ECE -2103: Network Analysis

NETWORK ANALYSIS

Chapter – 1 : NETWORK ANALYSIS USING KVL & KCL

Today we live in a predominantly electrical world. Electrical technology is a driving force in the
changes that are occurring in every engineering discipline. Circuit analysis is the foundation for
electrical technology.

Network is a system with interconnected electrical elements. Network and circuit are the same.
The only difference being a circuit shall contain at least one closed path.

Learning Outcomes:

At the end of this module, students will be able to:

1. Understand the fundamental laws
2. Apply source transformation and star-delta transformation for simplifying
the network.
3. Analyze simple DC circuits using loop and nodal analysis for dependent
and independent sources.
4. Solve loop equations for magnetically coupled networks.

Network analysis is the process of finding the voltages across, and the currents through every
component in the network.

1.1 Basic Circuit Elements

Circuit: A circuit is a closed conducting path through which an electric current flows.

Electric Network: A combination of various electric elements, connected in any manner is called
an electric network.

Electric Circuits consist of two basic types of elements. These are the active elements and the
passive elements.
An active element is capable of generating or supplying an electrical energy.
Examples are voltage source (such as a battery or generator) and current source, oscillators etc..
A passive element is one which does not generate electricity but either consumes it or stores it.
Resistors, Inductors and Capacitors are simple passive elements. Diodes, transistors etc. are also
passive elements.

Parameters: The various elements of an electric circuit are called its parameters like resistance,
inductance and capacitance.

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 ECE -2103: Network Analysis

These parameters may be lumped or distributed.

Elements of a circuit, which are separated physically, are known as lumped elements.
Ex:- L & C.

Elements, which are not separable for analytical purposes, are known as distributed elements.
Ex:- Transmission lines having R, L, C all along their length.

Circuits may either be linear or non-linear

A linear circuit is one whose parameter are constant i.e., they do not change with voltage or
current. Linear elements obey a straight line law.

For example, a linear resistor has a linear voltage v/s current relationship which passes through
the origin (V = R.I). A linear inductor has a linear flux vs current relationship which passes
through the origin (φ = LI) and a linear capacitor has a linear charge vs voltage relationship
which passes through the origin (q = CV). [R, L and C are constants].

A Non linear circuit is one whose parameters change with voltage or current.

Resistors, inductors and capacitors may be linear or non-linear, while diodes and transistors are
always nonlinear.

Circuits may either be Unilateral or Bilateral

The circuit whose properties or characteristics change with the direction of its operation is said to
be Unilateral. A diode rectifier is a unilateral, because it cannot perform rectification in both
directions.

A bilateral circuit is one whose properties or characteristics are the same in either direction.
Examples are R, L & C. The usual transmission line is bilateral, because it can be made to
perform its function equally well in either direction.

Branch
A branch represents a single element, such as a resistor or a battery. A branch is a part of the
network which lies between two junctions

Node
A node is the point or junction in a circuit connecting two or more branches or circuit elements.
The node is usually indicated by a dot (.) in a circuit

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Loop
A loop is any closed path in a circuit, formed by starting at a node, passing through a number of
branches and ending up once more at the original node. No element or node is encountered more
than once.

Mesh
It is a loop that contains no other loop within it.

Fig.1.1

For example, the circuit of Fig 1.1 has 4 nodes, 6 branches and 6 loops and 3 meshes.

Resistance R [Unit: Ohm (Ω)]

The relationship between voltage and current is given by v = R i, or i = G v,

G = conductance = 1/R
Power loss in a resistor = R i2. Energy dissipated in a resistor w = ∫ R.i2 dt
There is no storage of energy in a resistor.

Inductance L [Unit: Henry (H)]

The relationship between voltage and current is given by v = N =L

Energy stored in an inductor = ½ L i2
No energy is dissipated in a pure inductor. However as practical inductors have some wire
resistance there would be some power loss. There would also be a small power loss in the
magnetic core (if any).

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 ECE -2103: Network Analysis

Capacitance C [Unit: Farad (F)]

The relationship between voltage and current is given by i = =C

Energy stored in an capacitor = ½ C v2
No energy is dissipated in a pure capacitor. However practical capacitors also have some power
loss.

