OPTICS LABORATORY

DEPARTMENT OF PHYSICS

MACH-ZEHNDER INTERFEROMETER
AIM:
1. Determination of wavelength of laser beam.
2. To find the refractive index of the glass plate.
3. To find the refractive index of air.

COMPONENTS:
 Diode Laser with power supply
 Laser mount
 Beam splitters with mount (2 Nos.)
 Mirrors with mount (2 Nos)
 Rotation stage with glass slide
 Pressure cell
 Screen (2 Nos)
 Thump screws

1. DETERMINATION OF WAVELENGTH OF LASER BEAM

1.1. THEORY:
A collimated beam is split by a half-silvered mirror. The two resulting beams (the "sample
beam" and the "reference beam") are each reflected by a mirror. The two beams then pass
a second half-silvered mirror. It is important that the fully-silvered and half-silvered
surfaces of all mirrors, oxcopl the last, face the inbound beam. and that the half-silvered
surface of the last mirror faces the outbound beam exiting in the same orientation as the
original beam. That is, if the original beam is horizontal, the half-silvered surface of the
last mirror should face the horizontally outbound beam. The reflected beams are
superimposed at the beam splitter and interference pattern can observed on two sides:

The wavelength of laser is calculated by: 𝜆 = (2𝑑/𝑁)Δ

Where 'd 'is the change in position that occurs 'N' fringes to pass and  is the calibration
constant of the micrometer.

Calibrating the micrometer:

For even more accurate measurements of the mirror movement, we can use a laser to
calibrate the micrometer. To do this, set up the interferometer in the Mach-Zehnder mode.
Turn the micrometer knob as we count off at least 20 fringes. Carefully note the change in
the micrometer reading and record this value as d'. The actual mirror
OPTICS LABORATORY
DEPARTMENT OF PHYSICS

movement d = N /2, where is the known wave length of the laser and N is the number of
fringes that were counted. Δ = 𝑑/𝑑′ is the calibration constant for the micrometer.

Table-1: Finding calibration constant

Sl.
Initial Reading Final Reading
No.
M.S.R. C.S.R. Total (d1) M.S.R. C.S.R. Total (d2) d’

1.2. PROCEDURE:
 Attach the diode laser with mount, adjustable mirror and movable mirror as in the
illustration.
 Align the laser so that the beam is parallel with the top of the base. The beam should
strike the centres-of the mirrors.
 Position the beam splitter so that the beam is reflected to the fixed mirror. Adjust the
angle of the beam splitter as needed so that the reflected beam hits the fixed mirror
near its centre.
 There should now be two sets of bright dots on two sides; one set comes from the fixed
minor and the other from the movable mirror on both sides. Adjust the angle of the
beam-splitter again until the two sets of dots are as close together as possible, and then
tighten the screws securing the beam splitter and mirror mounts.
 Using the lead screws on the back of the adjustable mirror, adjust the mirror's tilt until
the two sets of dots on the viewing screen coincide.
 Expand the laser beam by placing the collimating lens on front the diode laser. After
aligning the laser with the interferometer and making certain that the fringes you are
looking at move when the micrometer screws is turned, fix a position on the observing
screen and note the micrometer reading.
 Count the fringes that move past the fixed point (either outward or inward) as the screw
is turned. Count at least 20 fringes as they pass the fixed point on the viewing region.
Begin the counting with a hand on the micrometer and try to exert a steady pressure.
 Begin the counting with a hand on the micrometer and note the initial reading on the
micrometer. After 20 fringes pass, note the reading on the micrometer scale and
compute the distance the mirror moved.
 In the movable mirror mount, it is mounted in a translation stage. The micrometer shaft
actuates a lever arm, which pushes the translation stage carrying the mirror.
 Repeat the procedure three or four times. Average the readings.
 Substitute the readings in the equation to obtain results.

Table-2: Finding unknown wavelength

OPTICS LABORATORY
DEPARTMENT OF PHYSICS

Sl.
Initial Reading Final Reading
No.
M.S.R. C.S.R. Total (d1) M.S.R. C.S.R. Total (d2) d’

1.3. ERROR CALCULATION:

1.4. RESULT:

The wavelength of laser beam  = ……………. nm.

2. TO FIND THE REFRACTIVE INDEX OF THE GLASS PLATE

2.1. THEORY:
The light passes through a greater D length of glass as the plate is rotated. The change
in the path length of the light beam as the glass plate is rotated and relate D the change
in path length with the laser beam through air.

(2𝑡−𝑁𝜆)(1−cos 𝜃)
The refractive index of glass slide, 𝑛 =
2𝑡(1−cos 𝜃)−𝑁𝜆

Where, t = the thickness of the glass slide, N = number of fringes counted,  is angle of
rotation and  is the wavelength of laser beam.

2.2. PROCEDURE:
 Align the laser and interferometer in the Mach-Zehnder mode.
 Place the rotation stage between the beam splitter and movable mirror,
perpendicular to the optical path.
 Mount the glass plate on the rotation stage.
 Position the stage & glass such that glass slide is perpendicular to the optical path.
 When glass plate is introduced in the optical path of Mach-Zehnder
interferometer, the fringe will be shifted & will become blur. To make the fringe
sharpen again, move mirror mount to & fro till the clear set of fringes is achieved
on the viewing screen.
 Slowly rotate the rotation stage. Count the number of fringe translations that occur
as you rotate the table to an angle e (at least 10 degrees.)
 Before taking the readings, observe the fringe movement.

Table-3: Finding refractive index of glass

OPTICS LABORATORY
DEPARTMENT OF PHYSICS

Sl. No. No of fringes Angle (degree) Refractive index

2.3. ERROR CALCULATION:

2.4. RESULT:

Refractive index of Glass Slide n = ……………..

