ADAMSON UNIVERSITY

COLLEGE OF SCIENCE
MATHEMATICS AND PHYSICS DEPARTMENT
COMPUTING 1 MODULE 10
____________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________

I. Topic: Logarithmic and Exponential Functions

II. Objectives
After completing this module, the students should be able to:
 Know the difference between Exponential and Logarithmic Functions
 Familiarize with the fundamentals of Exponential and Logarithmic Functions
 Construct the graph of basic Exponential and Logarithmic Functions
 Use the properties of Exponential and Logarithmic Functions in solving real life problems

III. Introduction

In this module, we will study the difference between Exponential and Logarithmic Functions. We will
review and familiarize its fundamentals like evaluation and simplification. We will study the relationship
and how each graph varies, and lastly, we will try to solve some real life application to know the
importance of this topic.

IV. Discussion

In this part you will study two types of non−algebraic functions: exponential functions and logarithmic
functions. These functions are examples of transcendental functions.

The exponential function f with base a is denoted by f(x) = 𝑎 𝑥 where a > 0, a ≠ 1, and x is any real number.
The domain of the exponential function f(x) = 𝑎 𝑔(𝑥) is the same as the domain of g(x).

Note that in the definition of an exponential function, the base a = 1 is excluded because it yields f(x) =
1𝑥 = 1. This is a constant function, not an exponential function. You already know how to evaluate 𝑎 𝑥 for
1
integer and rational values of x. For example, you know that 43 = 64 and 42 = √4 = 2.

The exponential function f(x) = 𝑎 𝑥 , a > 0, a ≠1 is different from all the functions you have studied so far
because the variable x is an exponent. A distinguishing characteristic of an exponential function is its
rapid increase as x increases (for a > 1). Many real-life phenomena with patterns of rapid growth (or
decline) can be modeled by exponential functions. The basic characteristics of the exponential function
are summarized below in Figure 1.1

Figure 1.1
Example: In the same coordinate plane, sketch the graph of f(x) = 2𝑥 and g(x) = 4𝑥 by hand.

Solution: The table below lists some values for each function. By plotting these points and connecting
them with a smooth curve, you obtain the graphs shown in Figure 1.2. Note that both graphs are
increasing. Moreover, the graph of g(x) =4𝑥 is increasing more rapidly than the graph of f(x) = 2𝑥 .

Figure 1.2

The properties of exponents can also be applied to real-number exponents. For review, these properties
are listed below.
Example: Find the exact value of the following.

2
1. −83
1
2. 9−2

Solution:

2 2
3 3
1. −83 = √−82 = ( √−8) = −22 = 4
1
1
1 1 2 1 1
2. 9−2 = 1 =( ) =√ =
9 9 3
92

You may have heard of the term "exponential growth". This "starting slow, but then growing faster and
faster all the time" growth is what they are referring to. Specifically, our function g(x) above doubled each
time we incremented x. That is, when x was increased by 1 over what it had been, y increased to twice
what it had been. This is the definition of exponential growth: that there is a consistent fixed period over
which the function will double.

Exponential growth is "bigger" and "faster" than polynomial growth. This means that no matter what the
degree is on a given polynomial, a given exponential function will eventually be bigger than the
polynomial. Even though the exponential function may start out really, small, it will eventually overtake
the growth of the polynomial, since it doubles all the time.

For instance, x10 seems much

"bigger" than 10x, and initially
it is:

But eventually 10x (in blue

below) catches up and
overtakes x10 (at the red
circle below, where x is ten
and y is ten billion), and it is
"bigger" than x10 forever
after:
Exponential functions always have some positive number other than 1 as the base. If you think about it,
having a negative number (such as –2) as the base wouldn't be very useful, since the even powers would
give you positive answers (such as "(–2)2 = 4") and the odd powers would give you negative answers
(such as "(–2)3 = –8"), and what would you even do with the powers that aren't whole numbers? Also,
having 0 or 1 as the base would be kind of dumb, since 0 and 1 to any power are just 0 and 1,
respectively; what would be the point? Therefore, exponentials always have something positive and
other than 1 as the base.

Exponential Functions: Evaluation

The first thing you will probably do with exponential functions is evaluate them.

Example: Evaluate 3x at x = –2, –1, 0, 1, and 2.

