PPSC Quantitative Aptitude Guide

A Comprehensive Resource for Punjab Public Service

Commission Exams

Author: Manus AI

Date: July 11, 2025

Introduction

This comprehensive guide is designed to assist aspirants preparing for the quantitative
aptitude section of the Punjab Public Service Commission (PPSC) examinations. The
PPSC exams, known for their competitive nature, often include a significant portion
dedicated to assessing candidates\" mathematical and analytical skills. This book
aims to provide a structured and in-depth understanding of all the essential
mathematical topics, ranging from basic arithmetic to more advanced concepts, along
with practical problem-solving strategies.

Understanding the types of questions asked and the underlying mathematical

principles is crucial for success. This guide breaks down the quantitative section into
key areas, offering clear explanations, relevant formulas, and a variety of solved
examples to illustrate problem-solving techniques. Whether you are preparing for
general posts or specialized roles, this resource will equip you with the necessary
knowledge and confidence to excel.

We have meticulously covered topics such as Arithmetic, Algebra, Geometry &

Mensuration, Number System, Data Interpretation, Logical/Analytical Math, and Basic
Statistics. Each section is designed to build foundational knowledge and progressively
introduce more complex concepts. Furthermore, we emphasize the development of
critical skills like calculation speed, problem-solving, analytical thinking,
comprehension, and data interpretation, which are vital for tackling the diverse range
of questions encountered in PPSC papers.
This book is more than just a collection of formulas; it is a step-by-step learning tool
that encourages active engagement with the material. By working through the solved
examples and understanding the methodologies, you will be well-prepared to
approach any quantitative problem with clarity and precision. We encourage you to
practice regularly, review the concepts, and utilize this guide as your primary resource
in your PPSC exam preparation journey.

Table of Contents

1. Arithmetic (Basic Math)

Percentages

Ratios and Proportions

Averages

Profit and Loss

Discount

Simple and Compound Interest

Time, Work, and Wages

Time, Speed, and Distance

Unitary Method

2. Algebra
Simple Equations

Linear Equations in One Variable

Factorization

Algebraic Identities

3. Geometry & Mensuration

Properties of Triangles, Circles, Rectangles, and Squares

Perimeter, Area, and Volume

Surface Areas of Cube, Cuboid, Cylinder, Cone, and Sphere

4. Number System
Even/Odd Numbers
 Prime Numbers

Divisibility Rules

LCM & HCF

Remainders

5. Data Interpretation
Bar Graphs

Pie Charts

Tables

Line Graphs

Word-based Data Analysis

6. Logical/Analytical Math
Series (Number Series, Letter Series)

Sequences and Patterns

Age Problems

Calendar and Clock Problems

7. Basic Statistics
Mean, Median, Mode

Frequency and Range

1. Arithmetic (Basic Math)

Arithmetic forms the bedrock of quantitative aptitude, focusing on fundamental

operations and their applications in real-world scenarios. A strong grasp of these
concepts is crucial for solving a wide array of problems efficiently and accurately. This
section will delve into the core topics of arithmetic, providing clear definitions,
essential formulas, illustrative examples, and practical tips and tricks to enhance your
problem-solving speed and accuracy.
1.1 Percentages

Percentages are a way of expressing a number as a fraction of 100. They are widely
used in various contexts, including finance, statistics, and everyday calculations.
Understanding percentages is fundamental for topics like profit and loss, discount,
and interest.

Key Concepts and Formulas:

Percentage Calculation: To express a quantity as a percentage of another, use

the formula: ```math \text{Percentage} = \frac{\text{Part}}{\text{Whole}} \times
100

* **Finding a Percentage of a Quantity:** To find $`x\%`$ of a quantity

$`Y`$:
```math
\text{Result} = \left( \frac{x}{100} \right) \times Y

Percentage Increase/Decrease: ```math \text{Percentage Increase} =

\frac{\text{New Value} - \text{Original Value}}{\text{Original Value}} \times 100

```math
\text{Percentage Decrease} = \frac{\text{Original Value} - \text{New Value}}
{\text{Original Value}} \times 100

Effect of Successive Percentage Changes: If a quantity is increased by $ x\% $

and then by $ y\% $, the net percentage change is: ```math \text{Net Change} = x
+ y + \frac{xy}{100}

(Use negative values for decreases)

**Solved Examples:**

**Example 1.1.1:** What is 25% of 640?

**Solution:**
Using the formula for finding a percentage of a quantity:
```math
\text{Result} = \left( \frac{25}{100} \right) \times 640 = \left( \frac{1}{4}
\right) \times 640 = 160

Therefore, 25% of 640 is 160.

Example 1.1.2: A student scored 450 marks out of a total of 600 marks. What is the
percentage of marks obtained?
Solution: Using the percentage calculation formula:

\text{Percentage} = \left( \frac{450}{600} \right) \times 100 = \left(

\frac{3}{4} \right) \times 100 = 75\%

The student obtained 75% marks.

Example 1.1.3: The price of an item increased from $ 800 to $960. What is the
percentage increase?

Solution: Using the percentage increase formula:

\text{Percentage Increase} = \frac{960 - 800}{800} \times 100 = \frac{160}

{800} \times 100 = \frac{1}{5} \times 100 = 20\%

The price of the item increased by 20%.

Example 1.1.4: A shop offers a 10% discount on an item, and then an additional 5%
discount on the discounted price. What is the overall percentage discount?

Solution: Using the formula for successive percentage changes (here, both are
decreases, so use negative values):

\text{Net Change} = -10 + (-5) + \frac{(-10) \times (-5)}{100} = -15 +

\frac{50}{100} = -15 + 0.5 = -14.5\%

The overall percentage discount is 14.5%.

Tips and Tricks for Percentages:

Fraction Equivalents: Memorize common percentage-fraction equivalents (e.g.,

25% = 1/4, 50% = 1/2, 10% = 1/10, 33.33% = 1/3). This speeds up calculations
significantly.

Breaking Down Percentages: To find, say, 35% of a number, you can find 10%
(divide by 10) and 25% (divide by 4) and add them up. Or, find 50% and subtract
15% (10% + 5%).

Base Change Awareness: Always be mindful of the base on which the

percentage is calculated. For successive changes, the base changes after the first
change.
 Mental Math for Simple Cases: For percentages like 10%, 20%, 50%, practice
calculating them mentally. For example, 10% of 450 is 45; 20% is 90.

1.2 Ratios and Proportions

Ratios are used to compare two or more quantities of the same kind, while
proportions express the equality of two ratios. These concepts are fundamental for
distributing quantities, comparing speeds, and solving problems involving mixtures.

Key Concepts and Formulas:

Ratio: If $ A $ and $ B $ are two quantities of the same kind, their ratio is $ A:B $
or $ \frac{A}{B} $. The ratio $ A:B $ is read as \'A is to B\'.

Simplest Form of a Ratio: A ratio is in its simplest form when its terms have no
common factor other than 1.

Proportion: Four quantities $ A, B, C, D $ are in proportion if $ A:B = C:D $.

This can also be written as $ \frac{A}{B} = \frac{C}{D} $, which implies $ AD =
BC $ (product of extremes equals product of means).

Types of Proportion:

Direct Proportion: If $ A $ increases, $ B $ increases proportionally (and

vice versa). $ \frac{A}{B} = k $ (constant).

Inverse Proportion: If $ A $ increases, $ B $ decreases proportionally (and

vice versa). $ A \times B = k $ (constant).

Solved Examples:

Example 1.2.1: Simplify the ratio 45:75.

Solution: To simplify, find the greatest common divisor (GCD) of 45 and 75. The GCD is
15. Divide both terms by 15:

\frac{45}{15} = 3 \quad \text{and} \quad \frac{75}{15} = 5

The simplified ratio is 3:5.

Example 1.2.2: If A:B = 3:4 and B:C = 8:9, find A:B:C.

Solution: To combine these ratios, make the \'B\' term common. Multiply the first ratio
by 2 to make B = 8:

A:B = (3 \times 2) : (4 \times 2) = 6:8

Now, we have A:B = 6:8 and B:C = 8:9. Therefore, A:B:C = 6:8:9.

Example 1.2.3: If 5 men can complete a task in 12 days, how many days will 10 men
take to complete the same task? (Assume inverse proportion)

Solution: This is an inverse proportion problem. Let $ M_1 = 5 $ men, $ D_1 = 12 $

days, $ M_2 = 10 $ men, $ D_2 = ? $ days. Using the inverse proportion formula $ M_1
\times D_1 = M_2 \times D_2 $:

5 \times 12 = 10 \times D_2

60 = 10 \times D_2

D_2 = \frac{60}{10} = 6

So, 10 men will take 6 days to complete the task.

Example 1.2.4: The ratio of boys to girls in a class is 3:2. If there are 30 boys, what is
the total number of students in the class?

Solution: Let the number of boys be $ 3x $ and the number of girls be $ 2x $. Given
that the number of boys is 30, so $ 3x = 30 $.

x = \frac{30}{3} = 10

Number of girls = $ 2x = 2 \times 10 = 20 $. Total number of students = Number of

boys + Number of girls = $ 30 + 20 = 50 $. Therefore, there are 50 students in the
class.

Tips and Tricks for Ratios and Proportions:

Unitary Method for Ratios: When given a ratio and the value of one part, find the
value of one \'unit\' of the ratio first. For example, if 3 parts = 30, then 1 part = 10.
 Combining Ratios: To combine ratios like A:B and B:C, find a common multiple
for the \'B\' term in both ratios and adjust the other terms accordingly.

Cross-Multiplication: For proportions ($ A/B = C/D $), cross-multiplication ($ AD

= BC $) is a quick way to solve for an unknown.

Direct vs. Inverse: Clearly identify whether the relationship is direct or inverse
proportion before setting up the equation. More of one quantity leads to more of
another (direct), or more of one leads to less of another (inverse).

1.3 Averages

An average (or arithmetic mean) is a single value that represents the central tendency
of a set of numbers. It is calculated by summing all the values and dividing by the
number of values. Averages are widely used in data analysis, performance evaluation,
and various statistical contexts.

Key Concepts and Formulas:

Average: ```math \text{Average} = \frac{\text{Sum of all quantities}}

{\text{Number of quantities}}

* **Sum of Quantities:**
```math
\text{Sum of Quantities} = \text{Average} \times \text{Number of Quantities}

Average of Combined Groups: If group 1 has $ n_1 $ items with average $ A_1 $,
and group 2 has $ n_2 $ items with average $ A_2 $, the combined average is:
```math \text{Combined Average} = \frac{n_1 A_1 + n_2 A_2}{n_1 + n_2}

**Solved Examples:**

**Example 1.3.1:** Find the average of 10, 20, 30, 40, and 50.

**Solution:**
Sum of quantities = $`10 + 20 + 30 + 40 + 50 = 150`$
Number of quantities = 5
```math
\text{Average} = \frac{150}{5} = 30

The average is 30.

Example 1.3.2: The average age of 5 students is 15 years. If a new student joins, the
average age becomes 16 years. What is the age of the new student?
Solution: Sum of ages of 5 students = Average $ \times $ Number = $ 15 \times 5 =
75 $ years.

After the new student joins, total students = $ 5 + 1 = 6 $. New sum of ages of 6
students = New Average $ \times $ New Number = $ 16 \times 6 = 96 $ years.

Age of the new student = New sum of ages - Old sum of ages = $ 96 - 75 = 21 $ years.

The new student is 21 years old.

Example 1.3.3: A cricketer scored 80, 60, 120, and 40 runs in four innings. What is his
average score?

Solution: Sum of runs = $ 80 + 60 + 120 + 40 = 300 $ Number of innings = 4

\text{Average score} = \frac{300}{4} = 75

His average score is 75 runs.

Tips and Tricks for Averages:

Deviation Method: For a series of numbers, assume an average (preferably a

number close to the middle of the series). Calculate the deviations of each
number from the assumed average. Sum the deviations and divide by the count
of numbers. Add this result to the assumed average. This method is faster for
larger datasets.

Weighted Average: When dealing with different groups or categories with

different counts, use the combined average formula. This is a form of weighted
average.

Impact of New Entry/Exit: When a new person joins or leaves a group, the
change in total sum directly impacts the average. Focus on the total sum rather
than individual values.

1.4 Profit and Loss

Profit and loss are fundamental concepts in business and commerce, dealing with the
financial outcome of buying and selling goods. Understanding these concepts is
crucial for calculating gains, losses, and profit margins.

Key Concepts and Formulas:

 Cost Price (CP): The price at which an article is purchased.

Selling Price (SP): The price at which an article is sold.

Profit (Gain): When $ SP > CP $ ```math \text{Profit} = SP - CP

* **Loss:** When $`CP > SP`$

```math
\text{Loss} = CP - SP

Profit Percentage: ```math \text{Profit \%} = \frac{\text{Profit}}{CP} \times 100

* **Loss Percentage:**
```math
\text{Loss \%} = \frac{\text{Loss}}{CP} \times 100

Calculating SP from CP and Profit/Loss %: ```math SP = CP \times \frac{100 +

\text{Profit\%}}{100} \quad \text{(for profit)}

```math
SP = CP \times \frac{100 - \text{Loss\%}}{100} \quad \text{(for loss)}

Calculating CP from SP and Profit/Loss %: ```math CP = SP \times \frac{100}

{100 + \text{Profit\%}} \quad \text{(for profit)}

```math
CP = SP \times \frac{100}{100 - \text{Loss\%}} \quad \text{(for loss)}

Solved Examples:

Example 1.4.1: A shopkeeper buys an item for $ 500 and sells it for $650. Find the
profit and profit percentage.

Solution: $ CP = \ $500$ $ SP = \ $650$

\text{Profit} = SP - CP = 650 - 500 = \$150

\text{Profit \%} = \frac{\text{Profit}}{CP} \times 100 = \frac{150}{500}

\times 100 = \frac{3}{10} \times 100 = 30\%

The profit is $150, and the profit percentage is 30%.

