Electrical Engineering 2023-2024/ Ravi Kumar Soni

COURSE FILE
PROGRAM: B.Tech. Electrical Engineering
SEMESTER: IIIrd Sem
COURSE: Electrical Circuit Analysis-I

CODE: 3EE4-01

SESSION: 2023 - 2024

NAME OF FACULTY: RAVI KUMAR SONI

DEPARTMENT: Electrical Engineering

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Teaching Scheme

Syllabus

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TIME TABLE

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TIME-TABLE FOR SESSION 2023-2024 (ODD SEMESTER)

T-3
ELECTRICAL ENGINEERING IV YEAR VII SEMESTER

Ravi
Kuma
r Soni
2
9.10- 10:00- 10:50- 11:40- 12:30-
DAY/TIME 1:30-2:20
10:00 10:50 11:40 12:30 1:30
3

BEE DE ECA-I
MONDAY

DE ECA-I
TUESDAY

WEDNESDA
BEE BEE Lab DE LUNCH
Y

BEE M&S lab

THURSDAY

ECA-I BEE
FRIDAY BEE Lab

DE ECA-I BEE
SATURDAY

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LESSON PLAN
Teacher: Ravi Kumar Soni Subject Name :- Electrical Circuit Analysis -I
Subject Code: 3EE4-01 Class/Section: EE/ IIIrd sem and IInd year
Session: 2023-24 Dept. : Electrical Engineering

Lect.Ref. Topics to be covered

No(s)No.
1 0
Introduction: Objective, scope and outcome of the course.
UNIT 1: Basic Concepts and Graph Theory:

2-3 1.1 Active and passive elements, Concept of ideal and practical
sources, Ohm’s law, Source transformation
4 1.2 Kirchoff’s laws, Analysis of networks by Mesh methods with independent and
dependent
5 1.3 Kirchoff’s laws, Analysis of Networks by Node voltage methods with independent
and dependent
6 1.4
Graph of network, Tree, Incidence matrix, Cut-sets, f-circuits
7-8 1.5
Analysis and f-cut set analysis, Duality, Methods of obtaining dual network.
UNIT 2 Network Theorems:

9 2.1 Superposition theorem, Analysis of networks with and

without dependent AC and DC sources

10 1.6 Thevenin’s theorem, Analysis of networks with and

without dependent AC and DC sources

11 1.7 Norton’s theorem, Analysis of networks with and

without dependent AC and DC sources

12 1.8 Maximum power transfer theorem, Analysis of networks with and

without dependent AC and DC sources

13 2.4 Reciprocity theorem, Analysis of networks with and

without dependent AC and DC sources

14 2.5 Compensation theorem, Analysis of networks with and

without dependent AC and DC sources

15-16 2.6 Tellegen’s theorem, Analysis of networks with and

without dependent AC and DC sources.

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UNIT 3: 1-phase and 3-phase AC Circuits:

17 3.1 1-phase series and parallel AC circuits

18 3.2 Analysis of series and parallel resonant circuits.

19 3.3 Bandwidth and Quality factor at resonance.

20 3.4 3-phase Star and Delta connection, Balanced and unbalanced 3-phase voltages,
currents and impedances.
21-22 3.5
Powers in 3-phase AC system
23-24 3.6 Power triangle, Complex Power

25-26 3.7
Analysis of three phase AC circuits.
UNIT 4 Transient Analysis:

27 4.1 Transient analysis of RL and RC circuits under DC excitations

28 4.2 Behavior of circuit elements under switching action

29 4.3 Response of networks under step, ramp, impulse

30 4.4
Response of networks under pulse and sinusoidal inputs.
31 4.5
Time domain and frequency domain analysis of circuits.
32 4.6
Time domain and frequency domain analysis of circuits.
UNIT 5- Transient Analysis using Laplace Transformation:

33 4.7 Laplace transformation, Initial and Final value theorems. Special signal waveforms
with Laplace transform and applications to circuit operations
34 4.8 Laplace transformation of impulse, step, ramp, sinusoidal signals and shifted
functions.
35 4.9 Laplace transformation of impulse, step, ramp, sinusoidal signals and shifted
functions.
36 5.1 Special signal waveforms with Laplace transform and applications to circuit
operations
37 5.2 Special signal waveforms with Laplace transform and applications to circuit
operations

TEXT BOOKS
1. A. Chakarvorty, Circuit Theory, Publisher Dhanpat Rai & Co. (Pvt.) Ltd.
2. “Basic Electrical Engineering” by Mehta V K and Mehta Rohit
3. D. Roy Choudhury: Network & Systems, Wiley Eastern Ltd
REFERENCES
1. Engineering Circuit Analysis, William H. Hayt et al, Mc Graw Hill Publications
2. Network Analysis, M.E.Vanvalkenburg, Pearson Publications

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Unit: 1 (Basic Concepts and Graph Theory:)

Basic Concepts: Active and passive elements, Concept of ideal and practical sources, Ohm’s law,
Source transformation, Kirchoff’s laws, Analysis of networks by Mesh and Node voltage methods
with independent and dependent sources. Graph Theory: Graph of network, Tree, Incidence matrix,
Cut-sets, fcircuits analysis and f-cut set analysis, Duality, Methods of obtaining dual network.