Solution: To find the answer, I need to plug in the given values for x, and simplify:

Example: Given f(x) = 3–x, evaluate f(–2), f(–1), f(0), f(1), and f(2).
Solution: To find the answer, plug in the given values for x, and simplify:

Take another look at the values we came up with they were precisely reversed between the two T-charts.
Remember that negative exponents mean that you have to flip the base to the other side of the fraction
line. This means that 3–x may also be written as (1/3) x, by taking the "minus" in the exponent and using it
to flip the base "3". You should be able to predict the values for the following problem:

Example: Given g(x) = (1/3) x, evaluate for x = –2, –1, 0, 1, and 2.

Solution: Plug in the given values for x, and simplify:

Graphing Exponential Functions: Intro

Graphing exponential functions is like the graphing you have done before. However, by the nature of
exponential functions, their points tend either to be very close to one fixed value or else to be too large to
be conveniently graphed. There will generally be only a few points that are "reasonable" to use for
drawing your picture; picking these sensible points will require that you have a good grasp of the general
behavior of an exponential, so you can "fill in the gaps", so to speak.

Remember that the basic property of exponentials is that they change by a given proportion over a set
interval. For instance, a medical isotope that decays to half the previous amount every twenty minutes
and a bacteria culture that triples every day each exhibits exponential behavior, because, in a given set
amount of time (twenty minutes and one day, respectively), the quantity has changed by a constant
proportion (one-half as much and three times as much, respectively).
 You can see this behavior in any basic
exponential function, so we will use y = 2x as
representative of the entire class of
functions:

On the left-hand side of the x-axis, the graph appears to be on the x-axis. But the x-axis represents y = 0.
Can you ever turn "2" into "0" by raising it to a power? Of course not. And a positive "2" cannot turn into
a negative number by raising it to a power, so the line, despite its appearance, never goes below the x-axis
into negative y-values; the graph of y = 2x is always actually above the x-axis, even if only by a vanishingly-
small amount.

So why does it look like it is right on the axis? Remember what negative exponents do: they tell you to flip
the base to the other side of the fraction line. So, if x = –4, the exponential function above would give us 2–
4, which is 24 = 16 and then flipped underneath to be 1/16, which is small. By nature of exponentials, every
time we go back (to the left) by 1 on the x-axis, the line is only half as high above the x-axis as it had been
for the previous x-value. That is, while y = 1/16 for x = –4, the line will be only half as high, at y = 1/32, for x =
–5. So, while the line never actually touches or crosses the x-axis, it sure gets darned close! Therefore,
practically speaking, the left-hand side of a basic exponential tends to be drawn right along the axis. If you
zoom in close enough on the graph, you will eventually be able to see that the graph is really above the x-
axis, but it's close enough to make no difference, at least as far as graphing is concerned.

Let us look again at the graph of y = 2x:

You can see that, on the right-hand side of the x-axis, the graph shoots up through the roof. This is again
because of the doubling behavior of the exponential. Once the functions start visibly growing, it keeps on
doubling, so it gets very large, very fast.

Note: You will not generally be plotting many points on the left-hand side of the graph, because the y-values get so
close to zero as to make the plot-points indistinguishable from the x-axis. And you will not generally be plotting
many point on the right-hand side of the graph, because the y-values get way too big.

Graphing Exponential Functions: Step-by-Step Instructions

To graph an exponential, you need to plot a few points, and then connect the dots and draw the graph,
using what you know of exponential behavior:

Graph y = 3x

Since 3x grows so quickly, we will not be able to find many reasonably-graphable points on the right-hand
side of the graph. And 3x will very quickly get very small on the left-hand side of the graph, so we probably
will not find many useful plot-points there, either. We will find a few plot-points in the middle, close to the
origin, and then draw the graph from there.

Here is our T-chart:

While we have seven plot-

points in our T-chart, only as
many as five are reasonable to
plot
 incorrect graph

You would better not try to

continue the line as a
quadratic:

incorrect graph

...or as a straight-ish or only

vaguely curved line:

drawing the left-hand side

The exponential, remember,

will get (and stay) very close to
zero on the left-hand side, so I
will draw the graph "skinnying
along" the top of the x-axis on
the left-hand side:

drawing the right-hand side

And on the right-hand side, the

exponential will get big, so we
will draw it shooting up
through the top of my graph:
 solution

Then the exponential graphs

as:

Graphing Exponential Functions: Examples

Example: Graph y = 2x + 4

This is the standard exponential, except that the "+ 4" pushes the graph up so it is four units higher than
usual.
 First compute some points:

Then plot those points:

incorrect graph

Student very often only

compute y-values for x-values
that are close to zero. Then
either they have no idea where
the graph goes on the left-hand
side, and leave it hanging there:
incorrect graph

...or else they take the graph

down to the x-axis, as is usual for
the standard exponential graph:

But this is not the standard exponential graph; it is the standard exponential
graph raised by four units. When x is negative, y = 2x + 4 won't be very close to zero;
 instead, it will be very close to 4, because the values will be "a teensy-tiny little number,
plus four", which works out to be a teensy-tiny bit more than four.

drawing an asymptote can be helpful

To help us with our graph, and to

indicate that we know that y =
2x + 4 never goes below (or even
touches, for that matter) the
line y = 4, we will draw a dashed
line at y = 4:

This dashed-in line, indicating where the graph goes as x heads off to the side, is called
a "horizontal asymptote", or just an "asymptote". It is not required that you draw it in,
but it can be helpful, and can point out to your teacher on the test that you do know
what you are doing.

graph of y = 2x + 4

Then we will draw the

exponential:

Example: Graph y = 5–x

We need to remember that the "negative" exponent reverses the location (along the x-axis) in which the
power on 5 is negative. When the x-values are negative, the value of –x will be positive, so the graph will grow
quickly on the left-hand side. On the other hand, when the x-values are positive (that is, on the right-hand
side of the graph), the value of –x will be negative, so the graph will stay very close to the x-axis.
 In other words, the standard values are
reversed:

Then y = 5–x graphs as:

Any graph that looks like the above (big on the left and crawling along the x-axis on the right) displays
exponential decay, rather than exponential growth. For a graph to display exponential decay, either the
exponent is "negative" or else the base is between 0 and 1. You should expect to need to be able to identify
the type of exponential equation from the graph. The first two worked examples displayed exponential
growth; the last example above displays exponential decay; and the following displays exponential growth
again.

Example: Graph y = 2(x + 3)

This is not the same as "2x + 3". In "2x + 3", the standard exponential is shifted up three units. In this case,
the shift in "inside" the exponential. Instead of the "+ 3" shifting the "2x" up by three, the "+ 3" shifts the
"2x" over sideways by three. The only question is: shifts sideways which way, left or right? The way I keep
it straight is to consider one of the basic points on any exponential. When the power is zero, the
exponential is 1. For "2(x + 3)", when is the power zero? When x + 3 = 0, so x = –3. That is, the basic plot
point (0, 1) has been shifted to the point (–3, 1), so the graph has been shifted three points to the left:
Graph the following:

This is a useful function (called the "hyperbolic sine function"), but you probably won't see it again until
calculus. In any case, I compute points and plot, as usual:

Sometimes you will see the more-complicated exponential functions like these. At this stage in your
mathematical career, though, you will probably mostly be dealing with the standard exponential form.
So, make sure that you're comfortable with its general shape and behavior.
Logarithms: Introduction to : "The Relationship"

Logarithms are the "opposite" of exponentials, just as subtraction is the opposite of addition and division
is the opposite of multiplication. Logs "undo" exponentials. Technically speaking, logs are the inverses of
exponentials.

In practical terms, I have found it useful to think of logs in terms of The Relationship:

—The Relationship—

y = bx ..............is equivalent to............... logb(y) = x

(means the exact same thing as)

On the left-hand side above is the exponential statement "y = bx". On the right-hand side above, "logb(y)
= x" is the equivalent logarithmic statement, which is pronounced "log-base-b of y equals x"; The value of
the subscripted "b" is "the base of the logarithm", just as b is the base in the exponential expression "bx".
And, just as the base b in an exponential is always positive and not equal to 1, so also the base b for a
logarithm is always positive and not equal to 1. Whatever is inside the logarithm is called the "argument"
of the log. Note that the base in both the exponential equation and the log equation (above) is "b", but
that the x and y switch sides when you switch between the two equations.

—The Relationship Animated—

If you can remember this relationship (that whatever had been the argument of the log becomes the
"equals" and whatever had been the "equals" becomes the exponent in the exponential, and vice versa),
then you shouldn't have too much trouble with logarithms.

Example: Convert "63 = 216" to the equivalent logarithmic expression.

Solution: To convert, the base (that is, the 6) remains the same, but the 3 and the 216 switch sides. This
gives us:

log6(216) = 3

Example: Convert "log4(1024) = 5" to the equivalent exponential expression.