1.2 Independent and Dependent sources

Those voltage or current sources, which do not depend on any other quantity in the circuit, are
called independent sources. An independent d.c. voltage source is shown in Fig.1.2 (a) whereas a
time varying voltage source is shown in Fig.1.2 (b). The positive sign shows that terminal A is
positive with respect to terminal B. In other words, potential of terminal A is v volts higher than
the terminal B.
Similarly, Fig.1.2 (c) shows an ideal constant current source whereas Fig.1.2 (d) depicts a time-
varying current source. The arrow shows the direction of flow of the current at any moment
under consideration.

Fig.1.2: Independent voltage and current sources

A dependent voltage or current source is one which depends on some other quantity which may
be either a voltage or a current. Such a source is represented by a diamond shape as shown in
Fig.1.3. There are four possible dependent sources.
1. Voltage-dependent voltage source [Fig.1.3 (a)]
2. Current- dependent voltage source [Fig.1.3 (b)]
3. Voltage- dependent current source [Fig.1.3 (c)]
4. Current - dependent current source [Fig.1.3 (d)]

Such sources can also be either constant sources or time-varying sources. The constant of
proportionality are written as α,r,g and β. The constants α and β have no units, r has the
unit of ohms and g has the unit of seimens.

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Fig.1.3: Dependent voltage and current sources

1.3 Fundamental Laws

The fundamental laws that govern electric circuits are Ohm’s law and Kirchoff’s laws.

1.3.1 Ohm’s Law

Ohm’s law states that the voltage v across a resistor is directly proportional to the current i
flowing through it.
v ∝ i, v = R . i where R is the proportionality constant.

A short circuit in a circuit element is when the resistance (and any other impedance) of the
element approaches zero. [The term impedance is similar to resistance but is used in alternating
current theory for other components]
An open circuit in a circuit element is when the resistance (and any other impedance) of the
element approaches infinity.

In addition to Ohm’s law we need the Kirchoff’s voltage law and the Kirchoff’s current law to
analyse circuits.

1.3.2 Kirchoff’s Current Law

Kirchoff’s Current Law states that the algebraic sum of the currents entering a node is zero. It
simply means that the total current leaving a junction is equal to the current entering that
junction.

Σi=0

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Consider the case of a few conductors meeting at a point A as in Fig.1.4. Some conductors have
currents leading to point A, whereas some have currents leading away from point A.

Fig.1.4

Assuming the incoming currents to be positive and the outgoing currents negative, we have
i1 + i 2 − i3 + i 4 − i5 = 0

1.3.3 Kirchoff’s Voltage Law

Kirchoff’s Voltage Law states that the algebraic sum of all voltages around a closed path (or
loop) is zero.
Σv=0

In other words, ... round a mesh

Consider a circuit as shown in Fig.1.5, we have

− v1 + v2 + v3 + v4 = 0
depending on the convention, you may also write
v1 − v2 − v3 − v4 = 0

Note: v1, v2 … may be voltages across either

active elements or passive elements or both
and may be obtained using Ohm’s law. Fig.1.5

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Fig.1.6: Kirchoff’s analysis circuit

1.3 Determination of Voltage sign

In applying Kirchhoff’s laws to specific problems, for example, the circuit shown in Fig.1.6,
particular attention should be paid to the algebraic signs of voltage drops and e.m.fs. Following
sign conventions is suggested.

(a) Sign of Battery E.M.F.

A rise in voltage should be given a +ve sign and a fall in voltage a –ve sign. Keeping this in
mind, it is clear that as we go from the –ve terminal of a battery to its +ve terminal as shown in
Fig.1.7(a) there is a rise in potential, hence this voltage should be given a +ve sign. On the other
hand, if we go from the +ve terminal of a battery to its -ve terminal) there is a fall in potential,
hence this voltage should be preceeded by a -ve sign. It is important to note that the sign of the
battery e.m.f is independent of the direction of the current through that branch.

(a) (b)
Fig.1.7: Voltage Sign

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(b)Sign of IR Drop

Now, take the case of a resistor for Fig.1.7 (b). If we go through a resistor in the same direction
as of the current, then there is a fall in potential because current flows from a higher to lower
potential. Hence this voltage fall should be taken –ve. However, if we go in a direction opposite
of the current, then there is a rise in voltage. Hence this voltage rise should be given a +ve.

Consider the closed path ABCDA in Fig.1.8, as we travel around the mesh in clockwise
direction, using KVL we get,

Or

Fig.1.8

1.4 Assumed Direction of Current

The direction of current flow may be assumed either clockwise or anticlockwise. If the assumed
direction of the current is not actual direction, then on solving the question, this current will be
found to have a minus sign. If the answer is positive, then assumed direction is same as actual
direction.