Basic Definitions:

Current: the directed flow of electrons (charge) called current. It is denoted by I. units are Amps
Electrical potential: charged body capacity to do work is known as its electrical potential.
Potential difference: difference in potentials of two charged bodies is called Potential difference
Power: the rate at which an electrical work done in electrical work is called power. It is denoted by
P. units are Watt
Electrical work: Electrical work is said to be done when there is transfer of charge. It is denoted by
W. units are joules.
Energy: capacity to do work is called energy.
Electrical Network: A combination of various electric elements (Resistor, Inductor, Capacitor,
Voltage source, Current source) connected in any manner what so ever is called an electrical network

Classification of element:
We may classify circuit elements in two categories, passive and active elements.
Passive Element: The element which receives energy (or absorbs energy) and then either converts it
into heat (R) or stored it in an electric (C) or magnetic (L) field is called passive element.
Active Element: The elements that supply energy to the circuit is called active element. Examples of
active elements include voltage and current sources, generators

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Bilateral Element: Conduction of current in both directions in an element (example: Resistance;

Inductance; Capacitance) with same magnitude is termed as bilateral element
Unilateral Element: Conduction of current in one direction is termed as unilateral (example: Diode,
Transistor) element
Linear Circuit: Roughly speaking, a linear circuit is one whose parameters do not change with
voltage or current. More specifically, a linear system is one that satisfies (i) homogeneity property
(ii) additive property
Non-Linear Circuit: Roughly speaking, a non-linear system is that whose parameters change with
voltage or current. More specifically, non-linear circuit does not obey the homogeneity and additive
properties.

Ohms Law: At constant temperature potential difference across the conductor is directly

V ∝I
proportional to current flowing through the conductor is called ohms law.

V=IR
Where the constant of proportionality R is called the resistance or electrical resistance, measured in
ohms (Ω). Graphically, the V - Irelationship for a resistor according to Ohm‟slaw is depicted in
Figure

Figure V -Irelationship for a resistor according to Ohm‟s law.

At any given point in the above graph, the ratio of voltage to current is always constant

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Source transformation is a technique used in analyzing complex electrical circuits. The source
transformation method simplifies the circuit by transforming a voltage source into an equivalent
current source and similarly a current source into an equivalent voltage source.

Before going to the source transformation technique let us first understand what is a practical voltage
source and current source.

Practical Voltage Source:

An ideal voltage source is one whose terminal voltage remains constant at every instant no matter
how much current flow through it. But in reality, we do not have any ideal voltage sources. A real or
practical voltage source has some internal resistance which causes internal voltage drop when current
flow through it.

Hence the terminal voltage of a practical voltage source will no longer remain constant but rather
decreases with an increase in current through it and vice-versa. Thus an ideal voltage source is a
theoretical concept that is independent of current, while a practical voltage source is a real-world
device whose output voltage depends on current. A practical voltage source is represented by an

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ideal voltage source with a series internal resistance as shown above. Some examples of voltage
sources are batteries, dc generators, alternators, etc.

Practical Current Source : An ideal current source delivers constant current irrespective of the load
connected to it. But it is not possible to have an ideal current source in the real world. A practical
current source shows dependency on the voltage across it due to the presents of some internal
resistance that causes some drop in current.

Thus the current delivered by a practical current source will no longer remain constant rather it
decreases with an increase in voltage across it. A practical current source is modeled as the ideal
current source with a parallel internal resistance as shown above.

Above we have seen about practical voltage source and current source. Now let us see how a real
voltage source is converted into an equivalent current source and a current source is converted into
an equivalent voltage source.

Voltage Source to Current Source Conversion: First, let us see the conversion of a practical
voltage source to a practical current source. We know that a practical voltage source is represented
by an ideal voltage source Vs in series with a resistance whose value is equal to its internal resistance
Rint as shown in the below figure.

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In the above practical voltage source, the load current IL is given by,

Where,

• Vs = Voltage of voltage source,

• Rint = Internal resistance of voltage source,

• RL = Load resistance connected to the voltage source.

Now let us consider the equivalent circuit of the practical current source shown above. The load
current IL is given by,

Where,

• Is = Current of the current source,

• Rint = Internal resistance of current source,

• RL = Load resistance connected to the current source.