Solution: To convert, the base (that is, the 4) remains the same, but the 1024 and the 5 switch sides. This
gives me:

45 = 1024
Logarithms: Simplifying with: "The Relationship"

Example: Simplify log2(8).

Solution: This log is equal to some number, which we will call y. This naming gives us the equation log2(8)
= y. Then the Relationship says:

2y = 8

That is, log2(8), also known as y, is the power that, when put on 2, will turn 2 into 8. The power that does
this is 3:

23 = 8

Since 2 y = 8 = 23, then it must be true that y = 3, and I get:

Example: Simplify log5(25).

Solution: The Relationship says that, since log5(25) = y, then 5 y = 25. This means that the given
log log5(25) is equal to the power y that, when put on 5, turns 5 into 25. The required power is 2,
because 52 = 25. Then 52 = 5 y = 25, so:

To summary, these are the things you should know from this lesson so far:

The Relationship: "logb(x) = y" means the same thing as "b y = x".
Logarithms are really exponents (powers); they're just written differently.
logb(b) = 1, for any base b, because b1 = b.
logb(1) = 0, for any base b, because b0 = 1.
logb(a) is undefined if a is negative.
logb(0) is undefined for any base b.
logb(bn) = n, for any base b.

The Common and Natural Logarithms

A logarithm can have any positive value as its base, but two log bases are more useful than the others. The
base-10, or "common", log is popular for historical reasons, and is usually written as "log(x)". For instance,
pH (the measure of a substance's acidity or alkalinity), decibels (the measure of sound intensity), and the
Richter scale (the measure of earthquake intensity) all involve base-10 logs. If a log has no base written,
you should generally (in algebra classes) assume that the base is 10.

The other important log is the "natural", or base-e, log, denoted as "ln(x)" and usually pronounced as "ell-
enn-of-x". Just as the number e arises naturally in math and the sciences, so also does the natural log,
which is why you need to be familiar with it.

Note: Because the common and natural logs are pretty much the only logs that are used "in real life", these are the
only two for which you have calculator keys. Make sure you know where these keys are, and how to use them.
 Example: Simplify log(100).
Solution: Since 100 = 102, then log(100) = log(102) = 2, because "log(100) = y" means "10 y = 100 = 102",
so y = 2.

log(100) = 2

Plug "log(100)" into your calculator, and you'll get the same answer.

Example: Simplify ln(e4.5).

Solution: Remember that "ln( )" means the base-e log, so "ln(e4.5)" might be thought of as "loge(e4.5)". The
Relationship says that "ln(e4.5) = y" means "e y = e4.5", so y = 4.5, and:

ln(e4.5) = 4.5

Plug "ln(e4.5)" into your calculator, and you'll get the same answer. (Make sure you put parentheses around
the "e4.5", so the calculator knows that the exponent is inside the log.)

The graph of a logarithm looks like that of a square root:

square-root function log function

However, the square-root graph stops at the point (0, 0), while the logarithm graph does not pass through
the origin, but instead passes through (1, 0) and then continues down along the right-hand (positive) side
of the y-axis. Since the log function is the inverse of the exponential function, the graph of the log is the flip
of the graph of the exponential:
 The exponential rides along the top of the x-axis, crosses the y-axis at the point (0, 1), and then shoots up.
The logarithm rides up the right side of the y-axis, crosses the x-axis at the point (1, 0), and then shoots
right.

Graphing Logarithmic Functions: Intro

By nature of the logarithm, most log graphs tend to have the same shape, looking similar to a square-root
graph:

y = sqrt(x) y = log2(x)
The graph of the square root starts at the point (0, 0) and then goes off to the right. On the other hand, the
graph of the log passes through (1, 0), going off to the right but also sliding down the positive side of the y-
axis. Remembering that logs are the inverses of exponentials, this shape for the log graph makes perfect
sense: the graph of the log, being the inverse of the exponential, would just be the "flip" of the graph of the
exponential:

y = 2x y = log2(x)

comparison of the two graphs,

showing the inversion line in red

It is fairly simple to graph exponentials. For instance, to graph y = 2x, you would just plug in some values
for x, compute the corresponding y-values, and plot the points. But how do you graph logs? There are two
options. Here is the first:

Example: Graph y = log2(x).

Solution: In order to graph this "by hand", I need first to remember that logs are not defined for
negative x or for x = 0. Because of this restriction on the domain (the input values) of the log, I won't even
bother trying to find y-values for, say, x = –3 or x = 0. Instead, I'll start with x = 1, and work from there,
using the definition of the log.