Example 1.4.2: An item was bought for $800 and sold at a loss of 15%. Find the selling
price.

Solution: $ CP = \ $800$ Loss % = 15%

Using the formula $ SP = CP \times \frac{100 - \text{Loss\%}}{100} $:

SP = 800 \times \frac{100 - 15}{100} = 800 \times \frac{85}{100} = 8 \times

85 = \$680

The selling price is $680.

Example 1.4.3: By selling an article for $900, a shopkeeper gains 25%. Find the cost
price of the article.

Solution: $ SP = \ $900$ Profit % = 25%

Using the formula $ CP = SP \times \frac{100}{100 + \text{Profit\%}} $:

CP = 900 \times \frac{100}{100 + 25} = 900 \times \frac{100}{125} = 900

\times \frac{4}{5} = 180 \times 4 = \$720

The cost price of the article is $720.

Tips and Tricks for Profit and Loss:

Always on CP: Unless specified, profit and loss percentages are always
calculated on the Cost Price (CP).

Chain Rule for Multiple Transactions: If an item passes through multiple hands,
calculate the CP for each subsequent transaction based on the SP of the previous
one.

Equating SP: In problems where two items are sold at the same SP, but one at a
profit and another at a loss, remember that their CPs will be different. A common
trick is when two items are sold at the same price, one at x% profit and another
at x% loss, there is always a net loss given by $ (x/10)^2 \% $.

Markup and Discount: Understand that Marked Price (MP) is often set by
marking up the CP, and then a discount is applied on the MP to arrive at the SP.
1.5 Discount

Discount is a reduction in the price of an item, usually offered to attract customers or

clear old stock. It is typically calculated on the marked price (or list price) of an item.

Key Concepts and Formulas:

Marked Price (MP) / List Price: The price printed on the article or tagged on it.

Discount: The reduction offered on the Marked Price.

Discount Amount: ```math \text{Discount Amount} = MP - SP

* **Discount Percentage:**
```math
\text{Discount \%} = \frac{\text{Discount Amount}}{MP} \times 100

Selling Price (SP) after Discount: ```math SP = MP - \text{Discount Amount}

```math
SP = MP \times \frac{100 - \text{Discount\%}}{100}

Solved Examples:

Example 1.5.1: The marked price of a shirt is $1200. A discount of 10% is offered. Find
the discount amount and the selling price.

Solution: $ MP = \ $1200$ Discount % = 10%

\text{Discount Amount} = 10\% \text{ of } \$`1200 = \left( \frac{10}{100}

\right) \times 1200 = \`$120

SP = MP - \text{Discount Amount} = 1200 - 120 = \$1080

The discount amount is $ 120, and the selling price is $1080.

Example 1.5.2: An item is sold for $750 after a discount of 25% on its marked price.
Find the marked price.

Solution: $ SP = \ $750$ Discount % = 25%

Using the formula $ SP = MP \times \frac{100 - \text{Discount\%}}{100} $:

 750 = MP \times \frac{100 - 25}{100}

750 = MP \times \frac{75}{100}

750 = MP \times \frac{3}{4}

MP = \frac{750 \times 4}{3} = 250 \times 4 = \$1000

The marked price is $1000.

Tips and Tricks for Discount:

Discount is on MP: Always remember that discount is calculated on the Marked

Price (MP), not the Cost Price (CP) or Selling Price (SP), unless explicitly stated
otherwise.

Successive Discounts: Similar to successive percentage changes, if multiple

discounts are offered, apply them one after another on the reduced price. The
formula for net change ($ x + y + xy/100 $) can be used, with $ x $ and $ y $
being negative values representing discounts.

Relationship between CP, MP, SP: Understand the flow: $ CP

\xrightarrow{\text{Markup}} MP \xrightarrow{\text{Discount}} SP $. This
helps in setting up equations for complex problems.

1.6 Simple and Compound Interest

Interest is the cost of borrowing money or the return on an investment. Simple interest
is calculated only on the principal amount, while compound interest is calculated on
the principal amount and also on the accumulated interest of previous periods.

Key Concepts and Formulas:

Principal (P): The initial amount of money borrowed or invested.

Rate (R): The annual interest rate (in percentage).

Time (T): The duration for which the money is borrowed or invested (in years).

Simple Interest (SI): ```math SI = \frac{P \times R \times T}{100}

 * **Amount (A) in Simple Interest:**
```math
A = P + SI

Compound Interest (CI): ```math A = P \left( 1 + \frac{R}{100} \right)^T \quad

\text{(when compounded annually)}

```math
CI = A - P

When compounded half-yearly: Rate becomes $ \frac{R}{2} $ and Time

becomes $ 2T $. ```math A = P \left( 1 + \frac{R/2}{100} \right)^{2T}

* **When compounded quarterly:** Rate becomes $`\frac{R}{4}`$ and Time

becomes $`4T`$.
```math
A = P \left( 1 + \frac{R/4}{100} \right)^{4T}

Solved Examples:

Example 1.6.1: Calculate the simple interest on $5000 at 8% per annum for 3 years.

Solution: $ P = \ $5000$ $ R = 8\% $ $ T = 3 \text{ years} $

SI = \frac{5000 \times 8 \times 3}{100} = 50 \times 8 \times 3 = 400 \times 3

= \$1200

The simple interest is $1200.

Example 1.6.2: Find the amount and compound interest on $10,000 at 10% per
annum for 2 years, compounded annually.

Solution: $ P = \ $10,000$ $ R = 10\% $ $ T = 2 \text{ years} $

A = 10000 \left( 1 + \frac{10}{100} \right)^2 = 10000 \left( 1 + \frac{1}{10}

\right)^2 = 10000 \left( \frac{11}{10} \right)^2

A = 10000 \times \frac{121}{100} = 100 \times 121 = \$12100

CI = A - P = 12100 - 10000 = \$2100

The amount is $ 12100, and the compound interest is $2100.

Example 1.6.3: What will be the compound interest on $8000 for 1 year at 20% per
annum, compounded half-yearly?

Solution: $ P = \ $8000$ $ R = 20\% $ (per annum) $ T = 1 \text{ year} $

Since it\"s compounded half-yearly, the rate becomes $ \frac{R}{2} = \frac{20}{2}

= 10\% $ per half-year, and time becomes $ 2T = 2 \times 1 = 2 $ half-years.

A = P \left( 1 + \frac{R/2}{100} \right)^{2T} = 8000 \left( 1 + \frac{10}

{100} \right)^2 = 8000 \left( \frac{11}{10} \right)^2

A = 8000 \times \frac{121}{100} = 80 \times 121 = \$9680

CI = A - P = 9680 - 8000 = \$1680

The compound interest is $1680.

Tips and Tricks for Simple and Compound Interest:

Difference between SI and CI: For the first year, SI and CI are always the same.
The difference arises from the second year onwards because CI calculates
interest on interest.

Effective Rate: For compound interest, especially when compounded more than
once a year, calculate the effective annual rate to compare with simple interest or
other compound interest scenarios.

Tree Method for CI: For 2 or 3 years, the tree method can be a visual and
intuitive way to calculate compound interest, breaking down interest earned in
each period.

Approximation for CI: For small rates and short periods, $ (1 + R/100)^T
\approx 1 + TR/100 + T(T-1)/2 \times (R/100)^2 $. This can be useful for
quick estimations.

1.7 Time, Work, and Wages

These problems involve calculating the time taken to complete a task, the amount of
work done by individuals or groups, and the wages earned based on work completed.
The core idea is to determine the rate at which work is performed.

Key Concepts and Formulas:

 Work Rate: If a person can complete a work in $ n $ days, then their one day\"s
work is $ \frac{1}{n} $ of the total work.

Total Work: Often considered as 1 unit or a common multiple of the individual

days/hours (LCM method).

Combined Work: If A can do a work in $ x $ days and B in $ y $ days, then

together they can do the work in $ \frac{xy}{x + y} $ days.

Men-Days Concept: If $ M_1 $ men can do $ W_1 $ work in $ D_1 $ days working
$ T_1 $ hours per day, and $ M_2 $ men can do $ W_2 $ work in $ D_2 $ days
working $ T_2 $ hours per day, then: ```math \frac{M_1 \times D_1 \times T_1}
{W_1} = \frac{M_2 \times D_2 \times T_2}{W_2}

(If work is the same, $`W_1 = W_2`$, so $`M_1 \times D_1 \times T_1 = M_2
\times D_2 \times T_2`$)

**Solved Examples:**

**Example 1.7.1:** A can do a piece of work in 10 days and B can do the same
work in 15 days. In how many days can they complete the work together?

**Solution:**
One day\"s work of A = $`\frac{1}{10}`$
One day\"s work of B = $`\frac{1}{15}`$

Combined one day\"s work of A and B = $`\frac{1}{10} + \frac{1}{15}`$

Find a common denominator (LCM of 10 and 15 is 30):
```math
= \frac{3}{30} + \frac{2}{30} = \frac{5}{30} = \frac{1}{6}

So, A and B together can complete the work in 6 days.

Example 1.7.2: If 3 men can do a job in 6 days, how many days will 6 men take to do
the same job?

Solution: This is an inverse proportion problem (more men, less days). Using the Men-
Days concept (assuming $ T_1 = T_2 $ and $ W_1 = W_2 $):

M_1 \times D_1 = M_2 \times D_2

3 \times 6 = 6 \times D_2

18 = 6 \times D_2
 D_2 = \frac{18}{6} = 3

So, 6 men will take 3 days to complete the same job.

Example 1.7.3: A, B, and C can complete a work in 12, 15, and 20 days respectively. If
they work together, in how many days will the work be completed?

Solution: One day\"s work of A = $ \frac{1}{12} $ One day\"s work of B = $ \frac{1}

{15} $ One day\"s work of C = $ \frac{1}{20} $

Combined one day\"s work of A, B, and C = $ \frac{1}{12} + \frac{1}{15} +

\frac{1}{20} $ Find a common denominator (LCM of 12, 15, 20 is 60):

= \frac{5}{60} + \frac{4}{60} + \frac{3}{60} = \frac{12}{60} = \frac{1}{5}

So, A, B, and C together can complete the work in 5 days.

Tips and Tricks for Time, Work, and Wages:

LCM Method: For problems involving multiple individuals working together, find
the LCM of their individual working days. This LCM represents the \'total units of
work\'. Then calculate individual efficiencies (units per day) and sum them up for
combined efficiency.

Efficiency is Inverse to Time: If A is twice as efficient as B, A takes half the time B

takes to complete the same work.

Pipes and Cisterns: These problems are analogous to time and work. Inlets are
positive work, outlets are negative work.

Wages Distribution: Wages are distributed in proportion to the work done or the
efficiency of each worker.

1.8 Time, Speed, and Distance

These problems involve the relationship between time taken, the speed of movement,
and the distance covered. They often include scenarios with trains, boats in streams,
and relative speeds.

Key Concepts and Formulas:

Basic Relationship: ```math \text{Distance} = \text{Speed} \times \text{Time}

 ```math
\text{Speed} = \frac{\text{Distance}}{\text{Time}}

```math

\text{Time} = \frac{\text{Distance}}{\text{Speed}}

* **Unit Conversion:**
* To convert km/hr to m/s: Multiply by $`\frac{5}{18}`$
* To convert m/s to km/hr: Multiply by $`\frac{18}{5}`$

* **Average Speed:**
```math
\text{Average Speed} = \frac{\text{Total Distance}}{\text{Total Time}}

* If a person travels at speed $`x`$ for distance $`D`$ and speed $`y`$ for
distance $`D`$ (same distance), then:
```math

\text{Average Speed} = \frac{2xy}{x + y}

* **Relative Speed:**
* **Moving in the same direction:** $` \text{Relative Speed} =
|\text{Speed}_1 - \text{Speed}_2| `$
* **Moving in opposite directions:** $` \text{Relative Speed} =
\text{Speed}_1 + \text{Speed}_2 `$

* **Trains:**
* Time taken by a train of length $`L`$ to pass a pole/man/tree =
$`\frac{L}{\text{Speed of train}}`$
* Time taken by a train of length $`L_1`$ to pass a
platform/bridge/tunnel of length $`L_2`$ = $`\frac{L_1 + L_2}{\text{Speed of
train}}`$
* Time taken by two trains of lengths $`L_1`$ and $`L_2`$ to pass each
other:
* Moving in same direction = $`\frac{L_1 + L_2}{|\text{Speed}_1 -
\text{Speed}_2|}`$
* Moving in opposite directions = $`\frac{L_1 + L_2}{\text{Speed}_1 +
\text{Speed}_2}`$