3. TO FIND THE REFRACTIVE INDEX OF AIR

3.1. THEORY:
When a piece of material of thickness d Is placed in one arm of the Mach-Zehnder
Interferometer, the change in D optical path length is given by dn where n is the
difference in refractive Index between the sample and the material. It replaced (usually
air). In other words, 𝑑(𝑛𝑚 − 𝑛𝑎𝑖𝑟 )/𝜆 extra wavelengths are introduced if air is replaced
by a sample of refractive index nm. Let  be the wavelength of light, n the refractive
index of air at atmospheric pressure, d the length of the air cell, Patm the current
atmospheric pressure and P the pressure change.

The relationship between the pressure change P and the number of fringe shift rnp is
given by

𝑚∆𝑃 = (𝑑(𝑛 − 1)/)(∆𝑃/𝑃𝑎𝑡𝑚 )

Fig. 1: Mach-Zehnder Interferrometer

OPTICS LABORATORY
DEPARTMENT OF PHYSICS

3.2. PROCEDURE:
 Arrange the Mach-Zehnder Interferometer experimental set up. Introduce the
pressure cell in any one of the arms of the interferometer. Tune the micrometer in
order to get the interference pattern in a good manner. Now pressurize the cell
up to 300mmHg. Slowly release the air and count the number of fringes. Reading
of pressure gauge may be tabulated up to the total release of air from the cell.
 Plot a graph between number of fringes and the corresponding pressure. The slope
of the graph will give the value𝑚∆𝑃 /∆𝑃. Put this value in the equation given
below.
 From the above equation, we can calculate the value of refractive index of air ‘n’.

𝑚∆𝑃
= (𝑑(𝑛 − 1)/)(1/𝑃𝑎𝑡𝑚 )
∆𝑃

3.3. OBSERVATIONS:

Table-2: Finding refractive index of air

Pressure in the cell
Sl. No. Number of fringes counted
P (in mmHg)
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.

We have, (mP/P) length of the pressure cell d, wavelength of light , (mP/P)

from graph.

 Substituting the data in the above equation, we can find the refractive index of air
'n'.

4. ERROR CALCULATION:

5. RESULT:

Refractive index of Air ‘n’ = ……………..

6. DISCUSSION:
OPTICS LABORATORY
DEPARTMENT OF PHYSICS

POLARIZATION
AIM:
1. Identifying polarised light and verification of Malus’ law
2. Characterization of Half-Wave and Quarter-Wave Plates

COMPONENTS:
 Semiconductor laser diode (633 nm, red)
 Polariser
 Analyser
 Half-Wave Plate (λ/2-plate) for 633 nm
 Two Quarter-Wave Plates (λ/4-plate) for 633 nm
 Optical rail bench
 Post mounting system
 Silicon photodiode
 Power meter,
 Laser focus adjustment tool,
 Allen key set.

1. IDENTIFYING POLARISED LIGHT AND VERIFICATION OF MALUS’ LAW

1.1. THEORY:
Precise control of polarisation behaviour is necessary to derive optimal performance
from optical components and systems. Characteristics such as reflectivity, insertion
loss, beam splitter ratio, fiber optic coupling etc. are different for different polarisations
and such dependencies need to be carefully accounted for in any successful optical
design. In unpolarised light the electric field vector, 𝑬⃗ points in all possible directions,
in all possible planes perpendicular to the propagation vector ⃗𝒌. In linearly
polarised/plane-polarised light the electric field vector ⃗𝑬 changes continuously, both
in the magnitude and direction with time and space, but 𝑬 ⃗ is restricted to a plane, the
plane of polarisation (Fig. 1). When viewed in the negative z- direction, the tip of the
electric field vector moves along a straight line making an angle θ with the x-axis.

To test Malus’ law, the analyser is mounted between the polariser and the detector as
shown in Fig. 2 and its transmission axis is aligned with that of the polariser by
maximizing the photodetector output. The analyser transmits only the component of
electrical field, 𝐸01 cos 𝜃 parallel to its transmission axis, where  is the angle between
the transmission axis of the analyser and that of the polariser. Due to the high frequency
of light (∼ 1014 Hz), the detector can measure only the incident irradiance which is
OPTICS LABORATORY
DEPARTMENT OF PHYSICS

proportional to the square of the amplitude of the electric field impinging on the
detector. Thus, we need only be concerned with this amplitude.

Fig. 1: Linearly polarized light

Fig. 2: Verification of Malus’ law

The irradiance reaching the detector is given by:

𝐼(𝜃) = 𝐼(0) cos 2 𝜃

where I(0) is the maximum irradiance. This is known as the 2 Malus’ law.

1.2. PROCEDURE:
 Analyser is aligned at various angles θ relative to the incident polarisation and the
corresponding photodetector output noted.
 The results are normalized to unity peak power transmission and plotted.
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DEPARTMENT OF PHYSICS

𝑇2
 The extinction ratio of the polariser is calculated using, 𝜌 = , where T1 =
𝑇1
maximum transmittance parallel to the plane of polarised beam and T2 = minimum
transmittance perpendicular to the plane of polarised beam.