Since 20 = 1, then log2(1) = 0, and (1, 0) is on the graph.

Since 21 = 2, then log2(2) = 1, and (2, 1) is on the graph.
Since 3 is not a power of 2, then log2(3) will be some messy value. So, we won't bother with graphing x =
3.
Since 22 = 4, then log2(4) = 2, and (4, 2) is on the graph.
Since 5, 6, and 7 are not powers of 2 either, we will skip them and move up to x = 8.
Since 23 = 8, then log2(8) = 3, so (8, 3) is on the graph.
The next power of 2 is 16: since 24 = 16, then log2(16) = 4, and (16, 4) is on the graph.
The next power of 2, x = 32, is too big for my taste; we do not feel like drawing our graph that wide, so we
will quit at x = 16.

The above gives us the point (1, 0) and some points to the right, but what do we do for x-values
between 0 and 1? For this interval, I need to think in terms of negative powers and reciprocals. Just as the
left-hand "half" of the exponential function had few graphable points (the rest of them being too close to
the x-axis), so also the bottom "half" of the log function has few graphable points, the rest of them being
too close to the y-axis. But we can find a few:

Since 2–1 = 1/2 = 0.5, then log2(0.5) = –1, and (0.5, –1) is on the graph.

Since 2–2 = 1/4 = 0.25, then log2(0.25) = –2, and (0.25, –2) is on the graph.

Since 2–3 = 1/8 = 0.125, then log2(0.125) = –3, and (0.125, –3) is on the graph.

The next power of 2 (as x moves in this direction) is 1/16 = 2–4, but the x-value for the point (0.0625, –
4) seems too small to bother with, so I'll quit with the points I've already found.

Listing these points

gives us our T-chart:

Drawing dots and then

sketching in the line
(remembering not to
go to the left of the y-
axis!), we get this
graph:
Graphing Logarithmic Functions: Examples

Example: Graph y = log3(x) + 2.

This is the basic log graph, but it's been shifted upward by two units. To find plot points for this graph, I
will plug in useful values of x (being powers of 3, because of the base of the log) and then I'll simplify for
the corresponding values of y.

30 = 1, so log3(1) = 0, and log3(1) + 2 = 2

31 = 3, so log3(3) = 1, and log3(3) + 2 = 3
32 = 9, so log3(9) = 2, and log3(9) + 2 = 4
33 = 27, so log3(27) = 3, and log3(27) + 2 = 5

Moving in the other direction (to get some y-values for x between 0 and 1):

3–1 = 1/3, so log3( 1/3 ) = –1, and log3( 1/3 ) + 2 = 1

3–2 = 1/9, so log3( 1/9 ) = –2, and log3( 1/9 ) + 2 = 0
3–3 = 1/27, so log3( 1/27 ) = –3, and log3( 1/27 ) + 2 = –1

These are the only "neat" points that we are going to bother finding for our graph. If you feel a need for
additional plot points, especially between any two of the points we found above, you can evaluate the
function "ln(x) / ln(3)" in your calculator.

The graph of y = log3(x) +

2 looks like this:

Graphing Logarithmic Functions: Examples

Example: Graph y = log2(x + 3).

This graph will be similar to the graph of log2(x), but it will be shifted sideways.

Since the "+ 3" is inside the log's argument, the graph's shift cannot be up or down. This means that the
shift must be to the left or to the right. But which way? You can keep track of the direction of the shift by
looking at the basic point (1, 0) ("basic" because it is neat and easy to remember).

The log will be 0 when the argument, x + 3, is equal to 1. When is x + 3 equal to 1? When x = –2.

Then the basic log-graph point of (1, 0) will be shifted over to (–2, 0) on this graph; that is, the graph is
shifted three units to the left.
Since a log cannot have an argument of zero or less, then I must have x + 3 > 0, this tells me that, for this
graph, x must always be greater than –3.

The graph of the basic log function y = log2(x) crawled up the positive side of the y-axis to reach the x-axis,
with the line never going to the left of the limitation that x must be greater than zero. To remind myself of
the similar limitation of this log (where x must always be greater than –3), I will insert a dashed line at x =
–3:

A line like this, which marks off territory where the graph shouldn't go, is called a "vertical asymptote", or
simply an "asymptote".