**Solved Examples:**

**Example 1.8.1:** A train covers 300 km in 3 hours. What is its speed?

**Solution:**
Distance = 300 km
Time = 3 hours

```math
\text{Speed} = \frac{\text{Distance}}{\text{Time}} = \frac{300}{3} = 100
\text{ km/hr}
The speed of the train is 100 km/hr.

Example 1.8.2: A car travels at a speed of 72 km/hr. Convert its speed to meters per
second (m/s).

Solution: Speed = 72 km/hr

To convert km/hr to m/s, multiply by $ \frac{5}{18} $:

\text{Speed in m/s} = 72 \times \frac{5}{18} = 4 \times 5 = 20 \text{ m/s}

The speed of the car is 20 m/s.

Example 1.8.3: A man travels from point A to B at 20 km/hr and returns from B to A at
30 km/hr. What is his average speed for the entire journey?

Solution: Since the distance is the same for both legs of the journey, we can use the
formula for average speed for equal distances:

\text{Average Speed} = \frac{2xy}{x + y}

Here, $ x = 20 \text{ km/hr} $ and $ y = 30 \text{ km/hr} $.

\text{Average Speed} = \frac{2 \times 20 \times 30}{20 + 30} = \frac{1200}

{50} = 24 \text{ km/hr}

The average speed for the entire journey is 24 km/hr.

Example 1.8.4: A 150-meter long train is running at a speed of 54 km/hr. How much
time will it take to cross a pole?

Solution: Length of train ($ L $) = 150 m Speed of train = 54 km/hr

First, convert speed to m/s:

\text{Speed} = 54 \times \frac{5}{18} = 3 \times 5 = 15 \text{ m/s}

Time taken to cross a pole = $ \frac{\text{Length of train}}{\text{Speed of

train}} $

\text{Time} = \frac{150}{15} = 10 \text{ seconds}

The train will take 10 seconds to cross the pole.

Tips and Tricks for Time, Speed, and Distance:

Unit Consistency: Always ensure all units (distance, speed, time) are consistent
before calculation. Convert km/hr to m/s or vice versa as needed.

Relative Speed for Meeting/Overtaking: Use relative speed for problems

involving two moving objects. Add speeds for opposite directions, subtract for
same direction.

Train Problems: Remember to add the length of the platform/bridge/tunnel to

the train\"s length when calculating the total distance covered to cross it.

Boats and Streams: Understand upstream (against current, speed = boat speed -
stream speed) and downstream (with current, speed = boat speed + stream
speed) concepts.

1.9 Unitary Method

The unitary method is a technique used to find the value of a single unit and then use
that value to find the value of a required number of units. It is a straightforward
approach to solving problems involving direct and inverse variations.

Key Concepts:

Direct Variation: If $ A $ increases, $ B $ increases. (e.g., more items, more cost)

Inverse Variation: If $ A $ increases, $ B $ decreases. (e.g., more workers, less

time)

Solved Examples:

Example 1.9.1: If 5 pens cost $50, what is the cost of 12 pens?

Solution: Cost of 5 pens = $50

Step 1: Find the cost of 1 pen (unitary value).

\text{Cost of 1 pen} = \frac{50}{5} = \$10

Step 2: Find the cost of 12 pens.

 \text{Cost of 12 pens} = 12 \times 10 = \$120

The cost of 12 pens is $120.

Example 1.9.2: If 8 workers can build a wall in 15 days, how many days will 10 workers
take to build the same wall?

Solution: This is an inverse variation problem.

Step 1: Find the number of days 1 worker would take. If 8 workers take 15 days, then 1
worker would take $ 8 \times 15 = 120 $ days.

Step 2: Find the number of days 10 workers would take.

\text{Number of days for 10 workers} = \frac{120}{10} = 12 \text{ days}

So, 10 workers will take 12 days to build the same wall.

Example 1.9.3: A car travels 240 km in 4 hours. How much distance will it cover in 7
hours?

Solution: Distance covered in 4 hours = 240 km

Step 1: Find the distance covered in 1 hour (speed).

\text{Distance in 1 hour} = \frac{240}{4} = 60 \text{ km}

Step 2: Find the distance covered in 7 hours.

\text{Distance in 7 hours} = 7 \times 60 = 420 \text{ km}

The car will cover 420 km in 7 hours.

Tips and Tricks for Unitary Method:

Identify Variation Type: The first step is always to determine if it\"s a direct or
inverse variation. This dictates whether you multiply or divide to find the unit
value.

One-to-Many: If you know the value of one unit, multiply to find the value of
many units.
 Many-to-One: If you know the value of many units, divide to find the value of one
unit.

Consistency: Ensure the units of quantities are consistent throughout the

problem.

5. Data Interpretation

Data Interpretation (DI) involves extracting, analyzing, and drawing conclusions from
data presented in various formats such as tables, graphs (bar, pie, line), and charts.
This section assesses your ability to quickly understand and interpret numerical
information to answer questions.

5.1 Bar Graphs

Bar graphs use rectangular bars to represent data, with the length or height of the bar
proportional to the value it represents. They are useful for comparing quantities across
different categories.

Key Concepts:

Axes: Understand what each axis represents (e.g., categories on X-axis, values on
Y-axis).

Scale: Pay attention to the scale used on the value axis.

Comparison: Bar graphs are excellent for direct comparisons between different
categories.

Solved Examples:

Example 5.1.1: The bar graph below shows the sales of different car models (in
thousands) in a month.
(Note: This is a placeholder for a bar graph image. In the final PDF, a proper image will
be inserted.)

Question: Which car model had the highest sales, and what was its sales figure?

Solution: By observing the bar graph, Model B has the tallest bar, indicating the
highest sales. Its sales figure is 70 (in thousands).

Answer: Model B, with 70,000 units.

Example 5.1.2: What is the difference in sales between Model A and Model C?

Solution: Sales of Model A = 50,000 units Sales of Model C = 40,000 units

Difference = $ 50,000 - 40,000 = 10,000 $ units.

Answer: The difference in sales is 10,000 units.

Tips and Tricks for Bar Graphs:

Read Labels Carefully: Always start by reading the title, axis labels, and units to
understand what the graph represents.

Compare Heights/Lengths: For comparison questions, visually compare the

heights or lengths of the bars.

Estimate if Necessary: If exact values are not marked, estimate based on the
scale.

Look for Trends: While primarily for comparison, sometimes bar graphs can
show simple trends over time if categories are ordered chronologically.

5.2 Pie Charts

Pie charts (or circle graphs) represent parts of a whole, where the entire circle
represents 100% of the data, and each slice represents a proportion of that whole.
They are ideal for showing the composition of a single entity.

Key Concepts:

Whole: The entire circle represents the total quantity (100% or $ 360^\circ $).

Slices: Each slice represents a category, with its size proportional to its share of
the total.
 Percentages/Degrees: Slices are often labeled with percentages or degrees,
which sum up to 100% or $ 360^\circ $ respectively.

Solved Examples:

Example 5.2.1: The pie chart below shows the expenditure of a family on various
items.

(Note: This is a placeholder for a pie chart image. In the final PDF, a proper image will
be inserted.)

Question: If the total monthly income of the family is $50,000, how much is spent on
Education?

Solution: From the pie chart, Education accounts for 20% of the expenditure.

Amount spent on Education = 20% of $50,000

= \frac{20}{100} \times 50000 = 0.20 \times 50000 = \$10,000

Answer: $10,000 is spent on Education.

Example 5.2.2: What is the central angle for the \"Rent\" category?

Solution: Rent accounts for 25% of the expenditure. Total angle in a circle =
$ 360^\circ $.

Central angle for Rent = 25% of $ 360^\circ $

= \frac{25}{100} \times 360 = \frac{1}{4} \times 360 = 90^\circ

Answer: The central angle for the \"Rent\" category is $ 90^\circ $.

Tips and Tricks for Pie Charts:

Total is 100% (or 360°): Always remember that all segments sum up to 100% of
the total quantity or $ 360^\circ $ of the circle.

Convert to Value: If the total value is given, convert percentages or degrees into
actual values for each segment.

Compare Segments: To compare two segments, you can compare their

percentages directly or calculate their individual values.

Avoid Misinterpretation: Pie charts are not suitable for showing changes over
time or comparing multiple categories across different datasets.

5.3 Tables

Tables present data in rows and columns, providing a structured way to organize and
display information. They are versatile and can present a large amount of precise data.

Key Concepts:

Rows and Columns: Understand what each row and column represents.

Headers: Pay attention to column headers and row labels for context.

Units: Note the units of measurement for the data.

Solved Examples:

Example 5.3.1: The table below shows the number of students in different streams in
a college over two years.
 Stream 2023 2024

Engineering 300 350

Medical 250 280

Arts 400 380

Commerce 320 360

Question: What was the total number of students in the college in 2024?

Solution: Total students in 2024 = Engineering (2024) + Medical (2024) + Arts (2024) +
Commerce (2024)

= 350 + 280 + 380 + 360 = 1370

Answer: The total number of students in the college in 2024 was 1370.

Example 5.3.2: Which stream showed the highest percentage increase in student
numbers from 2023 to 2024?

Solution: Calculate percentage increase for each stream:

Engineering: ```math \frac{350 - 300}{300} \times 100 = \frac{50}{300} \times

100 = 16.67\%

* **Medical:**
```math
\frac{280 - 250}{250} \times 100 = \frac{30}{250} \times 100 = 12\%