The two sources become identical when we equate equations 1 and 2,

Thus, a practical voltage source is equivalent to a current source of current I = V/R int and internal
resistance Rint in parallel with the current source. The value of the parallel internal resistance of the
equivalent current source will be equal to the internal resistance of the original voltage source.

Example : A voltage source of 12V with an internal resistance of 0.5Ω is connected to a 1.5Ω
resistor. The current in the resistor is,

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Converting the voltage source into an equivalent current source, the value of the current source will
be,

Is = Vs/Rint = 12/0.5 = 24A

The current in resistance R will be,

I = (24 × 0.5)/2 = 6A

Current Source to Voltage Source Conversion: Now let us see the conversion of a practical
current source into an equivalent voltage source. The below shows the representation of a practical
current source which will be an ideal current source in parallel with internal resistance.

In the above practical current source, the load current IL is given by,

Where,

• Is = Current of the current source,

• Rint = Internal resistance of current source,

• RL = Load resistance connected to the current source.

Now referring to the equivalent practical voltage source shown above. The load current I L is given
by,

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Where,

• Vs = Voltage of voltage source,

• Rint = Internal resistance of voltage source,

• RL = Load resistance connected to the voltage source.

By equating equation 3 and equation 4, we get,

From the above equation, it is clear that a current source is converted into an equivalent voltage
source of voltage V = I Rint and internal resistance Rint in series with the voltage source. The value of
series internal resistance Rint of the equivalent voltage source will be equal to the parallel resistance
of the original current source.

Example : A current source of 5A having an internal resistance of 10Ω is connected to a load resistor
of 5Ω. The current in the load resistor using source transformation is,

Converting the current source into an equivalent voltage source, the value of the voltage source will
be,

Vs = Is Rint = 5 × 10 = 50V

The current in load resistance R will be,

I = Vs/(Rint + R) = 50/(10 + 5) = 3.33A

Therefore, a voltage source is converted into an equivalent current source and a current source is
converted into an equivalent voltage source. A voltage source is a dual of a current source and a
current source is a dual of a voltage source.

Kirchhoff’s laws

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Kirchhoff’s laws mainly deal with voltage and current in the electrical circuits. These laws can be
understood as results of the Maxwell equations in the low frequency limit. They are perfect for DC
and AC circuits at frequencies where the electromagnetic radiation wavelengths are very large when
we compare with other circuits.

Kirchhoff Current Law

KCL or Kirchhoffs current law or Kirchhoffs first law states that the total current in a closed circuit,
the entering current at node is equal to the current leaving at the node or the algebraic sum of current
at node in an electronic circuit is equal to zero.

Kirchhoff’s Current Law

In the above diagram, the currents are denoted with a,b,c,d and e. According to the KCL law, the
entering currents are a,b,c,d and the leaving currents are e and f with negative value. The equation
can be written as
a+b+c+d= e + f
Generally in an electrical circuit, the term node refers to a junction or connection of multiple
components or elements or current carrying lanes like components and cables. In a closed circuit, the
current flow any in or out of a node lane must exist. This law is used to analyze parallel circuits.
Kirchhoff Voltage Law
KVL or Kirchhoff’s voltage law or Kirchhoffs second law states that, the algebraic sum of the
voltage in a closed circuit is equal to zero or the algebraic sum of the voltage at node is equal to zero.

Kirchhoff’s Voltage Law

This law deals with voltage. For instance, the above circuit is explained. A voltage source ‘a’ is
connected with five passive components, namely b, c, d, e, f having voltage differences across them.
Arithmetically, the voltage difference between these components add together because these
components are connected in series. According to the KVL law, the voltage across the passive
components in a circuit is always equal & opposite to the voltage source. Hence, the sum of the
voltage differences across all the elements in a circuit is always zero.
a+b+c+d+e+f=0

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Example of Kirchhoff’s Laws

By using this circuit, we can calculate the flowing current in the resistor 40Ω

Example Circuit for KVL and KCL

The above circuit consists of two nodes, namely A and B, three branches and two independent loops.
Apply KCL to the above circuit, then we can get the following equations.
At nodes A and B we can get the equations
I1+I2=I2 and I2 =I1+I2
Using KVL, the equations we can get the following equations
From loop1: 10=R1 X I1+R2 X I2= 10I1+40I2
From loop2: 20=R2 X I2+R2 X I3= 20I2+40I3
From loop3: 10-20=10I1-20 I2
The equation of I2 can rewrite as
Equation1= 10=10I1+40 (I1+ I2) = 50 I1+40 I2
Equation 2= 20=20I2 +40 (I1+ I2) = 40 I1+60 I2
Now we have two concurrent equations which can be reduced to give the values of I1 and I2
Replacement of I1 in terms of I2 gives the value of I1= -0.143 Amps
Replacement of I2 in terms of I1 gives the value of I2= +0.429 Amps
We know the equation of I3 = I1 + I2
The flow of current in resistor R3 is written as -0.143 + 0.429 = 0.286 Amps
The voltage across the resistor R3 is written as: 0.286 x 40 = 11.44 volts
The –ve sign for ‘I’ is the direction of the flow of current initially preferred was wrong, In fact, the
20 volt battery is charging the 10 volt battery.