1.5 Voltage Divider

Fig.1.9: Voltage Divider

The voltage divider circuit is shown in Fig.1.9.

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Ohm’s law gives …… (1)

and we know that -……. (2)
Substituting eqn (2) into eqn (1) gives eqn (3)
--------- (3)

In general, if there are n resistors in series, the voltage across resistor Rx is given by

1.6 Current Divider

The two-resistor circuits shown in the circuit Fig.1.10 is a current divider circuit. The current
through R1 is given by,

Fig.1.10: Current Divider

1.6.1 Series Circuits

When elements are connected in series, from Kirchoff’s current law, i1 = i2 = i and from
Kirchoff’s Voltage Law, v1 + v2 = v. Also from Ohm’s Law,
v1 = R1 i1 , v2 = R2 i2 , v = R I
∴ R1 i + R2 i = R i, or R = R1 + R2

That is, in a series circuit, the total resistance is the sum of the individual resistances, and the
voltage across the individual elements is directly proportional to the resistance of that element.

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1.6.2 Parallel Circuits

When elements are connected in parallel, from Kirchoff’s current law, i1 + i2 = i and from
Kirchoff’s Voltage Law, v1 = v2 = v. Also from Ohm’s Law, v1 = R1 i1 , v2 = R2 i2 , v = R i

∴ + = or = + or

Also, = = = and = , = ……..current division rule

In parallel circuits, the ratio of the current in one branch of a two-branch parallel circuit to the
total current is equal to the ratio of the resistance of the other branch to the sum of the two
resistances.

Problems on KVL and KCL

1. What is the voltage VS across the open switch in the circuit shown in Fig. Q1?

Fig. Q1

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Solution:

We will apply KVL to find VS. Starting from point A in the clockwise direction
∴

2. Find the unknown voltage V1 in the circuit of Fig. Q2.

Fig. Q2

Solution:

Taking the outer closed loop ABCDEFA and applying KVL to it, we get

3.For the circuit shown in Fig. Q3, find VCE and VAG.

Fig. Q3

Solution:
Consider the two battery circuits of Fig Q3 separately. Current in the 20V battery circuit ABCD
is .
Similarly, current in the 40V battery circuit EFGH is

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For finding VCE , we will find the algebraic sum of the voltage drops from point E to C via H and
B.

∴
The –ve sign shows that the point C is negative with respect to point E.

For finding VAG , we will find the algebraic sum of the voltage drops from point E to C via H
and B.

4.Using Kirchhoff’s Current Law and Ohm’s law, find the magnitude and polarity of voltage V
in Fig. Q4

Fig. Q4

Solution:
Applying KCL to node A, we have I1-I2+I3=22 ---(i)
Applying Ohm’s law, we have
I1 = V/2, I3= V/4, I2= -V/6

Substituting these values in eqn (i) ,we get V=24V

I1=12A,I2=-4A,I3=6A
The negative sign of I2 indicates that actual direction of its flow is opposite to that of
shown in Fig. Q4.

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5.Determine the branch currents in the network of Fig. Q.5.

Fig. Q5

Solution:
Apply KCL to the closed circuit ABDA, we get

Similarly, circuit BCDB GIVES

or

From circuit ADCEA,we get

or

On solving we get and

Current in branch AB = current in branch
Current in branch ; current in branch AD = current in branch ; current in
branch .

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Self Assessment

1.Use Kirchhoff’s laws to determine the values and directions of the currents flowing in each of
the batteries and in the external resistors of the circuit shown in Fig. Q.6. Also determine the
potential difference across the external resistors.

Fig. Q. 6

2. Find ix in the circuit shown in Fig. Q.7

120mA

R1 R2
10ix
12mA
ix

Fig. Q.7

1.7 Source Transformation

In network analysis it may be required to transform a practical voltage source into its equivalent
practical current source and vice versa which are depicted in Fig.1.11. These are as explained
follows.