Arts: ```math \frac{380 - 400}{400} \times 100 = -5\% \quad \text{(decrease)}

* **Commerce:**
```math
\frac{360 - 320}{320} \times 100 = \frac{40}{320} \times 100 = 12.5\%

Comparing the increases: Engineering (16.67%), Medical (12%), Commerce (12.5%).

Answer: Engineering showed the highest percentage increase.

Tips and Tricks for Tables:

 Scan for Overview: Quickly scan the table to get a general idea of the data
before diving into specific questions.

Identify Relevant Data: For each question, pinpoint the exact rows and columns
that contain the necessary information.

Calculations: Be prepared to perform basic arithmetic operations (addition,

subtraction, multiplication, division) and percentage calculations.

Cross-Referencing: Some questions might require combining data from

different rows or columns.

5.4 Line Graphs

Line graphs display data points connected by lines, typically used to show trends over
time. They are effective for visualizing changes and patterns in data series.

Key Concepts:

Axes: The horizontal axis (X-axis) usually represents time or categories, and the
vertical axis (Y-axis) represents the values.

Trends: Observe the slope of the line to identify increases, decreases, or stability.

Multiple Lines: A single graph can show multiple data series, allowing for
comparison of trends.

Solved Examples:

Example 5.4.1: The line graph below shows the temperature (in $ ^\circ C $) in a city
over 5 days.

(Note: This is a placeholder for a line graph image. In the final PDF, a proper image will
be inserted.)
Question: On which day was the temperature the lowest, and what was that
temperature?

Solution: By observing the line graph, the lowest point is on Day 3. The temperature
on Day 3 was $ 18^\circ C $.

Answer: Day 3, with $ 18^\circ C $.

Example 5.4.2: What was the average temperature over the 5 days?

Solution: Temperatures: 20, 22, 18, 25, 23 Sum of temperatures = $ 20 + 22 + 18 +

25 + 23 = 108 $ Number of days = 5

\text{Average Temperature} = \frac{108}{5} = 21.6^\circ C

Answer: The average temperature over the 5 days was $ 21.6^\circ C $.

Tips and Tricks for Line Graphs:

Identify Trends: Look for overall increases, decreases, or fluctuations. Note the
steepest rises or falls.

Compare Lines: If multiple lines are present, compare their relative positions
and trends.

Interpolation/Extrapolation: Be careful with making predictions outside the

given data range (extrapolation) or estimating values between data points
(interpolation).

Units and Scale: Always check the units on both axes and the scale to accurately
interpret the data.

5.5 Word-based Data Analysis

Word-based data analysis problems present information in narrative form, requiring

you to extract relevant numerical data, organize it, and then perform calculations or
logical deductions to answer questions. These problems test your comprehension and
analytical skills.

Key Concepts:

Information Extraction: Carefully read the problem to identify all numerical

values and relationships.
 Organization: It can be helpful to jot down the information in a structured way
(e.g., list, small table) to avoid missing details.

Logical Deduction: Use the given information to infer unknown values or

relationships.

Solved Examples:

Example 5.5.1: In a class of 50 students, 30 students like Math, 25 students like

Science, and 10 students like both Math and Science. How many students like neither
Math nor Science?

Solution: Total students = 50 Students who like Math ($ M $) = 30 Students who like
Science ($ S $) = 25 Students who like both ($ M \cap S $) = 10

Students who like Math OR Science ($ M \cup S $) = Students who like Math + Students
who like Science - Students who like both

= 30 + 25 - 10 = 45

Students who like neither Math nor Science = Total students - Students who like Math
OR Science

= 50 - 45 = 5

Answer: 5 students like neither Math nor Science.

Example 5.5.2: A survey was conducted among 100 people about their favorite fruits.
60 people liked Apples, 45 liked Bananas, and 20 liked both. How many people liked
only Apples?

Solution: Total people = 100 Liked Apples ($ A $) = 60 Liked Bananas ($ B $) = 45 Liked

both ($ A \cap B $) = 20

People who liked only Apples = Liked Apples - Liked both

= 60 - 20 = 40

Answer: 40 people liked only Apples.

Tips and Tricks for Word-based Data Analysis:

 Read Carefully, Multiple Times: These problems often contain subtle details.
Read the entire problem statement at least twice.

Break Down Information: Extract one piece of information at a time. Don't try to
process everything at once.

Draw Diagrams (Venn Diagrams): For problems involving overlapping

categories (like in Example 5.5.1), drawing a Venn diagram can be extremely
helpful to visualize the relationships and avoid double-counting.

Formulate Equations: Convert the verbal statements into mathematical

equations to solve for unknowns.

Check for Consistency: After arriving at an answer, quickly check if it makes

sense in the context of the original problem statement.

6. Logical/Analytical Math

Logical/Analytical Math questions assess your reasoning abilities, pattern recognition,

and problem-solving skills beyond direct application of formulas. These problems
often require a systematic approach and careful deduction.

6.1 Series (Number Series, Letter Series)

Series problems involve identifying the pattern in a given sequence of numbers or

letters and then finding the missing term or the next term in the series.

Key Concepts:

Number Series: Look for patterns involving addition, subtraction, multiplication,

division, squares, cubes, prime numbers, alternating patterns, or combinations
of these.

Letter Series: Each letter corresponds to a number (A=1, B=2, etc.). Look for
patterns in the numerical positions of the letters.

Solved Examples:

Example 6.1.1: What number comes next in the series: 2, 4, 8, 16, ?

Solution: Observe the pattern: Each number is double the previous number. $ 2
\times 2 = 4 $ $ 4 \times 2 = 8 $ $ 8 \times 2 = 16 $

So, the next number will be $ 16 \times 2 = 32 $.

Answer: 32

Example 6.1.2: What number comes next in the series: 1, 4, 9, 16, 25, ?

Solution: Observe the pattern: Each number is the square of consecutive natural
numbers. $ 1^2 = 1 $ $ 2^2 = 4 $ $ 3^2 = 9 $ $ 4^2 = 16 $ $ 5^2 = 25 $

So, the next number will be $ 6^2 = 36 $.

Answer: 36

Example 6.1.3: What comes next in the series: A, C, E, G, ?

Solution: Convert letters to their numerical positions: A=1, C=3, E=5, G=7

Observe the pattern: The numbers are increasing by 2 each time. $ 1 + 2 = 3 $ $ 3 +

2 = 5$$5 + 2 = 7$

So, the next number will be $ 7 + 2 = 9 $, which corresponds to the letter I.

Answer: I

Tips and Tricks for Series:

Look for Differences: Calculate the differences between consecutive terms. If

the first differences don't reveal a pattern, look at the differences of the
differences (second differences).

Look for Ratios: Check if there's a constant ratio between terms

(multiplication/division series).

Alternating Patterns: Sometimes, two different patterns alternate within the

same series.

Squares/Cubes: Be familiar with squares and cubes of numbers, as they

frequently appear in series.

Prime Numbers: Check if the series involves prime numbers.

 Alphabetical Positions: For letter series, always convert letters to their
numerical positions to find the underlying pattern.

6.2 Sequences and Patterns

This category is closely related to series but can also include visual patterns or more
complex logical sequences that don't strictly follow arithmetic or geometric
progressions.

Key Concepts:

Arithmetic Progression (AP): A sequence where the difference between

consecutive terms is constant (common difference).

Geometric Progression (GP): A sequence where the ratio between consecutive

terms is constant (common ratio).

Fibonacci Sequence: A sequence where each number is the sum of the two
preceding ones (e.g., 0, 1, 1, 2, 3, 5, 8...).

Visual Patterns: Identifying repeating elements, rotations, reflections, or

changes in shape/color.

Solved Examples:

Example 6.2.1: Find the next term in the sequence: 5, 10, 15, 20, ?

Solution: This is an arithmetic progression with a common difference of 5. $ 5 + 5 =

10 $ $ 10 + 5 = 15 $ $ 15 + 5 = 20 $

So, the next term is $ 20 + 5 = 25 $.

Answer: 25

Example 6.2.2: Find the next term in the sequence: 3, 9, 27, 81, ?

Solution: This is a geometric progression with a common ratio of 3. $ 3 \times 3 =

9 $ $ 9 \times 3 = 27 $ $ 27 \times 3 = 81 $

So, the next term is $ 81 \times 3 = 243 $.

Answer: 243

Tips and Tricks for Sequences and Patterns:

 Systematic Approach: Don't jump to conclusions. Systematically test for
common differences, common ratios, squares, cubes, or combinations.

Look for Multiple Layers: Sometimes the pattern is not immediately obvious
and might involve a pattern in the differences, or a combination of operations.

Consider Position: The position of the term in the sequence (1st, 2nd, 3rd...) can
sometimes be part of the pattern (e.g., $ n^2 $, $ 2n+1 $).

6.3 Age Problems

Age problems involve calculating the current or future/past ages of individuals based
on given relationships and conditions. These problems often require setting up linear
equations.

Key Concepts:

Representing Ages: Use variables (e.g., $ x, y $) for current ages.

Past/Future Ages: If current age is $ x $, then age $ n $ years ago was $ x - n $,

and age $ n $ years from now will be $ x + n $.

Relationships: Translate phrases like \"twice as old\", \"sum of ages\", \"ratio of

ages\" into mathematical equations.

Solved Examples:

Example 6.3.1: The sum of the ages of a father and his son is 60 years. Six years ago,
the father\"s age was five times the son\"s age. Find their current ages.

Solution: Let the current age of the father be $ F $ and the current age of the son be
$ S $.

From the first statement:

F + S = 60 \quad \text{(Equation 1)}

Six years ago: Father\"s age = $ F - 6 $ Son\"s age = $ S - 6 $

From the second statement:

F - 6 = 5(S - 6)
 F - 6 = 5S - 30

F = 5S - 24 \quad \text{(Equation 2)}

Substitute Equation 2 into Equation 1:

(5S - 24) + S = 60

6S - 24 = 60

6S = 84

S = \frac{84}{6} = 14

Now find $ F $ using Equation 1:

F + 14 = 60

F = 60 - 14 = 46

Answer: The father\"s current age is 46 years, and the son\"s current age is 14 years.

Example 6.3.2: The ratio of the ages of A and B is 3:5. After 10 years, their ages will be
in the ratio 2:3. Find their current ages.

Solution: Let the current ages of A and B be $ 3x $ and $ 5x $ respectively.

After 10 years: Age of A = $ 3x + 10 $ Age of B = $ 5x + 10 $

The ratio of their ages after 10 years will be 2:3:

\frac{3x + 10}{5x + 10} = \frac{2}{3}

Cross-multiply:

3(3x + 10) = 2(5x + 10)

9x + 30 = 10x + 20
 30 - 20 = 10x - 9x

x = 10

Current age of A = $ 3x = 3 \times 10 = 30 $ years. Current age of B = $ 5x = 5

\times 10 = 50 $ years.

Answer: The current age of A is 30 years, and the current age of B is 50 years.

Tips and Tricks for Age Problems:

Define Variables Clearly: Always start by defining variables for the current ages
of the individuals involved.

Formulate Equations: Translate each piece of information into a separate

equation. This is the most critical step.

Consistent Time Frame: Ensure that all ages in an equation refer to the same
point in time (e.g., all current ages, or all ages 5 years ago).

\"Ago\" vs. \"Hence\": \"Years ago\" means subtract from current age; \"years
hence\" or \"after years\" means add to current age.

6.4 Calendar and Clock Problems

These problems involve calculating days of the week, dates, angles between clock
hands, and other time-related puzzles. They often require understanding of cycles and
relative movements.

Key Concepts:

Odd Days (Calendar): The number of days remaining after dividing the total
number of days by 7. (e.g., 10 days = 1 week + 3 odd days).
Ordinary year = 365 days = 52 weeks + 1 odd day.

Leap year = 366 days = 52 weeks + 2 odd days.

A year is a leap year if it is divisible by 4, unless it is a century year (e.g.,

1900) not divisible by 400.

Clock Angles:
Angle traced by hour hand in 12 hours = $ 360^\circ $.
 Angle traced by hour hand in 1 hour = $ 30^\circ $.

Angle traced by hour hand in 1 minute = $ 0.5^\circ $.

Angle traced by minute hand in 60 minutes = $ 360^\circ $.

Angle traced by minute hand in 1 minute = $ 6^\circ $.

Angle between hands at H hours M minutes = $ |30H - 11M/2| $.

Solved Examples:

Example 6.4.1 (Calendar): If today is Monday, what day of the week will it be after 61
days?

Solution: Number of odd days in 61 days = $ 61 \div 7 = 8 $ weeks and 5 odd days.

Starting from Monday, count 5 days forward: Monday + 1 day = Tuesday Monday + 2
days = Wednesday Monday + 3 days = Thursday Monday + 4 days = Friday Monday + 5
days = Saturday

Answer: It will be Saturday.

Example 6.4.2 (Calendar): What was the day of the week on January 1, 2001?

Solution: We know that January 1, 2000, was a Saturday (a common reference point
for these problems, or you can calculate from a known date like Jan 1, 1 AD).

From Jan 1, 2000 to Jan 1, 2001, there is 1 year. 2000 was a leap year (divisible by 400).
So, the period from Jan 1, 2000 to Jan 1, 2001 includes Feb 29, 2000. Number of odd
days = 2 (for a leap year).

Day of the week = Saturday + 2 days = Monday.

Answer: January 1, 2001, was a Monday.

Example 6.4.3 (Clock): At what angle are the hands of a clock at 4:20?

Solution: Using the formula: Angle = $ |30H - 11M/2| $ Here, H = 4, M = 20

\text{Angle} = \left| 30(4) - \frac{11(20)}{2} \right|

= |120 - 110| = 10^\circ

Answer: The angle between the hands of the clock at 4:20 is $ 10^\circ $.

Tips and Tricks for Calendar and Clock Problems:

Master Odd Days: The concept of odd days is central to calendar problems.
Practice calculating odd days for different periods (days, months, years).

Leap Year Rule: Remember the rule for leap years (divisible by 4, but century
years must be divisible by 400).

Reference Point: For calendar problems, having a known reference date (e.g.,
Jan 1, 1 AD was Monday, or Jan 1, 2000 was Saturday) can simplify calculations.

Clock Formula: Memorize the angle formula for clock hands. It's a direct
application.

Relative Speed (Clock): The minute hand gains $ 5.5^\circ $ on the hour hand
every minute ($ 6^\circ - 0.5^\circ $). This can be useful for problems
involving when hands coincide or are opposite.

7. Basic Statistics

Basic statistics involves methods for collecting, organizing, analyzing, interpreting, and
presenting data. While less frequent in general PPSC exams, some roles (especially
educator/admin) might include fundamental statistical concepts.

7.1 Mean, Median, Mode

These are measures of central tendency, providing a single value that attempts to
describe a set of data by identifying the central position within that set.

Key Concepts:

Mean (Arithmetic Mean): The average of a set of numbers. Calculated by

summing all values and dividing by the count of values. ```math \text{Mean} =
\frac{\sum x}{n}
 Where $`\sum x`$ is the sum of all values and $`n`$ is the number of
values.

* **Median:** The middle value in a dataset that is ordered from least to

greatest. If there is an even number of observations, the median is the average
of the two middle values.

* **Mode:** The value that appears most frequently in a dataset. A dataset

can have one mode (unimodal), more than one mode (multimodal), or no mode.

**Solved Examples:**

**Example 7.1.1:** Find the mean, median, and mode of the following dataset:
10, 12, 15, 12, 18, 12, 20.

**Solution:**
**Mean:**
Sum of values = $`10 + 12 + 15 + 12 + 18 + 12 + 20 = 99`$
Number of values = 7
```math
\text{Mean} = \frac{99}{7} \approx 14.14

Median: First, order the dataset: 10, 12, 12, 12, 15, 18, 20 Since there are 7 values (odd
number), the median is the middle value, which is the 4th term. Median = 12

Mode: The value that appears most frequently is 12 (it appears 3 times). Mode = 12

Answer: Mean $ \approx 14.14 $, Median = 12, Mode = 12.

Example 7.1.2: Find the median of the following dataset: 5, 8, 12, 15, 18, 20.

Solution: The dataset is already ordered: 5, 8, 12, 15, 18, 20 Number of values = 6 (even
number).

The median is the average of the two middle values (3rd and 4th terms). Middle values
are 12 and 15.

\text{Median} = \frac{12 + 15}{2} = \frac{27}{2} = 13.5

Answer: Median = 13.5.

Tips and Tricks for Mean, Median, Mode:

Order for Median: Always arrange the data in ascending or descending order
before finding the median.

Mode is Frequency: The mode is simply the most frequent value. It can be easily
identified by counting occurrences.
 Outliers Impact Mean: The mean is sensitive to extreme values (outliers), while
the median is more robust.

Context Matters: Choose the appropriate measure of central tendency based on

the data type and the question being asked.

7.2 Frequency and Range

Frequency and range are basic statistical measures that describe the distribution and
spread of data.

Key Concepts:

Frequency: The number of times a particular value or category appears in a

dataset.

Frequency Distribution: A table or graph that shows how often each value or
range of values occurs in a dataset.

Range: The difference between the highest and lowest values in a dataset. It is a
simple measure of data dispersion. ```math \text{Range} = \text{Highest Value} -
\text{Lowest Value}
 **Solved Examples:**

**Example 7.2.1:** For the dataset: 5, 7, 8, 5, 9, 7, 5, 10, 8. Create a

frequency distribution table and find the mode.

**Solution:**
Dataset: 5, 7, 8, 5, 9, 7, 5, 10, 8

**Frequency Distribution Table:**

| Value | Frequency |
| :---- | :-------- |
| 5 | 3 |
| 7 | 2 |
| 8 | 2 |
| 9 | 1 |
| 10 | 1 |