Nodal analysis
In Nodal analysis, we will consider the node voltages with respect to Ground. Hence, Nodal analysis
is also called as Node-voltage method.
Procedure of Nodal Analysis
Follow these steps while solving any electrical network or circuit using Nodal analysis.
 Step 1 − Identify the principal nodes and choose one of them as reference node. We will treat
that reference node as the Ground.
 Step 2 − Label the node voltages with respect to Ground from all the principal nodes except
the reference node.
 Step 3 − Write nodal equations at all the principal nodes except the reference node. Nodal
equation is obtained by applying KCL first and then Ohm’s law.
 Step 4 − Solve the nodal equations obtained in Step 3 in order to get the node voltages.

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Now, we can find the current flowing through any element and the voltage across any element that is
present in the given network by using node voltages.

Example
Find the current flowing through 20 Ω resistor of the following circuit using Nodal analysis.

Step 1 − There are three principle nodes in the above circuit. Those are labelled as 1, 2, and 3 in the
following figure.

In the above figure, consider node 3 as reference node (Ground).

Step 2 − The node voltages, V1 and V2, are labelled in the following figure.

In the above figure, V1 is the voltage from node 1 with respect to ground and V 2 is the voltage from
node 2 with respect to ground.
Step 3 − In this case, we will get two nodal equations, since there are two principal nodes, 1 and 2,
other than Ground. When we write the nodal equations at a node, assume all the currents are leaving
from the node for which the direction of current is not mentioned and that node’s voltage as greater
than other node voltages in the circuit.
The nodal equation at node 1 is

Step 4 − Finding node voltages, V1 and V2 by solving Equation 1 and Equation 2.

Substitute Equation 1 in Equation 2.

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So, we got the node voltages V1 and V2 as 20 V and 40 V respectively.

Step 5 − The voltage across 20 Ω resistor is nothing but the node voltage V2 and it is equal to 40 V.
Now, we can find the current flowing through 20 Ω resistor by using Ohm’s law.

Therefore, the current flowing through 20 Ω resistor of given circuit is 2 A.

Note − From the above example, we can conclude that we have to solve ‘n’ nodal equations, if the
electric circuit has ‘n’ principal nodes (except the reference node). Therefore, we can choose Nodal
analysis when the number of principal nodes (except reference node) is less than the number of
meshes of any electrical circuit.
Example: Determine Va and Vb in the circuit of Figure. Also determine the current flowing through
the 100 Ω resistor.

This circuit has three current summing nodes; ground, node a and node b. Also, it uses only current
sources and no voltage sources. Therefore, we are able to use the inspection method to obtain the
system of equations (in this case, two equations).

We begin by focusing on node a, our first node of interest. We will build the first expression piece
by piece. First we find the current sources feeding this node:

800mA−2A=(110Ω+150Ω+1100Ω)Va…

Now find all of the resistors that are connected to this node and to the other nodes. Multiply those
resistors (expressed as conductances) by the other associated node voltages and subtract the products
from the expression built so far. Repeat for all remaining nodes except the ground reference. In this
example there is only one other node, node b, and thus only one iteration.

800mA−2A=(110Ω+150Ω+1100Ω)Va−(150Ω+1100Ω)Vb

Finally, simplify the constants and coefficients, and the first expression is complete:

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−1.2A=130mSVa − 30mSVb

Now we repeat the entire process for the next equation. Node b is our new node of interest. The
fixed current sources are: −800mA−300mA=(125Ω+150Ω+1100Ω)Vb…

Now we find all of the resistors that are connected to this node and to the other nodes. Multiply those
resistors (expressed as conductances) by these other node voltages and subtract those products from
the expression built so far. Make sure the terms align vertically based on the node voltages.

−800mA−300mA=−(150Ω+1100Ω)Va+(125Ω+150Ω+1100Ω)Vb

Finally, simplify the constants and coefficients, and this expression is complete:

−1.1A=−30mSVa+70mSVb

We now have two equations with two unknowns. Let's check for diagonal symmetry:

−1.2A=130mSVa−30mSVb
−1.1A=−30mSVa+70mSVb

The perpendicular coefficient is −30 mS on each side. We can now solve the system. The results are
Va = −14.27 volts and Vb = −21.83 volts. The current flowing through the 100 resistor is (−14.27 V
− (−21.83 V))/100 Ω, or approximately 75.6 mA flowing left to right.