Table-1: Malus’ Law

Sl. No. Angle of analyser (degree) Power

1.3. RESULT:

2. CHARACTERIZATION OF HALF-WAVE AND QUARTER-WAVE PLATES

2.1. THEORY:
The state of polarisation of incident light can be manipulated at will using wave plates
(also called retarders). A wave plate that introduces a relative phase difference of
πradians between the o- and e-waves is known as a half wave plate or λ/2-plate. It can
be used to rotate the plane of plane polarised light by any angle θ as shown below (Fig.
3.). If plane polarised light is normally incident on a λ/2-plate, with the plane of
polarisation making an angle θ with the fast-axis of the λ/2-plate, then the λ/2-plate
introduces a phase difference of π-radians between the e- and o-rays, hence the plane
of polarisation of the light transmitted by the λ/2-plate, gets rotated by an angle 2θ
relative to the original incident light (i.e., by and angle - θ relative to the fast- axis). A
wave plate that introduces a relative phase difference of π/2 - radians between the o-
and e-waves is known as a quarter wave plate or λ/4-plate. Quarter wave plates are used
to turn plane polarised light into circularly polarised light and vice-versa. This is done
by orienting the incident plane-polarised wave at 45° to the fast (or slow) axis, so that
equal strengths of e – and o – waves are excited.

2.2. PROCEDURE:
 Generate light that is polarised in the horizontal plane (along x-axis) using a
polariser.
 Set the analyser such that the transmission axis is along x-axis (the optic axis is
regarded as z-axis).
 Introduce, the λ/2-plate between the polariser and analyser, with its slow or fast axis
along x-axis.
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DEPARTMENT OF PHYSICS

 Analyse the output beam. Rotate the λ/2-plate with respect to the optic axis by +
15°, + 30°, - 20° and – 40° with respect to x-axis, analysing the output beam in each
case.
 First introduce the λ/2-plate between the polariser and the analyser and rotate it
about the optic axis to find the orientation that retains the extinction.
 Next introduce the λ/4-plate between the λ/2-plate and the analyser and orient it to
retain the extinction.
 Now either the slow or the fast axis of the λ/4-plate has been set to be along the x-
axis.
 Rotate the polarisation of the incident linearly polarised light by + 45° using the
λ/2-plate. Analyse the output beam.
 Next, rotate the incident polarised light by - 45° relative to the original direction
and once again analyse the output beam.
 Rotate incident polarisation by and arbitrary angle θ and analyse the output beam.
 Plot the results.

2.3. OBSERVATIONS:

Table-2: Characterization of /2 plate

Sl.
Angle of the /2 plate Angle of the analyser
No.

Table-3: Characterization of /4 plate

Sl. No. Angle of analyser Power
/4 plate at +45º /4 plate at -45º

3. RESULTS:

4. DISCUSSION:
OPTICS LABORATORY
DEPARTMENT OF PHYSICS

FABRY-PEROT INTERFEROMETER
AIM:
1. Determination of Wavelength of Laser beam
2. To find the etalon spacing
3. To find the finesse and Free Spectral Range of the etalon
COMPONENTS:
 Optical Rail
 Diode laser with power supply
 Laser mount
 Divergence lens with mount
 Fabry-Perot Etalon
 Translucent screen with scale & needle

THEORY
Fabry-Perot design contains plane surfaces that are all partially reflecting so that multiple rays of
light responsible for creation of the observed interference patterns. For high resolution
spectroscopy where a resolution of MHz to GHz is required, a Fabry-Perot (FP) interferometer is
used. The FP consists of two plane mirrors mounted accurately parallel to one another, with an
optical spacing 𝑑 between them.
CALIBRATING THE MICROMETER
For even more accurate measurements of the mirror movement, you can use a laser to calibrate the
micrometer. To do this, set up the interferometer. Turn the micrometer knob as you count off at
least 20 fringes. Carefully note the change in the micrometer reading and record this value as 𝑑′.
𝑁𝜆
The actual mirror movement 𝑑 = 2
, where 𝜆 is the known wave length of the laser and 𝑁 is the
𝑑
number of fringes that were counted. ∆= 𝑑′ is the calibration constant for the micrometer.
OPTICS LABORATORY
DEPARTMENT OF PHYSICS

Table-1: Calibration constant calculation

Sl. No. Initial value Final value 𝑑′
PSR HSR Total PSR HSR Total

PROCEDURE
First place the laser, etalon and the screen in a single line. Then align the laser bean\so that it passes
through the etalon and get the clear spot on the screen. Then adjust the etalon to get a single spot
on the screen. After these settings we insert the beam expander in between the laser and etalon.
Then we get a clear interference pattern on the screen.
1. DETERMINATION OF WAVELENGTH OF LASER BEAM
The wavelength of laser is calculated by:
2𝑑
𝜆= ∆,
𝑁

where d is the change in position that occurs 'N' fringes to pass and is the calibration constant of
the micrometer.
Table-2: Calculation of wavelength
Sl. No. Initial value Final value 𝑑′
PSR HSR Total PSR HSR Total
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DEPARTMENT OF PHYSICS

2. TO FIND THE ETALON SPACING

For finding the thickness of the etalon we measure the radius of the circular fringes. The radius of
the first circular fringe is taken as 𝜒𝑚 and the following as 𝜒𝑚+1 , 𝜒𝑚+2 , 𝜒𝑚+3, etc. Note the distance
between the etalon and the screen as 𝐷. Repeat the experiment by changing the distance 𝐷.

Line drawing of Fabry-Perot fringe pattern

Table-3: Calculation of Etalon spacing

No 𝜒𝑛2 = 𝜒𝑚+𝑛
2 2
− 𝜒𝑚 𝐷 𝑛𝐷2 𝜆
𝑑=
𝜒𝑛2
OPTICS LABORATORY
DEPARTMENT OF PHYSICS

3. TO FIND THE FINESSE AND FREE SPECTRAL RANGE OF THE ETALON

The Free Spectra! Range of the Etalon is given by
𝐹𝑆𝑅 = 𝑐/2𝑑,
where, 𝑐 = speed of light in air and 𝑑 = spacing of the Etalon.