**Mode:** The value with the highest frequency is 5.

Mode = 5

**Answer:** Mode = 5.

**Example 7.2.2:** Find the range of the following scores: 65, 72, 58, 85, 60,
91, 78.

**Solution:**
Dataset: 65, 72, 58, 85, 60, 91, 78

Highest Value = 91
Lowest Value = 58

```math
\text{Range} = \text{Highest Value} - \text{Lowest Value} = 91 - 58 = 33

Answer: The range of the scores is 33.

Tips and Tricks for Frequency and Range:

Tally Marks: When creating a frequency table from raw data, use tally marks to
count occurrences, then sum them up.

Order for Range: It's helpful to quickly sort the data (or just scan for min/max) to
find the highest and lowest values for calculating the range.

Limitations of Range: While easy to calculate, range is highly affected by outliers

and doesn't provide information about the distribution of data between the
extremes.
Dimensions of Math Skills Tested

Beyond just knowing formulas, PPSC exams assess various dimensions of your
mathematical skills. Understanding these dimensions can help you tailor your
preparation to not only memorize concepts but also develop the necessary cognitive
abilities.

Calculation Speed

Description: The ability to perform arithmetic operations quickly and accurately, often
under time pressure.

Sample Question: What is 25% of 640?

Tips for Improvement:

Mental Math Practice: Regularly practice calculations in your head without

relying on a calculator.

Memorize Tables: Know multiplication tables up to at least 20, and

squares/cubes up to 20.

Percentage-Fraction Equivalents: As mentioned before, knowing these speeds

up percentage calculations.

Vedic Math Techniques: Explore techniques from Vedic mathematics for faster
calculations (e.g., multiplication, division tricks).

Problem Solving

Description: Applying mathematical concepts and logical reasoning to solve real-

world or abstract problems, often requiring multiple steps.

Sample Question: A train covers 300 km in 3 hours. What is its speed?

Tips for Improvement:

Understand the Problem: Read the problem carefully to grasp what is being
asked and what information is given.

Identify Key Information: Filter out irrelevant details and focus on the numbers
and relationships that matter.
 Break Down Complex Problems: Divide a large problem into smaller,
manageable steps.

Draw Diagrams: For geometry or word problems, a simple sketch can often
clarify the situation.

Practice Diverse Problems: Work through a wide variety of problem types to

build flexibility in your approach.

Analytical Thinking

Description: Recognizing patterns, identifying underlying logic, and making

deductions based on given information.

Sample Question: What number comes next in the series: 2, 4, 8, 16, ?

Tips for Improvement:

Pattern Recognition Exercises: Practice number series, letter series, and visual
pattern questions regularly.

Logical Puzzles: Engage with logical puzzles and brain teasers to sharpen your
deductive reasoning.

Critical Reading: Learn to read questions critically, looking for implied

relationships and conditions.

Comprehension

Description: Understanding and interpreting word problems, data presented in

graphs or tables, and complex instructions.

Sample Question: If 3 men can do a job in 6 days, how many days will 6 men take?

Tips for Improvement:

Active Reading: Don't just skim. Read word problems slowly and carefully,
identifying keywords and phrases.

Paraphrase: Try to rephrase the problem in your own words to ensure you've
understood it correctly.

Identify Given and Required: Clearly distinguish between what information is

provided and what needs to be found.
 Practice Data Interpretation: Work extensively with bar graphs, pie charts,
tables, and line graphs to improve your ability to extract and interpret data.

Data Interpretation

Description: The ability to read, analyze, and make inferences from data presented in
various graphical or tabular formats.

Sample Question: What was the highest sales figure in the pie chart shown?

Tips for Improvement:

Understand Chart Types: Know the strengths and weaknesses of each chart
type (bar, pie, line) and what kind of information they best convey.

Practice Speed Reading Data: Develop the ability to quickly scan charts and
tables for key information.

Focus on Questions: Read the questions first, then go to the data to find the
specific information needed.

Avoid Assumptions: Only use the information explicitly provided in the data. Do
not make outside assumptions.

Conclusion

This guide has provided a comprehensive overview of the quantitative aptitude topics
essential for the PPSC examinations. By mastering the key concepts, formulas, and
problem-solving techniques discussed in each section, you will be well-equipped to
tackle a wide range of questions.

Remember that consistent practice is the cornerstone of success in quantitative

aptitude. Work through as many solved examples and practice questions as possible.
Pay attention to the tips and tricks provided, as they are designed to enhance your
speed and accuracy, crucial elements for competitive exams.

Regular revision of formulas and concepts, coupled with timed practice sessions, will
significantly boost your confidence and performance. We wish you the very best in
your PPSC examination preparation. Stay focused, stay persistent, and success will be
within your reach!
5. Data Interpretation

Data Interpretation (DI) involves extracting, analyzing, and drawing conclusions from
data presented in various formats such as tables, graphs (bar, pie, line), and charts.
This section assesses your ability to quickly understand and interpret numerical
information to answer questions.

5.1 Bar Graphs

Bar graphs use rectangular bars to represent data, with the length or height of the bar
proportional to the value it represents. They are useful for comparing quantities across
different categories.

Key Concepts:

Axes: Understand what each axis represents (e.g., categories on X-axis, values on
Y-axis).

Scale: Pay attention to the scale used on the value axis.

Comparison: Bar graphs are excellent for direct comparisons between different
categories.

Solved Examples:

Example 5.1.1: The bar graph below shows the sales of different car models (in
thousands) in a month.

(Note: This is a placeholder for a bar graph image. In the final PDF, a proper image will
be inserted.)

Question: Which car model had the highest sales, and what was its sales figure?
Solution: By observing the bar graph, Model B has the tallest bar, indicating the
highest sales. Its sales figure is 70 (in thousands).

Answer: Model B, with 70,000 units.

Example 5.1.2: What is the difference in sales between Model A and Model C?

Solution: Sales of Model A = 50,000 units Sales of Model C = 40,000 units

Difference = $ 50,000 - 40,000 = 10,000 $ units.

Answer: The difference in sales is 10,000 units.

Tips and Tricks for Bar Graphs:

Read Labels Carefully: Always start by reading the title, axis labels, and units to
understand what the graph represents.

Compare Heights/Lengths: For comparison questions, visually compare the

heights or lengths of the bars.

Estimate if Necessary: If exact values are not marked, estimate based on the
scale.

Look for Trends: While primarily for comparison, sometimes bar graphs can
show simple trends over time if categories are ordered chronologically.

5.2 Pie Charts

Pie charts (or circle graphs) represent parts of a whole, where the entire circle
represents 100% of the data, and each slice represents a proportion of that whole.
They are ideal for showing the composition of a single entity.

Key Concepts:

Whole: The entire circle represents the total quantity (100% or $ 360^\circ $).

Slices: Each slice represents a category, with its size proportional to its share of
the total.

Percentages/Degrees: Slices are often labeled with percentages or degrees,

which sum up to 100% or $ 360^\circ $ respectively.

Solved Examples:
Example 5.2.1: The pie chart below shows the expenditure of a family on various
items.

(Note: This is a placeholder for a pie chart image. In the final PDF, a proper image will
be inserted.)

Question: If the total monthly income of the family is $50,000, how much is spent on
Education?

Solution: From the pie chart, Education accounts for 20% of the expenditure.

Amount spent on Education = 20% of $50,000

= \frac{20}{100} \times 50000 = 0.20 \times 50000 = \$10,000

Answer: $10,000 is spent on Education.

Example 5.2.2: What is the central angle for the \"Rent\" category?
Solution: Rent accounts for 25% of the expenditure. Total angle in a circle =
$ 360^\circ $.

Central angle for Rent = 25% of $ 360^\circ $

= \frac{25}{100} \times 360 = \frac{1}{4} \times 360 = 90^\circ

Answer: The central angle for the \"Rent\" category is $ 90^\circ $.

Tips and Tricks for Pie Charts:

Total is 100% (or 360°): Always remember that all segments sum up to 100% of
the total quantity or $ 360^\circ $ of the circle.

Convert to Value: If the total value is given, convert percentages or degrees into
actual values for each segment.

Compare Segments: To compare two segments, you can compare their

percentages directly or calculate their individual values.

Avoid Misinterpretation: Pie charts are not suitable for showing changes over
time or comparing multiple categories across different datasets.

5.3 Tables

Tables present data in rows and columns, providing a structured way to organize and
display information. They are versatile and can present a large amount of precise data.

Key Concepts:

Rows and Columns: Understand what each row and column represents.

Headers: Pay attention to column headers and row labels for context.

Units: Note the units of measurement for the data.

Solved Examples:

Example 5.3.1: The table below shows the number of students in different streams in
a college over two years.
 Stream 2023 2024

Engineering 300 350

Medical 250 280

Arts 400 380

Commerce 320 360

Question: What was the total number of students in the college in 2024?

Solution: Total students in 2024 = Engineering (2024) + Medical (2024) + Arts (2024) +
Commerce (2024)

= 350 + 280 + 380 + 360 = 1370

Answer: The total number of students in the college in 2024 was 1370.

Example 5.3.2: Which stream showed the highest percentage increase in student
numbers from 2023 to 2024?

Solution: Calculate percentage increase for each stream:

Engineering: ```math \frac{350 - 300}{300} \times 100 = \frac{50}{300} \times

100 = 16.67\%

* **Medical:**
```math
\frac{280 - 250}{250} \times 100 = \frac{30}{250} \times 100 = 12\%