Let's verify that these values are correct. We can perform a KCL summation at node a and see if it
balances. We already know that 2 amps and 75.6 milliamps exit while 800 milliamps enters. We only
need to find the currents through the 10 Ω and 50 Ω resistors. First, notice that the 50 Ω sees the
same voltage as the 100 Ω resistor. As it is half the resistance, it must produce twice the current, or
151.2 milliamps exiting. The current through the 10 Ω is found via Ohm's law, or −14.27 V/10 Ω,
which is 1.427 amps entering.

Entering: 0.8A+1.427A=2.227A
Exiting: 2A+0.0756A+0.1512A≈2.227A

Example: Find Vb and Vc for the circuit of Figure.

This circuit is a good candidate for nodal analysis using the general method. Note that the points
labeled a and b are the same node so we can write just two KCL summations. Using the current
directions as draw on the schematic, for node b we have:

∑Iin=∑Iout
Ix+100Ix=Vb2kΩ
101(1V−Vb )/10kΩ=Vb / 2kΩ
10.1mA=(1/2kΩ+101/10kΩ)Vb
10.1mA=10.6mSVb
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Vb=0.95283V
For node c

we have:

∑Iin=∑Iout
−Vc15kΩ=100Ix
−Vc /15kΩ=100(1V−Vb )/ 10kΩ
Vc=−7.0755V

Alternately, instead of writing the second KCL summation we could have used Vb to determine Ix,
i.e., (1−Vb)/10 kΩ. As the current through the 15 kΩ resistor is 100Ix, we could then use Ohm's
law to find Vc. In any case, we do see that Vc is inverted and just shy of the 7.5 volt estimate.

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Form node-transformation matrix for the given network using a.c nodal analysis
figure 1.

Solution:

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Let us first designate nodes as shown in figure 2 with assumed nodal voltages.

At node-1, nodal equation can be written as

or

or …(1)

At node-2, nodal equation can be written as

or …(2)

At node-3, the nodal equation is

or …(3)

Thus, in matrix form, equation (1), (2) and (3) are

The left hand matrix is required node transformation matrix.

Mesh Analysis

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A branch is a path that joins two nodes and it contains a circuit element. If a branch belongs to only
one mesh, then the branch current will be equal to mesh current.
If a branch is common to two meshes, then the branch current will be equal to the sum (or difference)
of two mesh currents, when they are in same (or opposite) direction.
Procedure of Mesh Analysis
Follow these steps while solving any electrical network or circuit using Mesh analysis.
 Step 1 − Identify the meshes and label the mesh currents in either clockwise or anti-
clockwise direction.
 Step 2 − Observe the amount of current that flows through each element in terms of mesh
currents.
 Step 3 − Write mesh equations to all meshes. Mesh equation is obtained by applying KVL
first and then Ohm’s law.
 Step 4 − Solve the mesh equations obtained in Step 3 in order to get the mesh currents.
Now, we can find the current flowing through any element and the voltage across any element that is
present in the given network by using mesh currents.
Example
Find the voltage across 30 Ω resistor using Mesh analysis.

Step 1 − There are two meshes in the above circuit. The mesh currents I1 and I2 are considered in
clockwise direction. These mesh currents are shown in the following figure.

Step 2 − The mesh current I1 flows through 20 V voltage source and 5 Ω resistor. Similarly, the
mesh current I2 flows through 30 Ω resistor and -80 V voltage source. But, the difference of two
mesh currents, I1 and I2, flows through 10 Ω resistor, since it is the common branch of two meshes.
Step 3 − In this case, we will get two mesh equations since there are two meshes in the given
circuit. When we write the mesh equations, assume the mesh current of that particular mesh as
greater than all other mesh currents of the circuit.
The mesh equation of first mesh is

⇒20−15I1+10I2=0
20−5I1−10(I1−I2)=0

⇒10I2=15I1−20
Divide the above equation with 5.

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2I2=3I1−4
Multiply the above equation with 2.
4I2=6I1−8 ………. Equation 1
The mesh equation of second mesh is
−10 (I2−I1) − 30I2+80=0
Divide the above equation with 10.

⇒ −4I2 + I1 + 8 = 0
− (I2−I1) − 3I2 + 8=0

4I2 = I1+ 8 ………….. Equation 2

Step 4 − Finding mesh currents I1 and I2 by solving Equation 1 and Equation 2.
The left-hand side terms of Equation 1 and Equation 2 are the same. Hence, equate the right-hand
side terms of Equation 1 and Equation 2 in order find the value of I1.