ERROR CALCULATION:

RESULTS:
Wave length of light used 𝜆 =………………………
Spacing of the Etalon 𝑑 =…………………………..
𝐹𝑆𝑅 =……………………………………….

DISCUSSION:
OPTICS LABORATORY
DEPARTMENT OF PHYSICS

CHARACTERIZATION OF OPTICAL
ELEMENTS
OPTICAL COMPONENTS:
a. Solar Cell
b. LED (Blue and Red)
c. LDR
d. Photo Diode
e. Photo Transistor

LIGHT DEPENDENT RESISTOR (LDR)

AIM:
1. To study the V-1 Characteristics of LDR
2. To study the Response characteristics of LDR

THEORY:
A photoresistor of Light Dependent Resistor (LDR) is a resistor whose resistance decreases with
increasing incident light intensity; in other words, it exhibits photoconductivity. Light detection
operation depends on the fact that the resistance of certain materials like Cadmium Sulphide (CdS)
varies with the intensity of light failing on the surface of the film. They have no power and voltage
handling capabilities similar to those of a conventional resistor.

EXPERIMENT SET-UP
1. Fix the kinematic laser mount on the optical rail and mount the diode laser.
OPTICS LABORATORY
DEPARTMENT OF PHYSICS

2. Mount the Polarizer Rotator on the optical rail. Then fix the cell mount and insert the LDR
with mount into the cell mount.

3. Connect the output probes of the LDR to the 0-5V variable socket in the optoelectronics
source and measurement unit. Connect the ammeter in series and voltmeter in parallel with
the LDR.

CIRCUIT DIAGRAM:
OPTICS LABORATORY
DEPARTMENT OF PHYSICS

PROCEDURE:

V-I CHARACTERISTICS
1. Switch On the diode laser.
2. Rotate the polarizer to get maximum intensity. Align the laser beam to get
maximum light on the LDR.

3. Vary the Voltage across LDR ranging from 0 to 5V. Note the Voltage and Current
in voltmeter and ammeter at different intervals.

4. V-I Characteristics
Sl.No. Voltage (V) in volts Current (1) mA

RESPONSE CHARACTERISTICS
1. Switch On the laser and opto-electronic source and measurement unit.
OPTICS LABORATORY
DEPARTMENT OF PHYSICS

2. Align the laser beam to get maximum light on the LDR.

3. Fix the Voltage across LDR at a particular voltage.
4. Rotate the polarizer to get maximum intensity and note its angle.
5. Note the corresponding current from ammeter.
6. Rotate the polarizer in an interval of 100 and note down the corresponding current each
time.
7. Plot a Polarizer angle vs. Current graph.

Sl.No. Angle of the Polarizer (degree) Current through LDR (I) mA

RESULT :
1. V-I Characteristics of LDR is studied and graph is plotted.
2. Response characteristics of LDR is studied and graph is plotted.

PHOTO TRANSISTOR

AIM:
1. To study the V-I characteristics of phototransistor.
2. To study the Response characteristics of phototransistor.

THEORY:
In a phototransistor, the base region is enlarged and generally does not have a lead attached to it.
The collector-base junction is sensitive to light falling on it. When light falls on the base junction,
a base current proportional to light intensity is produced. This initiates a collector current
proportional to the light intensity. Phototransistors have a higher responsivity for light but they are
not able to detect low levels of light.

EXPERIMENT SET-UP:
1. Remove the LDR from the mount in the above experiment and mount the phototransistor.
2. Connect the output probes of the phototransistor to the 0-5V variable socket in the opto-
electronic source and measurement unit.
3. Connect the ammeter in series and voltmeter in parallel with the Phototransistor.
OPTICS LABORATORY
DEPARTMENT OF PHYSICS

CIRCUIT DIAGRAM:

PROCEDURE
V-I CHARACTERISTICS
1. Rotate the polarizer to get maximum intensity.
2. Align the laser beam to get maximum light on the phototransistor.
3. Vary the Voltage across phototransistor ranging from 0 to 2V.
4. Note the Voltage and Current in voltmeter and ammeter at different intervals.
5. Plot the V-I Graph.

V-I CHARACTERISTICS
Sl. No. Voltage (V) in volts Current (I) mA

RESPONSE CHARACTERISTICS
1. Fix the Voltage across phototransistor at a particular voltage not more than 2V.
2. Rotate the polarizer to get maximum intensity and note its angle.
3. Note the corresponding current from ammeter.
4. Rotate the polarizer in an interval of 100 and note down the corresponding current each
time.
5. Plot a Polarizer angle vs. Current graph.

Sl. No. Angle of the Polarizer (degree) Current (I) mA

RESULT:
1. V-I characteristics of phototransistor is studied and graph is plotted.
2. Response characteristics of phototransistor is studied and graph is plotted.
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DEPARTMENT OF PHYSICS

PHOTODIODE

AIM:
To study the response characteristics of Photodiode.

THEORY:
A photodiode is a type of photo detector capable of converting light into either current or voltage,
depending upon the mode of operation. A photodiode is a p-n junction or PIN structure. When a
photon of sufficient energy strikes the diode, it excites an electron, thereby creating a free electron
and a positively charged electron hole… if the absorption occurs in the junction’s depletion region,
or one diffusion length away from it, these carries are swept from the junction by the built-in field
of the depletion region. Thus holes move toward the anode, and electrons toward the cathode, and
a photocurrent is produced. This photocurrent is the sum of both the dark current (without light)
and the light current, so the dark current must be minimized to enhance the sensitivity of the device.
The mechanism of the photodiode is like that of a (miniaturized) solar cell. They are not as
sensitive as a phototransistor but their linearity can make them useful in simple light meters.