Arts: ```math \frac{380 - 400}{400} \times 100 = -5\% \quad \text{(decrease)}

* **Commerce:**
```math
\frac{360 - 320}{320} \times 100 = \frac{40}{320} \times 100 = 12.5\%

Comparing the increases: Engineering (16.67%), Medical (12%), Commerce (12.5%).

Answer: Engineering showed the highest percentage increase.

Tips and Tricks for Tables:

 Scan for Overview: Quickly scan the table to get a general idea of the data
before diving into specific questions.

Identify Relevant Data: For each question, pinpoint the exact rows and columns
that contain the necessary information.

Calculations: Be prepared to perform basic arithmetic operations (addition,

subtraction, multiplication, division) and percentage calculations.

Cross-Referencing: Some questions might require combining data from

different rows or columns.

5.4 Line Graphs

Line graphs display data points connected by lines, typically used to show trends over
time. They are effective for visualizing changes and patterns in data series.

Key Concepts:

Axes: The horizontal axis (X-axis) usually represents time or categories, and the
vertical axis (Y-axis) represents the values.

Trends: Observe the slope of the line to identify increases, decreases, or stability.

Multiple Lines: A single graph can show multiple data series, allowing for
comparison of trends.

Solved Examples:

Example 5.4.1: The line graph below shows the temperature (in $ ^\circ C $) in a city
over 5 days.

(Note: This is a placeholder for a line graph image. In the final PDF, a proper image will
be inserted.)
Question: On which day was the temperature the lowest, and what was that
temperature?

Solution: By observing the line graph, the lowest point is on Day 3. The temperature
on Day 3 was $ 18^\circ C $.

Answer: Day 3, with $ 18^\circ C $.

Example 5.4.2: What was the average temperature over the 5 days?

Solution: Temperatures: 20, 22, 18, 25, 23 Sum of temperatures = $ 20 + 22 + 18 +

25 + 23 = 108 $ Number of days = 5

\text{Average Temperature} = \frac{108}{5} = 21.6^\circ C

Answer: The average temperature over the 5 days was $ 21.6^\circ C $.

Tips and Tricks for Line Graphs:

Identify Trends: Look for overall increases, decreases, or fluctuations. Note the
steepest rises or falls.

Compare Lines: If multiple lines are present, compare their relative positions
and trends.

Interpolation/Extrapolation: Be careful with making predictions outside the

given data range (extrapolation) or estimating values between data points
(interpolation).

Units and Scale: Always check the units on both axes and the scale to accurately
interpret the data.

5.5 Word-based Data Analysis

Word-based data analysis problems present information in narrative form, requiring

you to extract relevant numerical data, organize it, and then perform calculations or
logical deductions to answer questions. These problems test your comprehension and
analytical skills.

Key Concepts:

Information Extraction: Carefully read the problem to identify all numerical

values and relationships.
 Organization: It can be helpful to jot down the information in a structured way
(e.g., list, small table) to avoid missing details.

Logical Deduction: Use the given information to infer unknown values or

relationships.

Solved Examples:

Example 5.5.1: In a class of 50 students, 30 students like Math, 25 students like

Science, and 10 students like both Math and Science. How many students like neither
Math nor Science?

Solution: Total students = 50 Students who like Math ($ M $) = 30 Students who like
Science ($ S $) = 25 Students who like both ($ M \cap S $) = 10

Students who like Math OR Science ($ M \cup S $) = Students who like Math + Students
who like Science - Students who like both

= 30 + 25 - 10 = 45

Students who like neither Math nor Science = Total students - Students who like Math
OR Science

= 50 - 45 = 5

Answer: 5 students like neither Math nor Science.

Example 5.5.2: A survey was conducted among 100 people about their favorite fruits.
60 people liked Apples, 45 liked Bananas, and 20 liked both. How many people liked
only Apples?

Solution: Total people = 100 Liked Apples ($ A $) = 60 Liked Bananas ($ B $) = 45 Liked

both ($ A \cap B $) = 20

People who liked only Apples = Liked Apples - Liked both

= 60 - 20 = 40

Answer: 40 people liked only Apples.

Tips and Tricks for Word-based Data Analysis:

 Read Carefully, Multiple Times: These problems often contain subtle details.
Read the entire problem statement at least twice.

Break Down Information: Extract one piece of information at a time. Don't try to
process everything at once.

Draw Diagrams (Venn Diagrams): For problems involving overlapping

categories (like in Example 5.5.1), drawing a Venn diagram can be extremely
helpful to visualize the relationships and avoid double-counting.

Formulate Equations: Convert the verbal statements into mathematical

equations to solve for unknowns.

Check for Consistency: After arriving at an answer, quickly check if it makes

sense in the context of the original problem statement.

6. Logical/Analytical Math

Logical/Analytical Math questions assess your reasoning abilities, pattern recognition,

and problem-solving skills beyond direct application of formulas. These problems
often require a systematic approach and careful deduction.

6.1 Series (Number Series, Letter Series)

Series problems involve identifying the pattern in a given sequence of numbers or

letters and then finding the missing term or the next term in the series.

Key Concepts:

Number Series: Look for patterns involving addition, subtraction, multiplication,

division, squares, cubes, prime numbers, alternating patterns, or combinations
of these.

Letter Series: Each letter corresponds to a number (A=1, B=2, etc.). Look for
patterns in the numerical positions of the letters.

Solved Examples:

Example 6.1.1: What number comes next in the series: 2, 4, 8, 16, ?

Solution: Observe the pattern: Each number is double the previous number. $ 2
\times 2 = 4 $ $ 4 \times 2 = 8 $ $ 8 \times 2 = 16 $

So, the next number will be $ 16 \times 2 = 32 $.

Answer: 32

Example 6.1.2: What number comes next in the series: 1, 4, 9, 16, 25, ?

Solution: Observe the pattern: Each number is the square of consecutive natural
numbers. $ 1^2 = 1 $ $ 2^2 = 4 $ $ 3^2 = 9 $ $ 4^2 = 16 $ $ 5^2 = 25 $

So, the next number will be $ 6^2 = 36 $.

Answer: 36

Example 6.1.3: What comes next in the series: A, C, E, G, ?

Solution: Convert letters to their numerical positions: A=1, C=3, E=5, G=7

Observe the pattern: The numbers are increasing by 2 each time. $ 1 + 2 = 3 $ $ 3 +

2 = 5$$5 + 2 = 7$

So, the next number will be $ 7 + 2 = 9 $, which corresponds to the letter I.

Answer: I

Tips and Tricks for Series:

Look for Differences: Calculate the differences between consecutive terms. If

the first differences don't reveal a pattern, look at the differences of the
differences (second differences).

Look for Ratios: Check if there's a constant ratio between terms

(multiplication/division series).

Alternating Patterns: Sometimes, two different patterns alternate within the

same series.

Squares/Cubes: Be familiar with squares and cubes of numbers, as they

frequently appear in series.

Prime Numbers: Check if the series involves prime numbers.

 Alphabetical Positions: For letter series, always convert letters to their
numerical positions to find the underlying pattern.

6.2 Sequences and Patterns

This category is closely related to series but can also include visual patterns or more
complex logical sequences that don't strictly follow arithmetic or geometric
progressions.

Key Concepts:

Arithmetic Progression (AP): A sequence where the difference between

consecutive terms is constant (common difference).

Geometric Progression (GP): A sequence where the ratio between consecutive

terms is constant (common ratio).

Fibonacci Sequence: A sequence where each number is the sum of the two
preceding ones (e.g., 0, 1, 1, 2, 3, 5, 8...).

Visual Patterns: Identifying repeating elements, rotations, reflections, or

changes in shape/color.

Solved Examples:

Example 6.2.1: Find the next term in the sequence: 5, 10, 15, 20, ?

Solution: This is an arithmetic progression with a common difference of 5. $ 5 + 5 =

10 $ $ 10 + 5 = 15 $ $ 15 + 5 = 20 $

So, the next term is $ 20 + 5 = 25 $.

Answer: 25

Example 6.2.2: Find the next term in the sequence: 3, 9, 27, 81, ?

Solution: This is a geometric progression with a common ratio of 3. $ 3 \times 3 =

9 $ $ 9 \times 3 = 27 $ $ 27 \times 3 = 81 $

So, the next term is $ 81 \times 3 = 243 $.

Answer: 243

Tips and Tricks for Sequences and Patterns:

 Systematic Approach: Don't jump to conclusions. Systematically test for
common differences, common ratios, squares, cubes, or combinations.

Look for Multiple Layers: Sometimes the pattern is not immediately obvious
and might involve a pattern in the differences, or a combination of operations.

Consider Position: The position of the term in the sequence (1st, 2nd, 3rd...) can
sometimes be part of the pattern (e.g., $ n^2 $, $ 2n+1 $).

6.3 Age Problems

Age problems involve calculating the current or future/past ages of individuals based
on given relationships and conditions. These problems often require setting up linear
equations.

Key Concepts:

Representing Ages: Use variables (e.g., $ x, y $) for current ages.

Past/Future Ages: If current age is $ x $, then age $ n $ years ago was $ x - n $,

and age $ n $ years from now will be $ x + n $.

Relationships: Translate phrases like \"twice as old\", \"sum of ages\", \"ratio of

ages\" into mathematical equations.

Solved Examples:

Example 6.3.1: The sum of the ages of a father and his son is 60 years. Six years ago,
the father\"s age was five times the son\"s age. Find their current ages.

Solution: Let the current age of the father be $ F $ and the current age of the son be
$ S $.

From the first statement:

F + S = 60 \quad \text{(Equation 1)}

Six years ago: Father\"s age = $ F - 6 $ Son\"s age = $ S - 6 $

From the second statement:

F - 6 = 5(S - 6)
 F - 6 = 5S - 30

F = 5S - 24 \quad \text{(Equation 2)}

Substitute Equation 2 into Equation 1:

(5S - 24) + S = 60

6S - 24 = 60

6S = 84

S = \frac{84}{6} = 14

Now find $ F $ using Equation 1:

F + 14 = 60

F = 60 - 14 = 46

Answer: The father\"s current age is 46 years, and the son\"s current age is 14 years.

Example 6.3.2: The ratio of the ages of A and B is 3:5. After 10 years, their ages will be
in the ratio 2:3. Find their current ages.

Solution: Let the current ages of A and B be $ 3x $ and $ 5x $ respectively.

After 10 years: Age of A = $ 3x + 10 $ Age of B = $ 5x + 10 $

The ratio of their ages after 10 years will be 2:3:

\frac{3x + 10}{5x + 10} = \frac{2}{3}

Cross-multiply:

3(3x + 10) = 2(5x + 10)

9x + 30 = 10x + 20
 30 - 20 = 10x - 9x

x = 10

Current age of A = $ 3x = 3 \times 10 = 30 $ years. Current age of B = $ 5x = 5

\times 10 = 50 $ years.

Answer: The current age of A is 30 years, and the current age of B is 50 years.

Tips and Tricks for Age Problems:

Define Variables Clearly: Always start by defining variables for the current ages
of the individuals involved.

Formulate Equations: Translate each piece of information into a separate

equation. This is the most critical step.

Consistent Time Frame: Ensure that all ages in an equation refer to the same
point in time (e.g., all current ages, or all ages 5 years ago).

\"Ago\" vs. \"Hence\": \"Years ago\" means subtract from current age; \"years
hence\" or \"after years\" means add to current age.

6.4 Calendar and Clock Problems

These problems involve calculating days of the week, dates, angles between clock
hands, and other time-related puzzles. They often require understanding of cycles and
relative movements.

Key Concepts:

Odd Days (Calendar): The number of days remaining after dividing the total
number of days by 7. (e.g., 10 days = 1 week + 3 odd days).
Ordinary year = 365 days = 52 weeks + 1 odd day.

Leap year = 366 days = 52 weeks + 2 odd days.

A year is a leap year if it is divisible by 4, unless it is a century year (e.g.,

1900) not divisible by 400.

Clock Angles:
Angle traced by hour hand in 12 hours = $ 360^\circ $.
 Angle traced by hour hand in 1 hour = $ 30^\circ $.

Angle traced by hour hand in 1 minute = $ 0.5^\circ $.

Angle traced by minute hand in 60 minutes = $ 360^\circ $.

Angle traced by minute hand in 1 minute = $ 6^\circ $.

Angle between hands at H hours M minutes = $ |30H - 11M/2| $.

Solved Examples:

Example 6.4.1 (Calendar): If today is Monday, what day of the week will it be after 61
days?

Solution: Number of odd days in 61 days = $ 61 \div 7 = 8 $ weeks and 5 odd days.

Starting from Monday, count 5 days forward: Monday + 1 day = Tuesday Monday + 2
days = Wednesday Monday + 3 days = Thursday Monday + 4 days = Friday Monday + 5
days = Saturday

Answer: It will be Saturday.

Example 6.4.2 (Calendar): What was the day of the week on January 1, 2001?

Solution: We know that January 1, 2000, was a Saturday (a common reference point
for these problems, or you can calculate from a known date like Jan 1, 1 AD).

From Jan 1, 2000 to Jan 1, 2001, there is 1 year. 2000 was a leap year (divisible by 400).
So, the period from Jan 1, 2000 to Jan 1, 2001 includes Feb 29, 2000. Number of odd
days = 2 (for a leap year).

Day of the week = Saturday + 2 days = Monday.

Answer: January 1, 2001, was a Monday.

Example 6.4.3 (Clock): At what angle are the hands of a clock at 4:20?

Solution: Using the formula: Angle = $ |30H - 11M/2| $ Here, H = 4, M = 20

\text{Angle} = \left| 30(4) - \frac{11(20)}{2} \right|

= |120 - 110| = 10^\circ

Answer: The angle between the hands of the clock at 4:20 is $ 10^\circ $.

Tips and Tricks for Calendar and Clock Problems:

Master Odd Days: The concept of odd days is central to calendar problems.
Practice calculating odd days for different periods (days, months, years).

Leap Year Rule: Remember the rule for leap years (divisible by 4, but century
years must be divisible by 400).

Reference Point: For calendar problems, having a known reference date (e.g.,
Jan 1, 1 AD was Monday, or Jan 1, 2000 was Saturday) can simplify calculations.

Clock Formula: Memorize the angle formula for clock hands. It's a direct
application.

Relative Speed (Clock): The minute hand gains $ 5.5^\circ $ on the hour hand
every minute ($ 6^\circ - 0.5^\circ $). This can be useful for problems
involving when hands coincide or are opposite.

7. Basic Statistics

Basic statistics involves methods for collecting, organizing, analyzing, interpreting, and
presenting data. While less frequent in general PPSC exams, some roles (especially
educator/admin) might include fundamental statistical concepts.

7.1 Mean, Median, Mode

These are measures of central tendency, providing a single value that attempts to
describe a set of data by identifying the central position within that set.

Key Concepts:

Mean (Arithmetic Mean): The average of a set of numbers. Calculated by

summing all values and dividing by the count of values. ```math \text{Mean} =
\frac{\sum x}{n}
 Where $`\sum x`$ is the sum of all values and $`n`$ is the number of
values.

* **Median:** The middle value in a dataset that is ordered from least to

greatest. If there is an even number of observations, the median is the average
of the two middle values.

* **Mode:** The value that appears most frequently in a dataset. A dataset

can have one mode (unimodal), more than one mode (multimodal), or no mode.

**Solved Examples:**

**Example 7.1.1:** Find the mean, median, and mode of the following dataset:
10, 12, 15, 12, 18, 12, 20.

**Solution:**
**Mean:**
Sum of values = $`10 + 12 + 15 + 12 + 18 + 12 + 20 = 99`$
Number of values = 7
```math
\text{Mean} = \frac{99}{7} \approx 14.14

Median: First, order the dataset: 10, 12, 12, 12, 15, 18, 20 Since there are 7 values (odd
number), the median is the middle value, which is the 4th term. Median = 12

Mode: The value that appears most frequently is 12 (it appears 3 times). Mode = 12

Answer: Mean $ \approx 14.14 $, Median = 12, Mode = 12.

Example 7.1.2: Find the median of the following dataset: 5, 8, 12, 15, 18, 20.

Solution: The dataset is already ordered: 5, 8, 12, 15, 18, 20 Number of values = 6 (even
number).

The median is the average of the two middle values (3rd and 4th terms). Middle values
are 12 and 15.

\text{Median} = \frac{12 + 15}{2} = \frac{27}{2} = 13.5

Answer: Median = 13.5.

Tips and Tricks for Mean, Median, Mode:

Order for Median: Always arrange the data in ascending or descending order
before finding the median.

Mode is Frequency: The mode is simply the most frequent value. It can be easily
identified by counting occurrences.
 Outliers Impact Mean: The mean is sensitive to extreme values (outliers), while
the median is more robust.

Context Matters: Choose the appropriate measure of central tendency based on

the data type and the question being asked.

7.2 Frequency and Range

Frequency and range are basic statistical measures that describe the distribution and
spread of data.

Key Concepts:

Frequency: The number of times a particular value or category appears in a

dataset.

Frequency Distribution: A table or graph that shows how often each value or
range of values occurs in a dataset.

Range: The difference between the highest and lowest values in a dataset. It is a
simple measure of data dispersion. ```math \text{Range} = \text{Highest Value} -
\text{Lowest Value}
 **Solved Examples:**

**Example 7.2.1:** For the dataset: 5, 7, 8, 5, 9, 7, 5, 10, 8. Create a

frequency distribution table and find the mode.

**Solution:**
Dataset: 5, 7, 8, 5, 9, 7, 5, 10, 8

**Frequency Distribution Table:**

| Value | Frequency |
| :---- | :-------- |
| 5 | 3 |
| 7 | 2 |
| 8 | 2 |
| 9 | 1 |
| 10 | 1 |