⇒ 5I1=16
6I1−8 = I1 + 8

⇒I1=16/5A
Substitute I1 value in Equation 2.
4I2=16/5+8

⇒4I2=56/5
⇒I2=14/5A
So, we got the mesh currents I1 and I2 as 16/5 A and 14/5A respectively.
Step 5 − The current flowing through 30 Ω resistor is nothing but the mesh current I2 and it is equal
to 14/5 A. Now, we can find the voltage across 30 Ω resistors by using Ohm’s law.
V30Ω=I2R
Substitute the values of I2 and R in the above equation.

⇒V30Ω=84V
V30Ω=⟮14/5⟯30

Therefore, the voltage across 30 Ω resistor of the given circuit is 84 V.

Note 1 − From the above example, we can conclude that we have to solve ‘m’ mesh equations, if the
electric circuit is having ‘m’ meshes. That’s why we can choose Mesh analysis when the number of
meshes is less than the number of principal nodes (except the reference node) of any electrical
circuit.
Note 2 − We can choose either Nodal analysis or Mesh analysis, when the number of meshes is
equal to the number of principal nodes (except the reference node) in any electric circuit.

Superposition Theorem
Superposition theorem states that in any linear, active, bilateral network having more than one
source, the response across any element is the sum of the responses obtained from each source
considered separately and all other sources are replaced by their internal resistance. The
superposition theorem is used to solve the network where two or more sources are present and
connected.
In other words, it can be stated as if a number of voltage or current sources are acting in a linear
network, the resulting current in any branch is the algebraic sum of all the currents that would be
produced in it when each source acts alone while all the other independent sources are replaced by
their internal resistances.

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It is only applicable to the circuit which is valid for the ohm’s law (i.e., for the linear circuit).
Explanation of Superposition Theorem
Let us understand the superposition theorem with the help of an example. The circuit diagram is
shown below consists of two voltage sources V1 and V2.

First, take the source V1 alone and short circuit the V2 source as shown in the circuit diagram below:

Here, the value of current flowing in each branch, i.e. i 1’, i2’ and i3’ is calculated by the following
equations.

The difference between the above two equations gives the value of the current i3’

Now, activating the voltage source V2 and deactivating the voltage source V1 by short-circuiting it,
find the various currents, i.e. i1’’, i2’’, i3’’ flowing in the circuit diagram shown below:

Here,

And the value of the current i 3’’ will be calculated by the equation shown below:

As per the superposition theorem, the value of current i1, i2, i3 is now calculated as:

The direction of the current should be taken care of while finding the current in the various branches.

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Steps for Solving network by Superposition Theorem

Considering the circuit diagram A, let us see the various steps to solve the superposition theorem:

Step 1 – Take only one independent source of voltage or current and deactivate the other sources.
Step 2 – In the circuit diagram B shown above, consider the source E 1 and replace the other source
E2 by its internal resistance. If its internal resistance is not given, then it is taken as zero and the
source is short-circuited.
Step 3 – If there is a voltage source than short circuit it and if there is a current source then just open
circuit it.
Step 4 – Thus, by activating one source and deactivating the other source find the current in each
branch of the network. Taking the above example find the current I1’, I2’and I3’.
Step 5 – Now consider the other source E2 and replace the source E1 by its internal resistance r1 as
shown in the circuit diagram C.
Step 6 – Determine the current in various sections, I1’’, I2’’ and I3’’.
Step 7 – Now to determine the net branch current utilizing the superposition theorem, add the
currents obtained from each individual source for each branch.
Step 8 – If the current obtained by each branch is in the same direction then add them and if it is in
the opposite direction, subtract them to obtain the net current in each branch.
The actual flow of current in the circuit C will be given by the equations shown below:

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Solved Example:

Since we have two sources of power in this circuit, we will have to

calculate two sets of values for voltage drops and/or currents, one for
the circuit with only the 28-volt battery in effect. . .

. . . and one for the circuit with only the 7-volt battery in effect:

other voltage sources are replaced by wires (shorts), and all current
sources with open circuits (breaks). Since we only have voltage sources
(batteries) in our example circuit, we will replace every inactive source
during analysis with a wire.
Analyzing the circuit with only the 28-volt battery, we obtain the
following values for voltage and current:

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Analyzing the circuit with only the 7-volt battery, we obtain another set
of values for voltage and current:

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Thevenin’s Theorem.
Thevenin’s Theorem states that “Any linear circuit containing several voltages and resistances can
be replaced by just one single voltage in series with a single resistance connected across the load“.
In other words, it is possible to simplify any electrical circuit, no matter how complex, to an
equivalent two-terminal circuit with just a single constant voltage source in series with a resistance
(or impedance) connected to a load as shown below.
Thevenin’s Theorem is especially useful in the circuit analysis of power or battery systems and
other interconnected resistive circuits where it will have an effect on the adjoining part of the circuit.