After we dash in the asymptote, I plot some points:

20 = 1, so log2(1) = 0; x + 3 = 1 for x = –2: (–2, 0)

21 = 2, so log2(2) = 1; x + 3 = 2 for x = –1: (–1, 1)
22 = 4, so log2(4) = 2; x + 3 = 4 for x = 1: (1, 2)
23 = 8, so log2(8) = 3; x + 3 = 8 for x = 5: (5, 3)

Then, working in the other direction:

2–1 = 0.5, so log2(0.5) = –1;

x + 3 = 0.5 for x = –2.5: (–2.5, –1)
2 = 0.25, so log2(0.25) = –2;
–2

x + 3 = 0.25 for x = –2.75: (–2.75, –2)

2–3 = 0.125, so log2(0.125) = –3;
x + 3 = 0.125 for x = –2.875: (–2.875, –3)
 Plotting the points we have
calculated, we get:

...and connecting the dots gives us

the following graph:

APPLICATION:

Logistic Growth Model

To account for limitations in growth, the logistic growth model can be used. The logistic growth model is
given by P(t)=c1+a⋅e−btP(t)=c1+a⋅e−bt where PP represents the present population, cc is the carrying
capacity (the maximum the population approaches as time approaches infinity), bb is the population growth
rate, tt is time, and aa is the difference between carrying capacity and initial population.

Evaluating a Logistic Growth Function

Given various conditions, it is possible to evaluate a logistic function for a particular value of tt. That is, it is
possible to determine the population at time tt, given values for c,a,bc,a,b and tt.

Example 1: Evaluate the logistic growth function P(t)=501+8⋅ e−3tP(t)=501+8⋅ e−3t for t=6t=6

To evaluate this function we plug 66 into the equation in place of tt as follows.

P(6)=501+8⋅e(−3)(6)≈49.99999391P(6)=501+8⋅e(−3)(6)≈49.99999391

Graphing a Logistic Growth Model

Graphically, the logistic function resembles an exponential function followed by a logarithmic function that
approaches a horizontal asymptote. This horizontal asymptote represents the carrying capacity. That
is, y=cy=c is a horizontal asymptote of the graph. Additionally, y=oy=o is also a horizontal asymptote. From
the left, it grows rapidly, but that growth is dampened as time passes to where it reaches a maximum. The
function’s domain is the set of all real numbers, whereas its range is 0<y<c0<y<c. Below is the graph of a
logistic function.
Graph of a logistic function: Logistic functions have an “s” shape, where the function starts from a certain
point, increases, and then approaches an upper asymptote.

Example 2: Determine how long it would take the population (number of cells) to reach 100,000 cells.

Solution and explanation:

 In this example, you know the number of cells at the beginning of the experiment (1) and at the end of
the experiment (100,000), but you do not know the time. Substitute 100,000 for f(t) in the equation f (t)
= 2t:

100, 000 = 2t

 Take the natural logarithm of both sides:

ln(100, 000) = ln(2t)

 Simplify the right side of the equation using the third rule of logarithms:

ln(100, 000) = t ln(2)

 Divide both sides by ln(2):

t= = 16.60964 min

It would take 16.6 minutes, rounded, for the population (number of cells) to reach 100,000.
V. Summary
Key Concepts

To review: below are some different variations on the same basic exponential function, with the
associated graph below each equation. Note that, even if the graph is moved left or right, or up or down,
or is flipped upside-down, it still displays the same curve.

y = 2x y = –2x y = 2–x

y = 2x + 3 y = 2x – 3 y = –2–x

y = –2x – 3 y = –2x + 3 y = –2x+3

y = 2x+3 y = 2x–3 y = –2x–3

To review: below are some different variations on the same basic logarithmic function, with the associated
graph below each equation. Note that, even if the graph is moved left or right, or up or down, or is flipped
upside-down, it still displays the same curve:

y = ln(x) y = ln(–x) y = –ln(x)

y = ln(x + 1) y = ln(–x + 1) y = –ln(–x)

y = ln(x) – 1 y = ln(–x) – 1 y = ln(x – 1)

 y = ln(x) + 1 y = ln(–x) + 1 y = ln(–x – 1)

VI. Activity
The activity is in another folder in the Blackboard.

VII. Assessment

The assessment is in another folder in the Blackboard which can be accessed only after you have
submitted your activity.

VIII. References

 https://www.purplemath.com/modules/logs.htm
 https://www.purplemath.com/modules/expofcns.htm
 https://www.purplemath.com/modules/graphexp.htm
 https://www.purplemath.com/modules/graphlog.htm
 https://www.philadelphia.edu.jo/academics/fawad/uploads/250101_book_fawad.pdf