**Mode:** The value with the highest frequency is 5.

Mode = 5

**Answer:** Mode = 5.

**Example 7.2.2:** Find the range of the following scores: 65, 72, 58, 85, 60,
91, 78.

**Solution:**
Dataset: 65, 72, 58, 85, 60, 91, 78

Highest Value = 91
Lowest Value = 58

```math
\text{Range} = \text{Highest Value} - \text{Lowest Value} = 91 - 58 = 33

Answer: The range of the scores is 33.

Tips and Tricks for Frequency and Range:

Tally Marks: When creating a frequency table from raw data, use tally marks to
count occurrences, then sum them up.

Order for Range: It's helpful to quickly sort the data (or just scan for min/max) to
find the highest and lowest values for calculating the range.

Limitations of Range: While easy to calculate, range is highly affected by outliers

and doesn't provide information about the distribution of data between the
extremes.
Dimensions of Math Skills Tested

Beyond just knowing formulas, PPSC exams assess various dimensions of your
mathematical skills. Understanding these dimensions can help you tailor your
preparation to not only memorize concepts but also develop the necessary cognitive
abilities.

Calculation Speed

Description: The ability to perform arithmetic operations quickly and accurately, often
under time pressure.

Sample Question: What is 25% of 640?

Tips for Improvement:

Mental Math Practice: Regularly practice calculations in your head without

relying on a calculator.

Memorize Tables: Know multiplication tables up to at least 20, and

squares/cubes up to 20.

Percentage-Fraction Equivalents: As mentioned before, knowing these speeds

up percentage calculations.

Vedic Math Techniques: Explore techniques from Vedic mathematics for faster
calculations (e.g., multiplication, division tricks).

Problem Solving

Description: Applying mathematical concepts and logical reasoning to solve real-

world or abstract problems, often requiring multiple steps.

Sample Question: A train covers 300 km in 3 hours. What is its speed?

Tips for Improvement:

Understand the Problem: Read the problem carefully to grasp what is being
asked and what information is given.

Identify Key Information: Filter out irrelevant details and focus on the numbers
and relationships that matter.
 Break Down Complex Problems: Divide a large problem into smaller,
manageable steps.

Draw Diagrams: For geometry or word problems, a simple sketch can often
clarify the situation.

Practice Diverse Problems: Work through a wide variety of problem types to

build flexibility in your approach.

Analytical Thinking

Description: Recognizing patterns, identifying underlying logic, and making

deductions based on given information.

Sample Question: What number comes next in the series: 2, 4, 8, 16, ?

Tips for Improvement:

Pattern Recognition Exercises: Practice number series, letter series, and visual
pattern questions regularly.

Logical Puzzles: Engage with logical puzzles and brain teasers to sharpen your
deductive reasoning.

Critical Reading: Learn to read questions critically, looking for implied

relationships and conditions.

Comprehension

Description: Understanding and interpreting word problems, data presented in

graphs or tables, and complex instructions.

Sample Question: If 3 men can do a job in 6 days, how many days will 6 men take?

Tips for Improvement:

Active Reading: Don't just skim. Read word problems slowly and carefully,
identifying keywords and phrases.

Paraphrase: Try to rephrase the problem in your own words to ensure you've
understood it correctly.

Identify Given and Required: Clearly distinguish between what information is

provided and what needs to be found.
 Practice Data Interpretation: Work extensively with bar graphs, pie charts,
tables, and line graphs to improve your ability to extract and interpret data.

Data Interpretation

Description: The ability to read, analyze, and make inferences from data presented in
various graphical or tabular formats.

Sample Question: What was the highest sales figure in the pie chart shown?

Tips for Improvement:

Understand Chart Types: Know the strengths and weaknesses of each chart
type (bar, pie, line) and what kind of information they best convey.

Practice Speed Reading Data: Develop the ability to quickly scan charts and
tables for key information.

Focus on Questions: Read the questions first, then go to the data to find the
specific information needed.

Avoid Assumptions: Only use the information explicitly provided in the data. Do
not make outside assumptions.

Conclusion

This guide has provided a comprehensive overview of the quantitative aptitude topics
essential for the PPSC examinations. By mastering the key concepts, formulas, and
problem-solving techniques discussed in each section, you will be well-equipped to
tackle a wide range of questions.

Remember that consistent practice is the cornerstone of success in quantitative

aptitude. Work through as many solved examples and practice questions as possible.
Pay attention to the tips and tricks provided, as they are designed to enhance your
speed and accuracy, crucial elements for competitive exams.

Regular revision of formulas and concepts, coupled with timed practice sessions, will
significantly boost your confidence and performance. We wish you the very best in
your PPSC examination preparation. Stay focused, stay persistent, and success will be
within your reach!
6. Logical/Analytical Math

Logical/Analytical Math questions assess your reasoning abilities, pattern recognition,

and problem-solving skills beyond direct application of formulas. These problems
often require a systematic approach and careful deduction.

6.1 Series (Number Series, Letter Series)

Series problems involve identifying the pattern in a given sequence of numbers or

letters and then finding the missing term or the next term in the series.

Key Concepts:

Number Series: Look for patterns involving addition, subtraction, multiplication,

division, squares, cubes, prime numbers, alternating patterns, or combinations
of these.

Letter Series: Each letter corresponds to a number (A=1, B=2, etc.). Look for
patterns in the numerical positions of the letters.

Solved Examples:

Example 6.1.1: What number comes next in the series: 2, 4, 8, 16, ?

Solution: Observe the pattern: Each number is double the previous number. $ 2
\times 2 = 4 $ $ 4 \times 2 = 8 $ $ 8 \times 2 = 16 $

So, the next number will be $ 16 \times 2 = 32 $.

Answer: 32

Example 6.1.2: What number comes next in the series: 1, 4, 9, 16, 25, ?

Solution: Observe the pattern: Each number is the square of consecutive natural
numbers. $ 1^2 = 1 $ $ 2^2 = 4 $ $ 3^2 = 9 $ $ 4^2 = 16 $ $ 5^2 = 25 $

So, the next number will be $ 6^2 = 36 $.

Answer: 36

Example 6.1.3: What comes next in the series: A, C, E, G, ?

Solution: Convert letters to their numerical positions: A=1, C=3, E=5, G=7

Observe the pattern: The numbers are increasing by 2 each time. $ 1 + 2 = 3 $ $ 3 +

2 = 5$$5 + 2 = 7$

So, the next number will be $ 7 + 2 = 9 $, which corresponds to the letter I.

Answer: I

Tips and Tricks for Series:

Look for Differences: Calculate the differences between consecutive terms. If

the first differences don\"t reveal a pattern, look at the differences of the
differences (second differences).

Look for Ratios: Check if there\"s a constant ratio between terms

(multiplication/division series).

Alternating Patterns: Sometimes, two different patterns alternate within the

same series.

Squares/Cubes: Be familiar with squares and cubes of numbers, as they

frequently appear in series.

Prime Numbers: Check if the series involves prime numbers.

Alphabetical Positions: For letter series, always convert letters to their

numerical positions to find the underlying pattern.

6.2 Sequences and Patterns

This category is closely related to series but can also include visual patterns or more
complex logical sequences that don\"t strictly follow arithmetic or geometric
progressions.

Key Concepts:

Arithmetic Progression (AP): A sequence where the difference between

consecutive terms is constant (common difference).

Geometric Progression (GP): A sequence where the ratio between consecutive

terms is constant (common ratio).

Fibonacci Sequence: A sequence where each number is the sum of the two
preceding ones (e.g., 0, 1, 1, 2, 3, 5, 8...).
 Visual Patterns: Identifying repeating elements, rotations, reflections, or
changes in shape/color.

Solved Examples:

Example 6.2.1: Find the next term in the sequence: 5, 10, 15, 20, ?

Solution: This is an arithmetic progression with a common difference of 5. $ 5 + 5 =

10 $ $ 10 + 5 = 15 $ $ 15 + 5 = 20 $

So, the next term is $ 20 + 5 = 25 $.

Answer: 25

Example 6.2.2: Find the next term in the sequence: 3, 9, 27, 81, ?

Solution: This is a geometric progression with a common ratio of 3. $ 3 \times 3 =

9 $ $ 9 \times 3 = 27 $ $ 27 \times 3 = 81 $

So, the next term is $ 81 \times 3 = 243 $.

Answer: 243

Tips and Tricks for Sequences and Patterns:

Systematic Approach: Don\"t jump to conclusions. Systematically test for

common differences, common ratios, squares, cubes, or combinations.

Look for Multiple Layers: Sometimes the pattern is not immediately obvious
and might involve a pattern in the differences, or a combination of operations.

Consider Position: The position of the term in the sequence (1st, 2nd, 3rd...) can
sometimes be part of the pattern (e.g., $ n^2 $, $ 2n+1 $).

6.3 Age Problems

Age problems involve calculating the current or future/past ages of individuals based
on given relationships and conditions. These problems often require setting up linear
equations.

Key Concepts:

Representing Ages: Use variables (e.g., $ x, y $) for current ages.

 Past/Future Ages: If current age is $ x $, then age $ n $ years ago was $ x - n $,
and age $ n $ years from now will be $ x + n $.

Relationships: Translate phrases like \"twice as old\", \"sum of ages\", \"ratio of

ages\" into mathematical equations.

Solved Examples:

Example 6.3.1: The sum of the ages of a father and his son is 60 years. Six years ago,
the father\"s age was five times the son\"s age. Find their current ages.

Solution: Let the current age of the father be $ F $ and the current age of the son be
$ S $.

From the first statement:

F + S = 60 \quad \text{(Equation 1)}

Six years ago: Father\"s age = $ F - 6 $ Son\"s age = $ S - 6 $

From the second statement:

F - 6 = 5(S - 6)

F - 6 = 5S - 30

F = 5S - 24 \quad \text{(Equation 2)}

Substitute Equation 2 into Equation 1:

(5S - 24) + S = 60

6S - 24 = 60

6S = 84

S = \frac{84}{6} = 14

Now find $ F $ using Equation 1:

 F + 14 = 60

F = 60 - 14 = 46

Answer: The father\"s current age is 46 years, and the son\"s current age is 14 years.

Example 6.3.2: The ratio of the ages of A and B is 3:5. After 10 years, their ages will be
in the ratio 2:3. Find their current ages.

Solution: Let the current ages of A and B be $ 3x $ and $ 5x $ respectively.

After 10 years: Age of A = $ 3x + 10 $ Age of B = $ 5x + 10 $

The ratio of their ages after 10 years will be 2:3:

\frac{3x + 10}{5x + 10} = \frac{2}{3}

Cross-multiply:

3(3x + 10) = 2(5x + 10)

9x + 30 = 10x + 20

30 - 20 = 10x - 9x

x = 10

Current age of A = $ 3x = 3 \times 10 = 30 $ years. Current age of B = $ 5x = 5

\times 10 = 50 $ years.

Answer: The current age of A is 30 years, and the current age of B is 50 years.

Tips and Tricks for Age Problems:

Define Variables Clearly: Always start by defining variables for the current ages
of the individuals involved.

Formulate Equations: Translate each piece of information into a separate

equation. This is the most critical step.
 Consistent Time Frame: Ensure that all ages in an equation refer to the same
point in time (e.g., all current ages, or all ages 5 years ago).

\"Ago\" vs. \"Hence\": \"Years ago\" means subtract from current age; \"years
hence\" or \"after years\" means add to current age.

6.4 Calendar and Clock Problems

These problems involve calculating days of the week, dates, angles between clock
hands, and other time-related puzzles. They often require understanding of cycles and
relative movements.

Key Concepts:

Odd Days (Calendar): The number of days remaining after dividing the total
number of days by 7. (e.g., 10 days = 1 week + 3 odd days).
Ordinary year = 365 days = 52 weeks + 1 odd day.

Leap year = 366 days = 52 weeks + 2 odd days.

A year is a leap year if it is divisible by 4, unless it is a century year (e.g.,

1900) not divisible by 400.

Clock Angles:
Angle traced by hour hand in 12 hours = $ 360^\circ $.

Angle traced by hour hand in 1 hour = $ 30^\circ $.

Angle traced by hour hand in 1 minute = $ 0.5^\circ $.

Angle traced by minute hand in 60 minutes = $ 360^\circ $.

Angle traced by minute hand in 1 minute = $ 6^\circ $.

Angle between hands at H hours M minutes = $ |30H - 11M/2| $.

Solved Examples:

Example 6.4.1 (Calendar): If today is Monday, what day of the week will it be after 61
days?

Solution: Number of odd days in 61 days = $ 61 \div 7 = 8 $ weeks and 5 odd days.

Starting from Monday, count 5 days forward: Monday + 1 day = Tuesday Monday + 2
days = Wednesday Monday + 3 days = Thursday Monday + 4 days = Friday Monday + 5
days = Saturday

Answer: It will be Saturday.

Example 6.4.2 (Calendar): What was the day of the week on January 1, 2001?

Solution: We know that January 1, 2000, was a Saturday (a common reference point
for these problems, or you can calculate from a known date like Jan 1, 1 AD).

From Jan 1, 2000 to Jan 1, 2001, there is 1 year. 2000 was a leap year (divisible by 400).
So, the period from Jan 1, 2000 to Jan 1, 2001 includes Feb 29, 2000. Number of odd
days = 2 (for a leap year).

Day of the week = Saturday + 2 days = Monday.

Answer: January 1, 2001, was a Monday.

Example 6.4.3 (Clock): At what angle are the hands of a clock at 4:20?

Solution: Using the formula: Angle = $ |30H - 11M/2| $ Here, H = 4, M = 20

\text{Angle} = \left| 30(4) - \frac{11(20)}{2} \right|

= |120 - 110| = 10^\circ

Answer: The angle between the hands of the clock at 4:20 is $ 10^\circ $.

Tips and Tricks for Calendar and Clock Problems:

Master Odd Days: The concept of odd days is central to calendar problems.
Practice calculating odd days for different periods (days, months, years).

Leap Year Rule: Remember the rule for leap years (divisible by 4, but century
years must be divisible by 400).

Reference Point: For calendar problems, having a known reference date (e.g.,
Jan 1, 1 AD was Monday, or Jan 1, 2000 was Saturday) can simplify calculations.

Clock Formula: Memorize the angle formula for clock hands. It\"s a direct
application.

Relative Speed (Clock): The minute hand gains $ 5.5^\circ $ on the hour hand
every minute ($ 6^\circ - 0.5^\circ $). This can be useful for problems
involving when hands coincide or are opposite.
7. Basic Statistics

Basic statistics involves methods for collecting, organizing, analyzing, interpreting, and
presenting data. While less frequent in general PPSC exams, some roles (especially
educator/admin) might include fundamental statistical concepts.

7.1 Mean, Median, Mode

These are measures of central tendency, providing a single value that attempts to
describe a set of data by identifying the central position within that set.

Key Concepts:

Mean (Arithmetic Mean): The average of a set of numbers. Calculated by

summing all values and dividing by the count of values. ```math \text{Mean} =
\frac{\sum x}{n}

Where $`\sum x`$ is the sum of all values and $`n`$ is the number of
values.

* **Median:** The middle value in a dataset that is ordered from least to

greatest. If there is an even number of observations, the median is the average
of the two middle values.

* **Mode:** The value that appears most frequently in a dataset. A dataset

can have one mode (unimodal), more than one mode (multimodal), or no mode.

**Solved Examples:**

**Example 7.1.1:** Find the mean, median, and mode of the following dataset:
10, 12, 15, 12, 18, 12, 20.

**Solution:**
**Mean:**
Sum of values = $`10 + 12 + 15 + 12 + 18 + 12 + 20 = 99`$
Number of values = 7
```math
\text{Mean} = \frac{99}{7} \approx 14.14

Median: First, order the dataset: 10, 12, 12, 12, 15, 18, 20 Since there are 7 values (odd
number), the median is the middle value, which is the 4th term. Median = 12

Mode: The value that appears most frequently is 12 (it appears 3 times). Mode = 12

Answer: Mean $ \approx 14.14 $, Median = 12, Mode = 12.

Example 7.1.2: Find the median of the following dataset: 5, 8, 12, 15, 18, 20.

Solution: The dataset is already ordered: 5, 8, 12, 15, 18, 20 Number of values = 6 (even
number).

The median is the average of the two middle values (3rd and 4th terms). Middle values
are 12 and 15.

\text{Median} = \frac{12 + 15}{2} = \frac{27}{2} = 13.5

Answer: Median = 13.5.