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Thevenin’s equivalent circuit

As far as the load resistor RL is concerned, any complex “one-port” network consisting of multiple
resistive circuit elements and energy sources can be replaced by one single equivalent
resistance Rs and one single equivalent voltage Vs. Rs is the source resistance value looking back
into the circuit and Vs is the open circuit voltage at the terminals.
For example, consider the circuit from the previous tutorials.

Firstly, to analyse the circuit we have to remove the centre 40Ω load resistor connected across the
terminals A-B, and remove any internal resistance associated with the voltage source(s). This is done
by shorting out all the voltage sources connected to the circuit, that is v = 0, or open circuit any
connected current sources making i = 0. The reason for this is that we want to have an ideal voltage
source or an ideal current source for the circuit analysis.
The value of the equivalent resistance, Rs is found by calculating the total resistance looking back
from the terminals A and B with all the voltage sources shorted. We then get the following circuit.

Find the Equivalent Resistance (Rs)

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The voltage Vs is defined as the total voltage across the terminals A and B when there is an open
circuit between them. That is without the load resistor RL connected.
Find the Equivalent Voltage (Vs)

We now need to reconnect the two voltages back into the circuit, and as VS = VAB the current
flowing around the loop is calculated as:

This current of 0.33 amperes (330mA) is common to both resistors so the voltage drop across
the 20Ω resistor or the 10Ω resistor can be calculated as:

VAB = 20 – (20Ω x 0.33amps) = 13.33 volts.

or
VAB = 10 + (10Ω x 0.33amps) = 13.33 volts, the same.

Then the Thevenin’s Equivalent circuit would consist or a series resistance of 6.67Ω and a voltage
source of 13.33v. With the 40Ω resistor connected back into the circuit we get:

and from this the current flowing around the circuit is given as:

which again, is the same value of 0.286 amps, we found using Kirchhoff’s circuit law in the
previous circuit analysis tutorial.
Thevenin’s Theorem Summary
We have seen here that Thevenin’s theorem is another type of circuit analysis tool that can be used to
reduce any complicated electrical network into a simple circuit consisting of a single voltage
source, Vs in series with a single resistor, Rs.

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When looking back from terminals A and B, this single circuit behaves in exactly the same way
electrically as the complex circuit it replaces. That is the i-v relationships at terminals A-B are
identical.
The basic procedure for solving a circuit using Thevenin’s Theorem is as follows:
 1. Remove the load resistor RL or component concerned.
 2. Find RS by shorting all voltage sources or by open circuiting all the current sources.
 3. Find VS by the usual circuit analysis methods.
 4. Find the current flowing through the load resistor RL.

Unit –II - Network Theorems:

Superposition theorem, Thevenin’s theorem, Norton’s theorem, Maximum power
transfer theorem, Reciprocity theorem, Compensation theorem and Tellegen’s
theorem. Analysis of networks with and without dependent AC and DC sources.

Principle of AC voltage:
The simplest form of AC generator consists of a loop of wire that is mechanically rotated about an
axis while positioned between the north and south poles of a magnet.
Consider the Image below.

Consider a rectangular coil of N turns placed in a uniform magnetic field as shown in the figure. The
coil is rotating in the anticlockwise direction at an uniform angular velocity of ω rad/sec

AC generator Armature at 00 at 900 at 1800

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AC generator Armature at 2700 at 3600

When the coil is in the vertical position, the flux linking the coil is zero because the plane of the coil
is parallel to the direction of the magnetic field. Hence at this position, the emf induced in the coil is
zero.
When the coil moves by some angle in the anticlockwise direction, there is a rate of change of flux
linking the coil and hence an emf is induced in the coil. When the coil reaches the horizontal
position, the flux linking the coil is maximum, and hence the emf induced is also maximum. When
the coil further moves in the anticlockwise direction, the emf induced in the coil reduces.
Next when the coil comes to the vertical position, the emf induced becomes zero. After that the same
cycle repeats and the emf is induced in the opposite direction. When the coil completes one complete
revolution, one cycle of AC voltage is generated.
The component of flux acting along the plane of the coil does not induce any flux in the coil. Only
the component acting perpendicular to the plane of the coil ie Φmax cosωt induces an emf in the coil.
Angular Frequency (ω)
Angular frequency is defined as the number of radians covered in one second(ie the angle covered by
the rotating coil). The unit of angular frequency is rad/sec.