EXPERIMENTAL SET-UP:
1. Remove the Phototransistor from the cell mount in the above experiment and mount
the photodiode.
2. Connect the output probes of the photodiode to the 5V socket in the opto-electronic
source and measurement unit.
3. Connect the ammeter in series and voltmeter in parallel with the Phototransistor.

CIRCUIT DIAGRAM

PROCEDURE
1. Fix the voltage of across the photodiode at a particular voltage < 2 V.
2. Rotate the polarizer to get maximum intensity and note its angle.
3. Note the corresponding current from ammeter.
4. Rotate the polarizer in an interval of 100 and note down the corresponding current each
time.
5. Plot a Polarizer angle vs. Current graph.
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DEPARTMENT OF PHYSICS

RESPONSE CHARACTERISTICS
Sl. No. Angle of the Polarizer (degree) Current (1) mA

RESULT:
Response characteristics of photodiode is studied and graph is plotted.

SOLAR CELL

AIM:
To study the Response characteristics of a Solar cell.

THEORY:
A solar cell is a semiconductor device, which generates an emf when illuminated by light. When
light hits the surface of a solar cell near the p-n junction, the crystal is ionized and new electron
hole pairs are generated. These electrons and holes created in the n and p-region diffuse towards
the junction and if they have no time to recombine in the transit, they fall under the influence of
the internal electric field existing in the junction. The electric field forces the electrons to move to
n-region and holes to the p-region. This produces an excess of hole in the p-region and electrons
in the n-region. These electrons and holes build up charges in their respective regions and a
potential difference called photo emf appear across the cell. The solar cells are usually made of p-
type Selenium and n-type Cadmium oxide. The p-type material is typically connected to the base
and top of the wafer, n-type, has a grid of electrical contacts. The n-type is exposed to the light.

EXPERIMENTAL SET-UP:
1. Remove the Photodiode from the cell mount in the above experiment and mount the Solar
cell.
2. Connect the probes of the solar cell to the voltmeter of the Opto-electronic source and
measurement unit.

CIRCUIT DIAGRAM

PRODUCEDURE
OPTICS LABORATORY
DEPARTMENT OF PHYSICS

1. Rotate the polarizer to get maximum intensity and note its angle.
2. Note the corresponding voltage from voltmeter.
3. Rotate the polarizer in an interval of 100 and note down the corresponding
voltage each time.
4. Plot a Polarizer angle vs. voltage graph.

Sl. No. Angle of the Polarizer (degree) Current (1) mA

RESULT:
Response characteristics of Solar Cell is studied and graph is plotted.

LIGHT EMITTING DIODE (LED)

AIM:
To study the V-I Characteristics of an LED.

THEORY:
A light-emitting diode (LED) is a semiconductor light source. When a light-emitting diode is
forward biased, electrons are able to recombine with holes within the device, releasing energy in
the form of photons. This effect is called electroluminescence and the color of the light is
determined by the energy gap of the semiconductor. Here we are finding the relationship between
the input voltage V and forward current I. The biasing voltage is increased from zero by V in
suitable steps by varying the biasing supply. The corresponding reading in the ammeter connected
to the LED is noted at each step. A graph plotted between V and I, which represents the V-I
Characteristics.

EXPERIMENTAL SET-UP:
1. Remove all the components from the optical rail except cell mount insert the LED on the
cell mount.
2. Connect the probes to the 0-5V variable socket of the optoelectronic source and
measurement unit.
3. Connect the ammeter in series and voltmeter in parallel with the LED.
OPTICS LABORATORY
DEPARTMENT OF PHYSICS

CIRCUIT DIAGRAM:

PROCEDURE
1. Vary the voltage across the LED at regular interval and not each time the voltage and
corresponding current.
2. Plot the V-I Graph.

CAUTION:
Don’t increase the voltage beyond 2V for Red LED and 2.75 V for Blue LED.
Sl. No. Voltage (V) in volts Current (I) mA

RESULT:
V-I characteristics of LED is studied.

DISCUSSION:
OPTICS LABORATORY
DEPARTMENT OF PHYSICS

REFLECTION & REFRACTION

AIM:
1. Verification of Snell’s law and find the critical angle
2. Verification of Fresnel’s equations for horizontal and vertical polarizations
3. Find the Brewster’s angle

COMPONENTS:
 Optical Rail
 Semiconductor laser with 633 nm wavelength
 A polariser
 Rotating table assembly
 An optical detector
 An optical element

Figure 1: Apparatus for R&R experiments

1. THEORY
1.1. Snell's law

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Light incident on the boundary (interface) between two transparent optical materials is
partially transmitted and partially reflected where the fractional transmittance and
reflectance are given by the Fresnel equations (see later). The reflected angle is equal to the
incidence angle, and the angle of transmission is bent relative to the normal depending upon
the relative indices of the two materials and also on the side of the surface from which the
beam is incident (Figure l).

ni > nt

Figure 2: Reflection and refraction at an optical interface - Snell's Law.

The transmitted angle t is related to the incident angle i by Snell's law as follows:
𝑛𝑖 sin 𝜃𝑖 = 𝑛𝑡 sin 𝜃𝑡 (1)

Where ni and nt are the refractive indices of the materials on the incidence and transmission
side of the interface respectively (Figure 1).

Equation (1) indicates that the light is bent towards the normal when transmitting from low
to high index and is bent away from the normal in transmitting from high to low index. In
the case of transmitting from high to low refractive index, as we increase the angle of
incidence, the transmission angle moves closer to the interface and eventually becomes 900
(Figure 2).

Figure 3: Critical angle and total internal reflection (TIR).