R1 V1(t) V
V1(t i1(t)
i1(t)
)
R1

V(t)

Applying KVL,
or

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Sources with equivalent terminal characteristics

R1

V R1 V i1
i1

(v) Voltage source with parallel resistance

(vi) Current source with series resistance
Fig.1.11: Source Transformation

Self Assessment
1.Using successive source transformation, simplify the network shown in Fig. Q8 betweenX &Y.
X

2
1A 2
4V

3 1

6V 3V

Fig.Q.8

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1.7 Delta/Star Transformation

In solving networks by the applications of Kirchhoff’s laws, one sometimes experiences great
difficulty due to a large number of simultaneous equations that have to be solved. However such
complicated network can be simplified by successively replacing delta meshes by equivalent star
system and vice versa.

A delta connected network of three resistances (or impedances) R12, R23, and R31 can be
transformed into a star connected network of three resistances (or impedances) R1, R2, and R3
as shown in Fig.1.12 using following transformations

Fig.1.12: Source Transformation

Note: You can observe that in each of the above expressions, resistance of each arm of
the star is given by the product of the resistances of the two delta sides that meet at its end
divided by the sum of the three resistances.

1.8 Star/Delta transformation

This transformation can be easily done by the following equations

The equivalent delta resistance between any two terminals is given by the sum of star resistances
between those terminals plus the product of these two star resistances divide by the third star
resistances.

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Problems

1. Calculate the equivalent resistance between the terminals A and B in the network shown in
Fig. Q.9.

Fig. Q.9

Solution:
RCS= 16/9Ω, RES=24/9Ω and RDS=12/9Ω
RAB= 4+(16/9)+(35/9)=87/9Ω

Self Assessment

1. Calculate the current flowing through the 10Ω resistor of Fig. Q.10.

Fig. Q.10

2. A network of resistances is formed as shown in Fig.Q.11. Compute the network resistance

measured between (i) A and B (ii) B and C (iii) C and A.

Fig. Q.11

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1.9 Introduction to Nodal and Mesh Analysis

When we want to analyse a given network, we try to pick the minimum number of variables and
the corresponding number of equations to keep the calculations to a minimum. Thus we would
normally work with either currents only or voltages only. This can be achieved using these two
analyses.

1.9.1 Mesh or Loop Analysis

Mesh Analysis involves solving electronic circuits via finding mesh or loop currents of the
circuit. This is done by forming KVL equations for respected loops and solving the equations to
find individual mesh currents. This method eliminates a great deal of tedious work involved in
the branch current method.
We simply assume clockwise current flow in all the loops and find them to analyze the circuit.
Also any independent current source in a loop becomes the loop current.

No. of loops= No. of branches - (No. of nodes-1)

Circuit with independent voltage sources

Fig.1.13: Mesh analysis for independent voltage sources

Using KVL for the circuit as shown in Fig.1.13, at loops 1 and 2, we form KVL equations using
the current and components in the loops in terms of the loop currents. Important thing to look at
it is the subtraction of the opposing loop current in the shared section of the loop.

Equations:
R1∙i1 +(i1 – i2) ∙ R3 = V1
R2 ∙ i2 + R3 ∙(i2 – i1) = -V2

i..e. (R1+ R3)∙i1 - i2 ∙R3 = V1

- R3 ∙ i1 + (R2 + R3)∙i2 = -V2

Note: i1 and i2 are mesh current.

I1, I2 and I3 are branch current.
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I1 = i1; I2 = i2; I3 =( i1 - i2)

Formalization: Network equations by inspection

Use determinants and Cramer’s rule for solving network equations through manipulation of their
co-efficients.

Note:

Solving equations with two unknowns

Solving equations with three unknowns

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Problems
1.Determine the current supplied by each battery in the circuit shown in Fig. Q.12.

Fig. Q.12
Solution:
For loop 1 we get
20 - 5I1 - 3(I1-I2) – 5 = 0 or 8I1 - 3I2=15
For loop 2 we have
-4I2 + 5 - 2(I2 – I3 ) + 5 + 5 - 3(I2 - I1 ) = 0 or 3I1 -9 I2 + 2 I3 = -15
Similarly, for loop 3, we get
-8I3 – 30 – 5 - 2(I3 – I2 ) = 0 or 2I2 - 10I3 = 35

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On solving, we get I1 = 765/299 A, I2 = 542/299 A and I3 = -1875/598 A

So current supplied by each battery is
B1=765/299 A B3 = I2+I3 = 2965/598 A B5 = 1875/598 A
B2 = I1-I2=220/299 A B4= I2=545/299 A

2. Use mesh analysis to compute the voltage V10Ω in Fig. Q.13.

Fig. Q.13
Solution:

Fig. Q13.(a)

On applying KVL to Fig. Q13.(a) , We have

Mesh 1: 24i1-8i2-12i4-24-12=0 or 6i1-2i2-3i4=9
Mesh 2: -8i1+29i2-6i3-15i4=-24
Mesh 3: -6i2+16i3=0 or -3i2+8i3=0
Mesh 4: i4=10ix=10(i2-i3) or 10i2-10i3-i4=0

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On solving, we get
i1=1.94A i2=0.13A i3=0.05A i4=0.79A
Now, we find V10Ω by ohm’s law, that is,
V10Ω =10i3 = 10 * 0.05 = 0.5V

3. Using mesh analysis, find Io for the circuit shown in Fig. Q14.

j4
4

I0

100 i1 i2 6-90
-j2

Fig. Q.14

Solution:
On applying KVL, we have
Mesh 1: 100-4i1 + j2(i1-i2) = 0 or (2-j)i1 + ji2 = 5
Mesh 2: -j4i2 + j2(i2-i1) - 6/-90° = 0 or –j2i1 + (-j4+j2)i2 = 6-90

I0 = (i1 - i2)
On solving, we get
i1= 2+j0.5
i2=1-j0.5
I0=1+j=1.414/45°

1.9.2 Nodal Analysis

The node-equation method is based directly on KCL. In nodal analysis, basically we work with a
set of node voltages. It provides a general procedure for analyzing circuits using node voltages as
the circuit variables.

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For the application of this method, every junction in the network where three or more branches
meet is regarded a node. One of these is regarded as the reference node or datum node or zero-
potential node. Hence the number of simultaneous equations to be solved becomes (n-1) where n
is the number of independent nodes. These node equations often become simplified if all voltage
sources are converted into current sources.
Then we write the KCL equations for the nodes and solve them to find the respected nodal
voltages. Once we have these nodal voltages, we can use them to further analyze the circuit.

Example

Fig.1.14: Nodal analysis for independent current sources

On applying KCL to the circuit shown in Fig.1.14, we get

At node 1
1A = V1/2 + (V1-V2)/6 or 0.66V1-0.166V2 = 1A

At node 2
(V1-V2)/6 = V2/7+4A or 0.166V1 - 0.309V2 = 4A

On solving, we get
V1 = -2.01V and V2 = -14.02V

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Problems

1. Using nodal analysis, find the node voltages V1 and V2 in Fig. Q.15

Fig. Q.15

Solution:

Applying KCL to node 1, we get

8 – 1 - V1/3 - (V1-V2)/6 = 0 or 3V1 - V2 = 42

Similarly, applying KCL to node 2, we get

1 + (V1-V2)/6 – V2/15 – V2/10 = 0 or V1 - 2V2 = -6

Solving for V1 and V2, we get

V1 = 18V and V2 = 12V

2. Use nodal analysis to determine the value of current i in the network of Fig. Q.16

Fig. Q.16

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Solution:

Applying KCL to node 1, we get

6= + + 3i

As seen, i = . Hence, the above equation becomes

6= + +3 or 3V1-V2 = 24

Similarly, applying KCL to node 2, we get

+ 3i = or +3 = or 3V1 = 2V2

From the above two equations, we get

V1 = 16V ∴ i = 16/8 = 2A

3. Find the value of the voltage v for the circuit of Fig. Q.17.

Fig. Q.17
Solution:

Application of KCL at Node A of the circuit below yields

+ = 2 or v - vx = 2

Also by KVL
v = vx + 2vx

and by substitution
vx + 2vx – vx = 2 or vx = 1

and thus v = 3V

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Self Assessment:

1. Use mesh analysis to compute the current through the 6Ω resistor, and the power
supplied (or absorbed) by the dependent source shown in Fig. Q18.

Fig. Q18

2. Use mesh analysis to find V0 in the circuit of Fig. Q19.

Fig. Q19

3. Use nodal analysis to compute the current through the 6Ω resistor and the power supplied
(or absorbed) by the dependent source shown in Fig. Q20

Fig.Q20

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4. Use nodal analysis to compute the voltage V6Ω in the circuit of Fig. Q21

Fig. Q21

1.10 Magnetically coupled circuits:

FARADAY’S LAW
The physical or experimental law governing the principle of magnetic induction.
“The electromotive force (EMF) induced in a circuit is directly proportional to the time rate of
change of magnetic flux through the circuit.”

The EMF which is shown in Fig. 1.15 can either be produced by changing B (induced EMF) or
by changing the area, e.g., by moving the wire (motional EMF).

Fig. 1.15: The induced EMF

1.10.1 Self Inductance

According to Faraday’s law, the voltage induced in a coil is proportional to the number of turns
N and the time rate of change of the magnetic flux φ.

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Page )
v1 (t )   L1 1
dt dt
 ECE -2103: Network Analysis

1.10.2 Mutual Inductance

Two coils in a close proximity are linked together by the magnetic flux produced by current in
one coil, thereby inducing voltage in the other.
It is the ability of one inductor to induce a voltage across a neighbouring inductor, measured in
henrys (H).

i1


i2
 
+   +
v1  +
- v -
2

d 1 di di2
v1   L1 1  M
dt dt dt

d 2 di di
v2   M 1  L2 2
dt dt dt

DOT CONVENTION
 M12=M21=M and is always a positive quantity.

 The induced voltage M may be positive or negative.

 The choice of polarity is made by examining the way in which both coils are
physically wound and applying Lenz’s law in conjunction with the right-hand-rule.

 The procedure is inconvenient in circuit analysis since it is difficult to show the

construction details of the coil in circuit schematics. → use the dot convention (often
predetermined)

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 If a current enters (leaves) the dotted terminal of one coil, the reference polarity of the
mutual voltage in the second coil is positive (negative) at the dotted terminal of the
second coil.

Fig. 1.16: Dot convention for magnetically coupled circuits

 A current entering the dotted terminal of one coil as shown in Fig. 1.16 (a & b)
produces an open circuit voltage with positive voltage reference at the dotted terminal
of the second coil.

 A current entering the undotted terminal of one coil Fig. 1.16 (c & d) provides a
voltage that is positively sensed at the undotted terminal of the second coil.

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i1
 i2


+ 
v2 + 
 v1  v
- i2 -
  v-  1
-
+
2

d 1 di di d 1 di di
v1   L1 1  M 2 v1   L1 1  M 2
dt dt dt dt dt dt
d di di d
i
1 di di
v2  2  M 1  L2 2 v2  2
  M 1  L2 2
dt dt dt dt dt dt

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 ECE -2103: Network Analysis

1.10.3 KVL to coupled circuits

Equivalent circuits

di1 di
Applying KVL to coils 1, v1  i1 R1  L1 M 2
dt dt
di2 di
Applying KVL to coils 2, v 2  i2 R2  L2 M 1
dt dt

Frequency-Domain Analysis:

Applying KVL to coils 1, v1  ( R1  jwL1 ) I1  jwMI 2

Applying KVL to coils 2, v2  jwMI 1  ( R2  jwL2 ) I1

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 ECE -2103: Network Analysis

Problems
1. Given V1=V2 =10volts R1=R2=10Ω, wL1=wL2=10, wM=5 for the circuit in Fig. Q22.
Find I1 and I2.

Fig. Q22
Solution:
Equivalent Circuit:

Fig. Q22(a)

Using mesh analysis for Fig. Q22(a),

Loop1: 10 = (10+j10)I1 + j5I2

Loop2: -10 = j5I1+(10+j10)I2

In matrix form, =

On solving using Cramer’s rule, I1= 0.894 ∠-26.57°A

I2 = 0.894∠153.43°A

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 ECE -2103: Network Analysis

2. Find I1 and I2 in the circuit of Fig. Q23.

Fig. Q23
Solution:
For mesh 1, 36∠30°= (7 + j6)I1– (2 + j)I2
For mesh 2, 0 = (6 + j3 – j4)I2– 2I1– jI1 = –(2 + j)I1+ (6 – j)I2
On solving using Cramer’s rule, I1= 4.254∠–8.51°A, I2= 1.5637∠27.52°A

Self Assessment

1. Determine the voltage V0 in the circuit shown in Fig. Q24.

Fig. Q24

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 ECE -2103: Network Analysis

2. Find I0 in the circuit shown in Fig. Q25 using mesh analysis.

Fig. Q25

Equivalent Circuit:
where
Ia = I1-I3

Ib = I2-I1
Ic = I3-I2
I0 = I3

Fig. Q25(a)

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Department of Electronics and Communication Engineering, M.I.T. Manipal. Page 34