Advantages of AC system over DC system

1. AC voltages can be efficiently stepped up/down using transformer
2. AC motors are cheaper and simpler in construction than DC motors
3. Switchgear for AC system is simpler than DC system

Electric waveforms
Circuits with alternating current (AC) are functions whose values vary in both magnitude and
direction

The waveforms are characterized with a couple of quantities:

The period (T) is the length of time that the waveform takes to repeat itself from start to finish. The
unit for period is second.
The frequency (f) is the number of times the waveform repeats itself within a one second period:
f = 1/T
The unit for frequency is Hertz (Hz).

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The amplitude A is the magnitude or intensity of the signal waveform. The unit of the amplitude
depends on the quantity being described: for current it’s amps and for voltage – volts.
One way to express the intensity, or magnitude (also called the amplitude), of an AC quantity is to
measure its peak height on a waveform graph. This is known as the peak or crest value of an AC
waveform: Figure
Another way is to measure the total height between opposite peaks. This is known as the peak-to-
peak (P-P) value of an AC waveform: Figure
Alternation
One-half cycle is termed as alternation. An alternation span is of 180 degrees electrical.
Cycle
When one set of positive and negative values completes by an alternating quantity or it goes through
360 degrees electrical, it is said to have one complete Cycle.
Instantaneous Value
The value of voltage or current at any instant of time is
called an instantaneous value. It is denoted by (I or e).
There are a couple of fundamental differences between
AC and DC circuit:
Current flow
 The current flow in DC circuits is always in the same
direction;
 In AC circuits the direction of the charge flow changes with time. In other words, the electric
charges in AC circuits vibrate around their initial place.

a) b)
Fig. Electron flow in DC (a) and AC (b) circuits
Other Forms of Alternating Waves
While electromechanical alternators and many other physical phenomena naturally produce sine
waves, this is not the only kind of alternating wave in existence. Other “waveforms” of AC are
commonly produced within electronic circuitry. Here are but a few sample waveforms and their
common designations in the figure below.
Some common wave shapes (waveforms).

Average Value
The arithmetic average of all the values of an alternating quantity over one cycle is called its average
value
Average value = Area under one cycle / Base

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For Symmetrical waveforms, the average value calculated over one cycle becomes equal to zero
because the positive area cancels the negative area. Hence for symmetrical waveforms, the average
value is calculated for half cycle.
Average value = Area under one half cycle/ B

:. For a sine wave, Iav=0.637 x Maximum value

RMS (Effective) Value
The RMS value of an alternating current is defined in terms of an equivalent direct current. "The
RMS or effective value of an alternating current is equal to that direct current which, when flowing
through a given resistive circuit, for a given time interval, produces the same heat as produced by the
alternating current when flowing through the same circuit for the same duration of time".

Form Factor
Form factor gives the relationship between RMS value and the average value of an alternating
quantity. It is defined as the ratio of RMS value to the average value. It is generally denoted by a
symbol Kf Mathematically,

Similarly for a square wave, Kf = 1 and triangular wave Kf = 1.547.

Peak Factor
The peak factor (Kp) gives the relationship between the maximum value and RMS value. It is
defined as the ratio of peak or maximum value to RMS value. Mathematically,

Similarly for a square wave Kp= 1 and a triangular wave Kp = √3

Phase difference
it is defined as angular displacement between two zero values or two maximum values of the two
alternating quantity having the same frequency.

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Phasor & Phasor diagram: Phasor:

Alternating quantities are vector (i.e having both magnitude and direction). Their instantaneous
values are continuously changing so that
they are represented by a rotating vector
(or phasor). A phasor is a vector rotating
at a constant angular velocity.

Phasor diagram: is one in which different alternating quantities of the same frequency are
represented by phasors with their correct phase relationship

.
In Phase
Two waveforms are said to be in phase, when the phase difference between them is zero. That is the
zero points of both the waveforms are same. The waveform, phasor and equation representation of
two sinusoidal quantities which are in phase is as shown. The figure shows that the voltage and
current are in phase.

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Lagging
In the figure shown, the zero point of the current waveform is after the zero point of the voltage
waveform. Hence the current is lagging behind the voltage. The waveform, phasor and equation
representation is as shown.

Leading
In the figure shown, the zero point of the current waveform is before the zero point of the voltage
waveform. Hence the current is leading the voltage. The waveform, phasor and equation
representation is as shown.

Power in AC
Active Power
Definition: The power which is actually consumed or utilised in an AC Circuit is called True
power or Active power or Real power. It is measured in kilowatt (kW) or MW. It is the actual
outcomes of the electrical system which runs the electric circuits or load.

Reactive Power
Definition: The power which flows back and forth that means it moves in both the directions in the
circuit or reacts upon itself, is called Reactive Power. The reactive power is measured in kilo volt-
ampere reactive (kVAR) or MVAR.

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Apparent Power
Definition: The product of root mean square (RMS) value of voltage and current is known
as Apparent Power. This power is measured in kVA or MVA.

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