Precisely at the point where the transmission angle is 900, the incidence angle is referred to
as the critical angle, c. At incidence angles greater than c, the light undergoes total internal
reflection (TIR) with zero transmission. The critical angle is given by Snell's law when t
=900 i.e.
𝑛𝑡
𝜃𝑐 = sin−1 ( ) (2)
𝑛𝑖
Another significant angle is Brewster's angle. When light passes through a material the
oscillating electric field vector in the light wave induces the electrons in the atoms to
oscillate relative to their nuclei, thus creating arrays of dipoles oscillating in a direction
perpendicular to the propagation axis. At the interface between two materials of differing
refractive index, the reflection is fed with power from the dipoles induced into oscillation

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by the refracted light ray. Dipoles cannot radiate power from their ends in a direction which
is collinear with their oscillation axis and this leads to an interesting case for incident light
linearly polarised in the incidence plane.

Reflection
ni < nt direction
ni > nt Reflection
direction \

Figure 4: Illustration of Brewster's angle

Under this situation, there is a particular incidence angle for which the dipole axis,
perpendicular to the refracted ray, is collinear with the reflection direction (Figure 3), and
hence, the reflectance is zero. This occurs when the incidence angle is such that the refracted
ray is at 900 to the reflected ray, i.e. when i + t = 900 (Figure 3), and hence sin i = cos t.
This means that from Snell's law the angle of zero reflectance known as Brewster's angle,
B is given by:
𝑛𝑖
𝜃𝐵 = tan−1 ( ) (3)
𝑛𝑡

1.2. The Fresnel Equations

The reflectance (R) and the transmittance (T) of an optical interface (i.e. the ratios of the
reflected and transmitted power (Pr and Po to the incident power (Pi) respectively) vary as a
function of the angle of incidence, and the precise form of the relationship depends on the
polarisation state of the incident light with respect to the incidence plane, the side from which
the light is incident (high or low index side) and the refractive indices of the two materials
(where the incidence plane is the plane containing the normal to the interface and the incident
ray). The reflectance and transmittance for all possible combinations of the above variables
are given by the Fresnel equations which predict the critical angle and Brewster's angle as
special cases. For reflectance the Fresnel equations are as follows:

𝑛𝑡 cos 𝜃𝑖 − 𝑛𝑖 cos 𝜃𝑡 2
𝑅𝑖 = [ ] (4)
𝑛𝑖 cos 𝜃𝑡 + 𝑛𝑡 cos 𝜃𝑖

𝑛𝑖 cos 𝜃𝑖 − 𝑛𝑡 cos 𝜃𝑡 2
𝑅𝑜 = [ ] (5)
𝑛𝑖 cos 𝜃𝑖 + 𝑛𝑡 cos 𝜃𝑡

where Ri is the reflectance for linearly polarised light with its polarisation vector in (i.e.
parallel to) the incidence plane and Ro is for linearly polarised light with its polarisation vector
out of (i.e. perpendicular to) the incidence plane. A similar set of equations can be presented
for the transmittance but it is usually easier to calculate the transmittance on the basis that

𝑇𝑖,𝑜 = 1 − 𝑅𝑖,𝑜 (6)

It should be noted that equations (4), (5) & (6) are valid for light incident from either side of
the interface giving different answers for each case since t is different for each case. Before

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leaving the Fresnel equations it is worth considering the case of normal incidence where i
and t are both equal to 00 and hence, the reflectance is given by:

𝑛𝑖 − 𝑛𝑡 2
𝑅𝑖 = 𝑅𝑖 = [ ] (7)
𝑛𝑖 + 𝑛𝑡

2. PROCEDURE
Once the system is assembled correctly, the beam from the laser is incident on the centre of
the flat of the optical element which has been arranged to coincide with the rotation axis of
its mounting plate. This ensures that the beam incident through the cylindrical element or any
reflected and refracted beams always intersect the curved surface at 90º to its tangent,
irrespective of the angular position of the rotation stage. Such an arrangement eliminates
errors in angular measurement arising from refraction at this surface and ensures that the
reflectance and transmittance of this surface is constant with rotation angle and is known.

 If it is not assembled already, the system should be set up in accordance with Figure 5.

TOP VIEW

Figure 5: Reflection/Refraction Setup

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 Recommended settings: Optical axis=18cm {or 16cm if being used with ED-WAVE},
Laser aligned at 450 to polarisation axis, Beam focused onto active area of the photodetector).

 Establishment of the required polarisation state. Since the reflectance and

transmittance of light at an optical interface are polarisation sensitive (see Theory), the
polarisation of the beam you are using must be known and adjusted to that required by the
objectives of the experiment. This usually means that we adjust the linear polarisation
direction of the incident beam to either
(a) lie in the incidence plane of the interface, referred to as 'p' polarisation, or
(b) be perpendicular to the incidence plane, referred to as 's' polarisation where the
incidence plane is the plane containing the incident ray and the normal to the interface.

However, as the laser output is polarised this would require a separate adjustment of the laser
for each desired state. Alternatively, and more simply, the laser orientation may be fixed to
provide an output polarisation direction at 450 which launches both polarisation conditions
simultaneously. Once this has been done, the polarisation direction incident on the half
cylinder may be adjusted simply by rotating the polariser till its transmission axis is vertical
or horizontal as required. Note that the polariser has been fixed in its mount such that its
transmission axis is vertical when the orientation is set at zero (00). The penalty for this
convenience is that the power available at the interface is about half that available if the laser
orientation is adjusted for each desired polarisation state, but this should not cause a problem
when performing the experiment. Hence, it is recommended to employ the latter method (i.e.
with the laser at 45 0 to the incident plane) of adjusting the polarisation state of the laser beam
when performing the experiments.