Tips and Tricks for Mean, Median, Mode:

Order for Median: Always arrange the data in ascending or descending order
before finding the median.

Mode is Frequency: The mode is simply the most frequent value. It can be easily
identified by counting occurrences.

Outliers Impact Mean: The mean is sensitive to extreme values (outliers), while
the median is more robust.

Context Matters: Choose the appropriate measure of central tendency based on

the data type and the question being asked.

7.2 Frequency and Range

Frequency and range are basic statistical measures that describe the distribution and
spread of data.

Key Concepts:

Frequency: The number of times a particular value or category appears in a

dataset.

Frequency Distribution: A table or graph that shows how often each value or
range of values occurs in a dataset.

Range: The difference between the highest and lowest values in a dataset. It is a
simple measure of data dispersion. ```math \text{Range} = \text{Highest Value} -
\text{Lowest Value}
 **Solved Examples:**

**Example 7.2.1:** For the dataset: 5, 7, 8, 5, 9, 7, 5, 10, 8. Create a

frequency distribution table and find the mode.

**Solution:**
Dataset: 5, 7, 8, 5, 9, 7, 5, 10, 8

**Frequency Distribution Table:**

| Value | Frequency |
| :---- | :-------- |
| 5 | 3 |
| 7 | 2 |
| 8 | 2 |
| 9 | 1 |
| 10 | 1 |

**Mode:** The value with the highest frequency is 5.

Mode = 5

**Answer:** Mode = 5.

**Example 7.2.2:** Find the range of the following scores: 65, 72, 58, 85, 60,
91, 78.

**Solution:**
Dataset: 65, 72, 58, 85, 60, 91, 78

Highest Value = 91
Lowest Value = 58

```math
\text{Range} = \text{Highest Value} - \text{Lowest Value} = 91 - 58 = 33

Answer: The range of the scores is 33.

Tips and Tricks for Frequency and Range:

Tally Marks: When creating a frequency table from raw data, use tally marks to
count occurrences, then sum them up.

Order for Range: It\"s helpful to quickly sort the data (or just scan for min/max)
to find the highest and lowest values for calculating the range.

Limitations of Range: While easy to calculate, range is highly affected by outliers

and doesn\"t provide information about the distribution of data between the
extremes.
Dimensions of Math Skills Tested

Beyond just knowing formulas, PPSC exams assess various dimensions of your
mathematical skills. Understanding these dimensions can help you tailor your
preparation to not only memorize concepts but also develop the necessary cognitive
abilities.

Calculation Speed

Description: The ability to perform arithmetic operations quickly and accurately, often
under time pressure.

Sample Question: What is 25% of 640?

Tips for Improvement:

Mental Math Practice: Regularly practice calculations in your head without

relying on a calculator.

Memorize Tables: Know multiplication tables up to at least 20, and

squares/cubes up to 20.

Percentage-Fraction Equivalents: As mentioned before, knowing these speeds

up percentage calculations.

Vedic Math Techniques: Explore techniques from Vedic mathematics for faster
calculations (e.g., multiplication, division tricks).

Problem Solving

Description: Applying mathematical concepts and logical reasoning to solve real-

world or abstract problems, often requiring multiple steps.

Sample Question: A train covers 300 km in 3 hours. What is its speed?

Tips for Improvement:

Understand the Problem: Read the problem carefully to grasp what is being
asked and what information is given.

Identify Key Information: Filter out irrelevant details and focus on the numbers
and relationships that matter.
 Break Down Complex Problems: Divide a large problem into smaller,
manageable steps.

Draw Diagrams: For geometry or word problems, a simple sketch can often
clarify the situation.

Practice Diverse Problems: Work through a wide variety of problem types to

build flexibility in your approach.

Analytical Thinking

Description: Recognizing patterns, identifying underlying logic, and making

deductions based on given information.

Sample Question: What number comes next in the series: 2, 4, 8, 16, ?

Tips for Improvement:

Pattern Recognition Exercises: Practice number series, letter series, and visual
pattern questions regularly.

Logical Puzzles: Engage with logical puzzles and brain teasers to sharpen your
deductive reasoning.

Critical Reading: Learn to read questions critically, looking for implied

relationships and conditions.

Comprehension

Description: Understanding and interpreting word problems, data presented in

graphs or tables, and complex instructions.

Sample Question: If 3 men can do a job in 6 days, how many days will 6 men take?

Tips for Improvement:

Active Reading: Don\"t just skim. Read word problems slowly and carefully,
identifying keywords and phrases.

Paraphrase: Try to rephrase the problem in your own words to ensure you\"ve
understood it correctly.

Identify Given and Required: Clearly distinguish between what information is

provided and what needs to be found.
 Practice Data Interpretation: Work extensively with bar graphs, pie charts,
tables, and line graphs to improve your ability to extract and interpret data.

Data Interpretation

Description: The ability to read, analyze, and make inferences from data presented in
various graphical or tabular formats.

Sample Question: What was the highest sales figure in the pie chart shown?

Tips for Improvement:

Understand Chart Types: Know the strengths and weaknesses of each chart
type (bar, pie, line) and what kind of information they best convey.

Practice Speed Reading Data: Develop the ability to quickly scan charts and
tables for key information.

Focus on Questions: Read the questions first, then go to the data to find the
specific information needed.

Avoid Assumptions: Only use the information explicitly provided in the data. Do
not make outside assumptions.

Conclusion

This guide has provided a comprehensive overview of the quantitative aptitude topics
essential for the PPSC examinations. By mastering the key concepts, formulas, and
problem-solving techniques discussed in each section, you will be well-equipped to
tackle a wide range of questions.

Remember that consistent practice is the cornerstone of success in quantitative

aptitude. Work through as many solved examples and practice questions as possible.
Pay attention to the tips and tricks provided, as they are designed to enhance your
speed and accuracy, crucial elements for competitive exams.

Regular revision of formulas and concepts, coupled with timed practice sessions, will
significantly boost your confidence and performance. We wish you the very best in
your PPSC examination preparation. Stay focused, stay persistent, and success will be
within your reach!
7. Basic Statistics

Basic statistics involves methods for collecting, organizing, analyzing, interpreting, and
presenting data. While less frequent in general PPSC exams, some roles (especially
educator/admin) might include fundamental statistical concepts.

7.1 Mean, Median, Mode

These are measures of central tendency, providing a single value that attempts to
describe a set of data by identifying the central position within that set.

Key Concepts:

Mean (Arithmetic Mean): The average of a set of numbers. Calculated by

summing all values and dividing by the count of values. ```math \text{Mean} =
\frac{\sum x}{n}

Where $`\sum x`$ is the sum of all values and $`n`$ is the number of
values.

* **Median:** The middle value in a dataset that is ordered from least to

greatest. If there is an even number of observations, the median is the average
of the two middle values.

* **Mode:** The value that appears most frequently in a dataset. A dataset

can have one mode (unimodal), more than one mode (multimodal), or no mode.

**Solved Examples:**

**Example 7.1.1:** Find the mean, median, and mode of the following dataset:
10, 12, 15, 12, 18, 12, 20.

**Solution:**
**Mean:**
Sum of values = $`10 + 12 + 15 + 12 + 18 + 12 + 20 = 99`$
Number of values = 7
```math
\text{Mean} = \frac{99}{7} \approx 14.14

Median: First, order the dataset: 10, 12, 12, 12, 15, 18, 20 Since there are 7 values (odd
number), the median is the middle value, which is the 4th term. Median = 12

Mode: The value that appears most frequently is 12 (it appears 3 times). Mode = 12

Answer: Mean $ \approx 14.14 $, Median = 12, Mode = 12.

Example 7.1.2: Find the median of the following dataset: 5, 8, 12, 15, 18, 20.

Solution: The dataset is already ordered: 5, 8, 12, 15, 18, 20 Number of values = 6 (even
number).

The median is the average of the two middle values (3rd and 4th terms). Middle values
are 12 and 15.

\text{Median} = \frac{12 + 15}{2} = \frac{27}{2} = 13.5

Answer: Median = 13.5.

Tips and Tricks for Mean, Median, Mode:

Order for Median: Always arrange the data in ascending or descending order
before finding the median.

Mode is Frequency: The mode is simply the most frequent value. It can be easily
identified by counting occurrences.

Outliers Impact Mean: The mean is sensitive to extreme values (outliers), while
the median is more robust.

Context Matters: Choose the appropriate measure of central tendency based on

the data type and the question being asked.

7.2 Frequency and Range

Frequency and range are basic statistical measures that describe the distribution and
spread of data.

Key Concepts:

Frequency: The number of times a particular value or category appears in a

dataset.

Frequency Distribution: A table or graph that shows how often each value or
range of values occurs in a dataset.

Range: The difference between the highest and lowest values in a dataset. It is a
simple measure of data dispersion. ```math \text{Range} = \text{Highest Value} -
\text{Lowest Value}
 **Solved Examples:**

**Example 7.2.1:** For the dataset: 5, 7, 8, 5, 9, 7, 5, 10, 8. Create a

frequency distribution table and find the mode.

**Solution:**
Dataset: 5, 7, 8, 5, 9, 7, 5, 10, 8

**Frequency Distribution Table:**

| Value | Frequency |
| :---- | :-------- |
| 5 | 3 |
| 7 | 2 |
| 8 | 2 |
| 9 | 1 |
| 10 | 1 |

**Mode:** The value with the highest frequency is 5.

Mode = 5

**Answer:** Mode = 5.

**Example 7.2.2:** Find the range of the following scores: 65, 72, 58, 85, 60,
91, 78.

**Solution:**
Dataset: 65, 72, 58, 85, 60, 91, 78

Highest Value = 91
Lowest Value = 58

```math
\text{Range} = \text{Highest Value} - \text{Lowest Value} = 91 - 58 = 33

Answer: The range of the scores is 33.

Tips and Tricks for Frequency and Range:

Tally Marks: When creating a frequency table from raw data, use tally marks to
count occurrences, then sum them up.

Order for Range: It\"s helpful to quickly sort the data (or just scan for min/max)
to find the highest and lowest values for calculating the range.

Limitations of Range: While easy to calculate, range is highly affected by outliers

and doesn\"t provide information about the distribution of data between the
extremes.
Dimensions of Math Skills Tested

Beyond just knowing formulas, PPSC exams assess various dimensions of your
mathematical skills. Understanding these dimensions can help you tailor your
preparation to not only memorize concepts but also develop the necessary cognitive
abilities.

Calculation Speed

Description: The ability to perform arithmetic operations quickly and accurately, often
under time pressure.

Sample Question: What is 25% of 640?

Tips for Improvement:

Mental Math Practice: Regularly practice calculations in your head without

relying on a calculator.

Memorize Tables: Know multiplication tables up to at least 20, and

squares/cubes up to 20.

Percentage-Fraction Equivalents: As mentioned before, knowing these speeds

up percentage calculations.

Vedic Math Techniques: Explore techniques from Vedic mathematics for faster
calculations (e.g., multiplication, division tricks).

Problem Solving

Description: Applying mathematical concepts and logical reasoning to solve real-

world or abstract problems, often requiring multiple steps.

Sample Question: A train covers 300 km in 3 hours. What is its speed?

Tips for Improvement:

Understand the Problem: Read the problem carefully to grasp what is being
asked and what information is given.

Identify Key Information: Filter out irrelevant details and focus on the numbers
and relationships that matter.
 Break Down Complex Problems: Divide a large problem into smaller,
manageable steps.

Draw Diagrams: For geometry or word problems, a simple sketch can often
clarify the situation.

Practice Diverse Problems: Work through a wide variety of problem types to

build flexibility in your approach.

Analytical Thinking

Description: Recognizing patterns, identifying underlying logic, and making

deductions based on given information.

Sample Question: What number comes next in the series: 2, 4, 8, 16, ?

Tips for Improvement:

Pattern Recognition Exercises: Practice number series, letter series, and visual
pattern questions regularly.

Logical Puzzles: Engage with logical puzzles and brain teasers to sharpen your
deductive reasoning.

Critical Reading: Learn to read questions critically, looking for implied

relationships and conditions.

Comprehension

Description: Understanding and interpreting word problems, data presented in

graphs or tables, and complex instructions.

Sample Question: If 3 men can do a job in 6 days, how many days will 6 men take?

Tips for Improvement:

Active Reading: Don\"t just skim. Read word problems slowly and carefully,
identifying keywords and phrases.

Paraphrase: Try to rephrase the problem in your own words to ensure you\"ve
understood it correctly.

Identify Given and Required: Clearly distinguish between what information is

provided and what needs to be found.
 Practice Data Interpretation: Work extensively with bar graphs, pie charts,
tables, and line graphs to improve your ability to extract and interpret data.

Data Interpretation

Description: The ability to read, analyze, and make inferences from data presented in
various graphical or tabular formats.

Sample Question: What was the highest sales figure in the pie chart shown?

Tips for Improvement:

Understand Chart Types: Know the strengths and weaknesses of each chart
type (bar, pie, line) and what kind of information they best convey.

Practice Speed Reading Data: Develop the ability to quickly scan charts and
tables for key information.

Focus on Questions: Read the questions first, then go to the data to find the
specific information needed.

Avoid Assumptions: Only use the information explicitly provided in the data. Do
not make outside assumptions.

Conclusion

This guide has provided a comprehensive overview of the quantitative aptitude topics
essential for the PPSC examinations. By mastering the key concepts, formulas, and
problem-solving techniques discussed in each section, you will be well-equipped to
tackle a wide range of questions.

Remember that consistent practice is the cornerstone of success in quantitative

aptitude. Work through as many solved examples and practice questions as possible.
Pay attention to the tips and tricks provided, as they are designed to enhance your
speed and accuracy, crucial elements for competitive exams.

Regular revision of formulas and concepts, coupled with timed practice sessions, will
significantly boost your confidence and performance. We wish you the very best in
your PPSC examination preparation. Stay focused, stay persistent, and success will be
within your reach!