give an output in the form of either
a varying current (typically 1µA/K) or varying voltage (typically
10mV/K).
• Current forms are normally used with a digital voltmeter that detects
the current output in terms of the voltage drop across a 10k resistor.
• Although the devices have a very low cost (typically a few pounds)
and a better linearity than either thermocouples or resistance
thermometers, they only have a limited measurement range from
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• -50°C to +150°C.
RADIATION METHODS (PYROMETRY)
• All the temperature measuring devices discussed so far require the
thermometer to be brought into physical contact with the body
whose temperature is to be measured.
• This means that the thermometer must be capable of withstanding
this temperature, which in the case very hot bodies presents real
problems since the thermometer may melt at the high
temperature.
• Secondly, for bodies that are moving, a non-contacting device for
measuring temperature is most convenient.
• Thirdly, if the distribution of temperature over the surface of an
object is required, a non-contacting device can readily 'scan' the
surface.
• Furthermore, there is no possibility of contamination, which is
particularly important in food and many other process industries.
 Radiation thermometers
• All objects emit electromagnetic radiation as a function of
their temperature above absolute zero, and radiation
thermometers (also known as radiation pyrometers) measure
this radiation in order to calculate the temperature of the
object.
• The total rate of radiation emission per second is given by:
𝐸 = 𝐾𝑇 4

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 Radiation thermometers
• At low temperatures, the peak of the
power spectral density function lies in the
infrared region, whereas at higher
temperatures it moves towards the visible
part of the spectrum.
• This phenomenon is observed as the red
glow that a body begins to emit as its
temperature is increased beyond 600°C.

Different versions of radiation

thermometers are capable of
measuring temperatures
between -100°C and +10000°C
with measurement inaccuracy
as low as ±0.05%

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Types of Radiation Thermometers
For temperatures above 650°C, the heat radiations emitted from the
body are of sufficient intensity to be used for measuring the
temperature.
Instruments that employ radiation principles fall into two general
classes:

(a) Total radiation pyrometer

(b) Selective partial radiation pyrometers(optical, fusion).

The first is sensitive to all the radiation that enters the instrument
and the second only to radiation of a particular wavelength.
Disappearing Filament Optical Pyrometer
• The instrument contains a
heated tungsten filament
within its optical system.
• The current in the filament is
increased until its colour is the
same as the hot body: under
these conditions the filament
apparently disappears when
viewed against the background
of the hot body.
• Temperature measurement is
therefore obtained in terms of
the current flowing in the
filament.
• Manufacturers provide tables
of standard material
emissivities to assist with this.
Disappearing Filament Optical Pyrometer
The instrument cannot be used in automatic
temperature control schemes because the eye of the
human operator is an essential part of the measurement
system.
 Total Radiation Pyrometers
• All the alternative forms of radiation pyrometer described below have an optical
system that is similar to that in the optical pyrometer and focuses the energy
emitted from the measured body.
• However, they differ by omitting the filament and eyepiece and having instead an
energy detector in the same focal plane as the eyepiece was, as shown.
• This principle can be used to measure temperature over a range from -100°C to
+3600°C.
• The radiation detector is either a thermal detector, which measures the
temperature rise in a black body at the focal point of the optical system, or a
photon detector.

The measuring instrument

could be thermopiles,
resistance thermometers
or thermistors.

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 Change of state of materials
Fusion Pyrometer- Pyrometric cones
• Temperature-indicating devices known as Seger cones or pyrometric cones
are commonly used in the ceramics industry.
• They consist of a fused oxide and glass material that is formed into a cone
shape.
• The tip of the cone softens and bends over when a particular temperature is
reached.
• Cones are available that indicate temperatures over the range from 600°C to
+2000°C

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 Thermography (thermal imaging)
• Thermography, or thermal imaging, involves scanning an infrared radiation
detector across an object.
• The information gathered is then processed and an output in the form of the
temperature distribution across the object is produced.
• Temperature measurement over the range from 20°C up to +1500°C is
possible.

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 Thermal expansion methods
• Thermal expansion methods make use of the fact that the
dimensions of all substances, whether solids, liquids or
gases, change with temperature. Instruments operating on
this physical principle include the:
• liquid-in-glass thermometer,
• bimetallic thermometer and
• pressure thermometer.

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 Liquid-in-glass thermometers
• The liquid-in-glass thermometer is a well-known
temperature-measuring instrument that is used in
a wide range of applications.
• The fluid used is usually either mercury or
coloured alcohol, and this is contained within a
bulb and capillary tube, as shown
• As the temperature rises, the fluid expands along
the capillary tube and the meniscus level is read
against a calibrated scale etched on the tube.
• The process of estimating the position of the
curved meniscus of the fluid against the scale
introduces some error into the measurement
process and a measurement inaccuracy less than
5 ±1% of full-scale reading is hard to achieve.
2
 Bimetallic thermometer
• The bimetallic principle is probably more commonly known in connection
with its use in thermostats.
• It is based on the fact that if two strips of different metals are bonded
together, any temperature change will cause the strip to bend, as this is
the only way in which the differing rates of change of length of each
metal in the bonded strip can be accommodated.
• In the bimetallic thermostat, this is used as a switch in control
applications.
• If the magnitude of bending is measured, the bimetallic device becomes a
thermometer.

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 Pressure thermometers
• Pressure thermometers have now been superseded by other alternatives in most
applications, but they still remain useful in a few applications such as furnace
temperature measurement when the level of fumes prevents the use of optical or
radiation pyrometers.
• Examples can also still be found of their use as temperature sensors in pneumatic control
systems.
• The sensing element in a pressure thermometer consists of a stainless-steel bulb
containing a liquid or gas.
• If the fluid were not constrained, temperature rises would cause its volume to increase.
However, because it is constrained in a bulb and cannot expand, its pressure rises instead.
• As such, the pressure thermometer does not strictly belong to the thermal expansion
class of instruments but is included because of the relationship between volume and
pressure according to Boyle’s law: PV = KT.

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 Acoustic thermometers
• The principle of acoustic thermometry uses the fact that the
velocity of sound through a gas varies with temperature according
to the equation:
𝑣 = 𝛼𝑅𝑇/𝑀
where v is the sound velocity, T is the gas temperature, M
is the molecular weight of the gas and both R and α are
constants.
• Until very recently, it had only been used for measuring cryogenic
(very low) temperatures, but it is now also used for measuring
higher temperatures and can potentially measure right up to
20000°C.
• However, typical inaccuracy is ±5%, and the devices are expensive
5 (typically £6000 or $10000).
5
 Quartz thermometers
• The quartz thermometer makes use of the principle that the resonant
frequency of a material such as quartz is a function of temperature, and
thus enables temperature changes to be translated into frequency
changes.
• The temperature-sensing element consists of a quartz crystal enclosed
within a probe (sheath).
• The probe commonly consists of a stainless-steel cylinder, which makes
the device physically larger than devices like thermocouples and
resistance thermometers.
• The crystal is connected electrically so as to form the resonant element
within an electronic oscillator.
• Measurement of the oscillator frequency therefore allows the measured
temperature to be calculated.
• The instrument has a very linear output characteristic over the
temperature range between 40°C and 230°C, with a typical inaccuracy of
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±0.1%.
 Assignment 5-1
In a particular industrial situation, a nicrosil–nisil thermocouple
with nicrosil–nisil extension wires is used to measure the
temperature of a fluid. In connecting up this measurement system,
the instrumentation engineer responsible has inadvertently
interchanged the extension wires from the thermocouple. The
ends of the extension wires are held at a reference temperature of
0°C and the output e.m.f. measured is 21.0mV. If the junction
between the thermocouple and extension wires is at a
temperature of 45°C, what temperature of fluid is indicated and
what is the true fluid temperature?

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 Assignment 5-2
A chromel–constantan thermocouple measuring the
temperature of a fluid is connected by mistake with copper–
constantan extension leads (such that the two constantan wires
are connected together and the copper extension wire is
connected to the chromel thermocouple wire). If the fluid
temperature was actually 225°C, and the junction between the
thermocouple and extension wires was at 62°C, what e.m.f.
would be measured at the open ends of the extension wires if
the reference junction is maintained at 0°C? What fluid
temperature would be deduced from this (assuming that the
connection mistake was not known about)?

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 Assignment 5-3
A platinum resistance thermometer has a resistance of
130.5 at 100 °C. When it is in contact with hot gas its
resistance becomes 305.3 Ω, what is the temperature of
the gas at this resistance. (Assume temperature
coefficient of Platinum is 0.002 /°C).
Design a circuit to output voltages from the
thermometer between 0 V and 20 V corresponding to
temperatures of 0 °C and 400 °C.

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