 For Snell's law, remove the polariser from the system. For low to high index, with the
beam from the laser incident directly on the flat optical interface, measure the transmitted
angle as a function of incidence angle at 100 intervals and plot your results.
 For high to low index, the beam is incident on the flat optical interface through the
curved surface of the half cylinder. Estimate the value of the critical angle which should be
readily observed as you rotate the stage. As you approach the critical angle, view the
transmitted beam on a white card / screen and rotate the stage until the transmitted beam is
just extinguished. The incident angle at this point is then the critical angle.

 Fresnel Equations - Reflectance and Transmittance:

Determination of the Correction Factors for the Calculation of Reflectance and Transmission
from Power Measurements:

Measure the incident power and the reflected powers for normal incidence directly onto the
flat face of the half cylinder. To effect these measurements reinsert the polariser into the
system (to reduce the optical power and ensure that the photoreceiver does not go off scale)
and carry out the following procedure:

 Position the photoreceiver to intersect and measure the incident beam, making sure that the
entire cross-section of the incident beam falls within the detector area. Note the power
reading on the detector meter and adjust the angle of the polariser to obtain maximum light
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DEPARTMENT OF PHYSICS

transmission (keep the polariser in this position for the remaining measurements). Record
this power reading and then close the laser shutter and take an ambient light reading from
the detector. This ambient value should be subtracted from your measured power with the
shutter open to yield the incident laser power, Pi.

 When the measurement of Pi is completed, rotate the table assembly so that the beam has
an incidence angle of about 100. Rotate the detector into position and measure the reflected
power, again taking an ambient light reading to yield Pr. For a 100 angle of incidence there
is negligible difference in the reflected power from that at normal incidence and this value
can be used to determine the normal incidence reflection coefficient, Rn = Pr/Pi. Compare
your measured value of Rn with that calculated from equation 7 and comment on the
validity of your assumptions.

 The correction factor (1 - Rn) may now be used to appropriately correct the measured
values of reflected and transmitted power to enable the reflectance and / or the
transmittance of any single interface to be obtained.

 Vertical Polarisation - low to high index

Arrange the polarisation state is perpendicular to the incidence plane (i.e. the transmission
axis of the polariser is vertical - set to zero on the polariser's rotational scale). With the beam
incident directly on the flat optical interface (i.e. Lo-Hi index interface), measure the reflected
power, Pr, as a function of incidence angle at 50 intervals. Remember to also take an ambient
light reading (i.e. close the laser shutter) at each angle. This value should be subtracted from
each measured Pr value to account for any ambient light variations. The reflectance, R, can
then be simply obtained from equation 5 and the transmittance, T, from equation 6. Plot your
results for transmittance and reflectance as a function of incidence angle.

 Horizontal Polarisation - low to high index

Rearrange the incident polarisation direction to be in the incidence plane (i.e. horizontal -
polariser set to 900) and repeat the reflectance measurements (remember to take ambient light
readings) and calculate the transmittance as before. Again plot the results as a function of
incidence angle. In this experiment Brewster's angle should be readily observed as you rotate
the stage. An accurate estimate of Brewster's angle (B) may be obtained by viewing the
reflected beam on a white card / screen and rotating the table assembly to observe the
minimum intensity.

 Vertical Polarisation - high to low index

Orient the polariser to vertically polarise the laser beam. Arrange that the beam is incident on
the flat through the curved surface (i.e. high to low index interface). You will probably find
that in this configuration the laser spot has diverged slightly. Hence, to ensure that the laser
beam still falls within the photodiode active area move the detector head along its horizontal
mounting post towards the table assembly. In addition, make any detector height adjustments
required to centralise the laser beam on the active area.
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DEPARTMENT OF PHYSICS

In order to obtain an accurate value for the reflectance at the flat surface of the half cylinder
for the Hi-Lo index case, the correction factors must be taken into account. Thus you should
measure the reflected power from the flat interface, Pr, as a function of incidence angle
(remember to take ambient light readings) and calculate the reflectance, R. The transmittance
should then be calculated as before and your results plotted. Note any interesting features as
you take your measurements.

 Horizontal Polarisation - high to low index

Alter the polariser to horizontally polarise the laser beam and repeat the reflectance
measurements for the high to low index interface, and plot your results. Again compare the
graphs to highlight the strong polarisation dependence and measure the Brewster angle.

Table-1: Snell’s law

High to low index Low to high index

Sl. 𝜃𝑖 𝜃𝑡 𝜃𝑡 Sl. 𝜃𝑖 𝜃𝑡 𝜃𝑡
No. (Measured) (Theoretical) No. (Measured) (Theoretical)

 Correction factor:

Rn = ……………………..

Table-2: Fresnel’s equations: Vertical polarization

High to low index

Sl. No. 𝜃𝑖 Pr R T

Low to high index

Sl. No. 𝜃𝑖 Pr R T
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DEPARTMENT OF PHYSICS

Table-3: Fresnel’s equations: Horizontal polarization

High to low index

Sl. No. 𝜃𝑖 Pr R T

Low to high index

Sl. No. 𝜃𝑖 Pr R T

ERROR CALCULATION:

RESULTS:

DISCUSSION:
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DEPARTMENT OF PHYSICS

ELECTRO-OPTIC EFFECT
AIM:
To plot the graph and study the birefringence with respect to applied voltage in an electro optic
crystal, lithium niobite (LiNbO3).
COMPONENTS:
 He-Ne laser with mount
 Polarizer and analyzer
 Electro optic crystal, Lithium niobite (LiNbO3) with mount
 Detector with mount Output measurement unit
 2 KV DC supply

THEORY
As all of us know, many crystals exhibit birefringence naturally. There are certain crystals which
are not birefringent naturally but become birefringent by application of an electric field. The
phenomenon generally is called electro optic effect.
Transmission of the laser light through the crystal exhibiting birefringence is given by
𝜋𝐷𝑛 𝐿
𝑇 = 𝑇𝑜 𝑆𝑖𝑛2 ( ),
𝜆
where 𝑇 is the transmission, 𝑇𝑜 is the intrinsic transmission of the assembly taking into account all
the losses; 𝐷𝑛 is the birefringence (i.e., the difference in the refractive index of two polarizations),
𝐿 = length of crystal, 𝜆 = wave length of the laser.
The birefringence is increasing function of the applied voltage, so that the transmission will be an
oscillatory function of the applied voltage.
The maximum transmission occurs when,
1𝜆
𝐷𝑛 =
22
This occurs at voltage called half voltage denoted as 𝑉1/2 .
𝜆𝑑
𝑉1/2 =
2𝑟22 𝑛𝑜2 𝑙
where 𝑙 is gap between two electrodes, 𝑟22 is the electro optic coefficient, 𝑛𝑜 is the ordinary
refractive index and 𝜆 is the wavelength of light.
Half wave voltage depends upon the nature of the material and increases with wavelength.
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DEPARTMENT OF PHYSICS

PROCEDURE
1. Arrange the electro optic set up shown in the figure.
2. Carefully align the crystal along with so that light beam passes accurately along the axis of the
crystal.
3. Rotate and position the first polarizer so that light beam passes through it with maximum
intensity. This is to make sure that the light entering the crystal is polarized.
4. Rotate and position the second polarizer (analyzer) so that the light transmitted through it is
minimum.
5. Connect the high voltage DC supply to the electrodes kept closely on both sides of the crystal
parallel to the light beam.
6. Turn on the supply and gradually increase applied voltage from 0 V to 2000 V in steps of 100
V, measuring the light reaching the detector at every 100 V interval.
7. Record the voltage and output current reading at each 100 V interval. The output current
increases up to a point of input voltage and after that the output current decreases with the increase
in voltage.
8. Plot the meter reading as a function of applied voltage.
9. Determine the value of 𝑉1/2. Determine the extinction ratio, which is the ratio of the meter
reading at 𝑉1/2 to meter reading at V= 0.

10. Use the following equations for further calculation.

𝜋𝐷𝑛 𝐿
𝑃(𝑉) = 𝑃(𝑉1 ) 𝑆𝑖𝑛2 ( )
2 𝜆
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DEPARTMENT OF PHYSICS

𝜆 𝑃(𝑉)
𝐷𝑛 = 𝑆𝑖𝑛−1 (√ )
𝜋𝐿 𝑃 (𝑉 )
1
2

where 𝑃(𝑉) is the meter reading at voltage V

𝑃 (𝑉1 ) is the half wave voltage

2

𝐿 = length of the crystal (2.5 cm)

𝜆 = wave length (632 nm)
Solve the equation for several values of V and plot it as a function of voltage.
CALCULATIONS
Half wave voltage from the graph =
Extinction ratio = (detector output at half wave voltage) / (detector output at zero voltage).
OBSERVATIONS:
Table 1: Voltage vs output current reading and Birefringence calculation
Sl. No. Supply Voltage Detector Output Birefringence

ERROR CALCULATIONS:
RESULTS:
1. The intensity variation is plotted as a function of applied voltage.
2. Half wave voltage =………………………………..
Extinction ratio =…………………………………...
3. Birefringence vs applied voltage graph is plotted.

DISCUSSION:
OPTICS LABORATORY
DEPARTMENT OF PHYSICS

FARADAY EFFECT
AIM:
To determine the Verdet constant of the material for a given wavelength of light.
COMPONENTS:
 Diode Laser with power supply
 Detector output measurement unit
 Electromagnet with glass rod (SF10)
 Polarizer and Analyzer

PRINCIPLE
The Verdet constant is the proportionality constant between the angle of rotation 𝜃 of plane
polarized light and the product of the path length 𝑙 through the sample and the applied magnetic
field 𝐵, i.e.,
𝜃 = 𝑉𝑙𝐵,
Or,
𝜃
𝑉𝑒𝑟𝑑𝑒𝑡 𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑡, 𝑉 = .
𝑙𝐵

THEORY
The Faraday Effect is a magnetoptical effect in which a plane of polarized light is rotated as it
passes through a medium that is in a magnetic field. The amount of rotation is dependent on the
amount of sample that the light passes through, the strength of the magnetic field and a
proportionality constant called the Verdet Constant.
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DEPARTMENT OF PHYSICS

𝜃 = 𝑉𝑙𝐵.
Strength of the magnetic fields 𝐵 = 𝜇0 𝑁𝐼,
where 𝑁 - number of turns per unit length of the coil, 𝐼 - current through the coil.
PROCEDURE
Arrange the components as shown in figure above. Align the laser beam in order to pass through
the central axis of the coil containing the glass rod and the centre of the pinhole detector. Rotate
the polarizer up to the position of minimum intensity. Switch on the power supply of the electro
magnet. Increase the current through the electro magnet to an intervals of 0.4 A. Now rotate the
lead screw of the analyzer in order to get a minimum intensity position and note the corresponding
reading from the dial of the analyzer. This is the angle of rotation 𝜃.
OBSERVATIONS:
Number of turns in the coil = 2508 Nos
Length of the coil = 15 cm
Number of turns per unit length 𝑁 = 2508/15 = 167.2/cm
Length of the rod = 10 cm
Table: Verdet constant calculation
Sl. No. Current 𝜃 Magnetic Field Verdet constant
𝐵 = 𝜇0 𝑁𝐼 𝜃
𝑉=
𝑙𝐵

ERROR CALUCULATION:

RESULTS:
The Verdet constant of the material =………………….. min / Oersted / cm.

DISCUSSION: