CHAPTER ONE

1. INTRODUCTION TO COMPUTERS

Objective:

 Define the term computer

 Identify the several characteristics of computer that made them useful and popular
 Describe different classification of computes
 Application of Computers
1.1. DEFINITION OF A COMPUTER
A computer is an electronic device that accepts data, performs computations, and makes logical
decisions according to instructions that have been given to it; then produces meaningful
information in a form that is useful to humans and store.
The word „computer‟ comes from the word „compute‟, which means to calculate. So a computer
is considered to be a calculating device that can perform arithmetic operations at enormous
speed.
More accurately, a computer may be defined as a device that operates upon data.
a) Computes are large electronic machines that can manipulate data in the desired way by
executing a detailed set of instructions called programs.

b) A computer is an electronic device used to process information.

• Electronic- very fast, operate at electronic speed .
• Processing- calculating numbers, and comparing logics, creating texts, pictures,
etc.
• Information – systematically analyzed data uses to make a decision.
c) A computer is a machine which receives an input (data), processes it according to a
predefined program or instruction, stores it, and gives an output, i.e. provides the
result in printed or visual form(soft or hard copy).

Inpute

Process

Output

store

Figure 1.1 the input process, and output functions of a computer system.

Beyond calculating numbers, today, computers are used to store and manage large amount of
information in the form of words, numbers, pictures and sounds .

1|Page Bonga University

1.2. Generation of Computers
Although computer professionals do not agree on exact dates or specifics, computer
developments are often categorized by generations. Actually there are four generations and
major characteristics that distinguish these generations are the following;
� Dominant type of electronic circuit elements used.
� Major secondary storage media used.
� Computer language used.
� Types or characteristic of operating system used.
Computer generations are usually categorized by dramatic improvement in the hardware,
typically refold or better increases in speed and reliability and decrease in cost and size.

1. First generation (1950s)

• Use vacuum tubes as components for the electronic circuit.
• Punched cards were the main source of inputs, and magnetic grams were used for internal
storage.
• Operate in a speed of milliseconds (thousands of a second) and could handle more than
10,000 additions each second and cover large geographical area.
• Most applications were scientific calculations.
 Use machine and assembly language
Example:-abacus.
2. Second generations (early 1960s)
• Transistors were the main circuit components. (Transistors are a solid state device made
from silicon which is smaller, cheaper, faster, take less energy and more reliable than
vacuum tube but work in the same way with the vacuum tube.)
• Invented by Bell Labs.
• Magnetic tapes (similar with home tape caste), used for main storage,
• Operate in microseconds (millionths of a second) with more than 200,000 additions
possible each second.
• Business applications become more common place, with large data files stored on magnetic
tape and disk. (Magnetic disk: is a circular platter constructed of metal or plastic
materials coated with magnetically substance.)
• High-level languages COBOL and FORTRAN were introduced during this period. Batch
operating systems are used that permitted rapid processing of magnetic tape files.
3. Third generation (late 1960s, early 1970s)
Characterized by solid-state logic and integrated circuit (IC). (A single, self-contained transistor
is called discrete component. In early 1960 electronic equipment composed of discrete
components transistors, capacitors, resistors… They are
* manufactured separately.
* Packed in their own containers and soldered (wired together) on a circuit board. So the entire
manufacturing process was cumbersome and expensive. Do to these and other problems in 1958
the achievement that revolutionized electronics started the era of microelectronics: the invention
of integrated circuit.

2|Page Bonga University

 • Computer storage switched from magnetic cores to integrated circuit boards that provide
modularity (expandable storage) and compatibility (interchangeable equipment
• New input/output methods such as optical scanning and plotters.
• Software become more important with sophisticated operating systems, improved
programming languages,
4. Fourth generation (late 1970s, early 1989s,)
• Greatly expanded storage capabilities and improved circuitry.
• Has large-scale integrated circuits (LSI) which has several hundred thousand transistors
placed on one tiny silicon chip.
• Computer memory operates at speeds of nanoseconds (billionths of a second) with large
computers capable of adding 15 million numbers per second.
5. The fifth generation computer
The fifth generation is in progress. An architecture, which makes use of the changes in
technology and allows a simple and natural methodology for solving problems, is being sought.
These computers will have intelligent processors i.e., processors which can draw inferences.
Users will also be able to interact with them in natural languages such as English, German etc.
th
Japans are working intensively on the project for developing the 5 generation.

3|Page Bonga University

 Table 1.1 Generation of Computers

1.3. CHARACTERISTICS OF COMPUTERS

Computers can be described by the following characteristics.
1. Storage
Computes can handle large amount of data. Once recorded, information can never be forgotten
and can be retrieved with a fraction of a second, except when the computer is damaged or
affected by virus .
Its storage capacity is measured as follows:
Bit = smallest information stored in a computer (0 or 1).
• Byte = character = 8 bits.
• Kilobyte (KB) = 1024 bytes.
• Megabyte (MB) = 1024 Kilobytes.
• Gigabyte (GB) = 1024 Megabytes.
• Terabyte (TB) = 1024 Gigabytes.

2. Speed
Computers are very fast devices. They work at an incredible speed and perform millions of
calculations and comparisons in a second.
Its speed is measured by:
Millisecond = 1/1000 of a second.
Microsecond = 1/1000, 000 of a second.
Nanosecond = 1/1000, 000,000 of a second.
Pico second = 1/1000, 000,000,000 of a second.

3. Accuracy
Computers are very accurate. They process vast amount of data in a very high speed without
committing errors. However, the computer is capable of doing what is instructed to do. If the
input data is correct and program instructions are reliable, then the output of a computer is
accurate.
Errors can occur mainly due to humans‟ incorrect input data, and program instructions with a
problem. Computer errors caused due to incorrect input data or unreliable program is often called
garbage-in-garbage out (GIGO).

4. Diligence
Computers are not bored or become tired of performing many thousands of calculations
repeatedly. Human beings suffer from weakness like tiredness, lack of concentration, become
sad, depressed, bored and negligent; and it will reflect on the work they do. Moreover, humans
cannot perform similar tasks over and over, again and again with the same precision and
accuracy.
Being a machine, computers are not getting tired or bored, not lose concentration etc. They
perform the tasks given to them irrespective of whether it is interesting, creative, boring,
irrespective of whether it is the first time or the millionth time with exactly the same accuracy
and speed.

5. Versatility
One of the most wonderful things about the computer is its versatility. A computer is capable of
performing almost any task provided that the task can be reduced to a series of logical steps.

4|Page Bonga University

For example, the same computer that is used to handle engineering company‟s mathematics can
also be efficiently used by the company to track inventory, process payroll, design computations
etc.

6. Durability and Reliability

Computers are durable and extremely reliable devices. They can operate error-free over long
periods of time.
7. Lack of decision-making.

Computers do not have the capacity to think on their own. They lack human intelligence, and
only we impose them artificial intelligence. There I. Q is zero and they had to be told what to do
and in what sequence. Hence, only a user can determine what tasks a computer can perform. A
computer cannot take its own decision in this regard.
1.4. TYPES OF COMPUTERS
There are different types of Computers. Their difference is depending on different categories of
characteristics.
Classification by the method of operation (processing)
They are classified into three:
1. Analog
Analog computers operate by measuring. They deal with continues
Variables; they don‟t compute directly with numbers, rather, they operate by measuring physical
magnitude such as pressure, temperature, voltage, current etc.
Examples
• Thermometer
• Voltmeter
• Speedometer
They are special purpose computers.
Analog computers have limited accuracy
2. Digital Computers
Digital computers deal with discrete variables; they operate by counting rather than measuring.
They operate directly up on numbers (or digits) that represent numbers, letters, or other special
symbols.
Examples:
• Abacus
• Desk & pocket computers
• The general purpose computers
Digital computers have higher accuracy and speed than the analog ones.

3. Hybrid Computers
The best features of analog and digital computers can be combined into a
single device to form a hybrid computer. A hybrid computer processes the information by
collecting input data with analog method, convert it into digital quantities, processes the digital
values and convert the output from digital to analog form.
Example:
• In hospital insensitive-care unit analog devices may measure a patient‟s heart function,
temperature and other vital signs. These measurements may then be converted into numbers and
supplied to a digital component in the system. This component is used to monitor the patient‟s
vital signs and to send an immediate signal to the nurse‟s station. If any abnormal readings are
detected.

5|Page Bonga University

• Gasoline pomp – Contains an analog Computer that converts the flow of pumped fuel into two
measurements the price of the delivered gas and the quantity of pumped fuel.

Classification by purpose of application

Computers can be applied or used for different purposes. Based upon their application, they are
classified as special purpose or general-purpose computers
1. Special purpose computers
They are designed to solve a single type of problem, that is their components and function are
uniquely adapted to a specific situation involving specific application.
Example:
• The public telephone box
• Traffic control system
• Ticket machines (used in grocery, super market etc.)
• Pocket calculators etc.
• Counters
Most analog computers are special purpose computers.
2. General-purpose computers
They are designed to solve variety of problems through the use of “store program concept”. A
program or set of instructions designed to solve a problem is read and stored into the memory
and then executed by the computer one by one. The same computer can be applied to solve
another set of problem using different program. General purpose computers are more flexible
and versatile.
Classification by physical size, price, capacity and performance
- Supercomputers
- Mainframe computers
- Minicomputers
- Microcomputers
1. Supercomputers
Supercomputers are the largest, most powerful, fast and most expensive computers available at a
given time. Their storage capacity is extremely high, and has computing speeds several times
faster than mainframe computers.
They are primarily used for processing complex scientific applications that require enormous
processing power.
They can operate or process data and instructions at speeds measured in nanoseconds and even in
picoseconds. Most supercomputers are used by government agencies. They are for applications
requiring very large programs and huge amount of data that must be processed quickly.
Some application areas of supercomputers are:
- For weather forecasting in Meteorological centers.
- Oil exploration in the petroleum industry.
- Design new materials (Material scientists & Physicists)
- Weapons research (Military Industry)
- Large-scale simulation in Aerospace & Automobile industry etc,

2. Main frame computers

Mainframe computers are large computers frequently used in large organizations. Some
organizations like banks, insurance companies, hospitals, railways & airline reservation etc, need
to process large number of transactions online and require computer system having massive data

6|Page Bonga University

storage and processing power. Mainframe computers are computer systems mainly handling the
bulk of data and information processing of such organizations.
They are also used in an environment where a large number of users need to share a common
computing facility. They are housed in a central location with several user terminal connected to
them. Mainframes are large, room size computers, usually housed in a controlled environment.
They also expensive and process several million program instruction per second.

The main difference between a mainframe and a super computer is that a super computer
channels all its power into executing a few programs as fast as possible, where as a mainframe
uses its power to execute many programs concurrently.

3. Minicomputers

Minicomputers are general purpose computers who‟s CPU are contained on a single board or a
few boards. Minis are large and more powerful than micros. Minicomputers are used with a wide
variety of input-output devices and more memory and storage capacity. Minis can be accessed by
more than one user at a time and are used in many application areas.
• It is similar but less powerful than mainframe
• A mainframe having smaller configuration (small hosts, less storage space and fewer user
terminals) is often referred to as minicomputer.
• Also known as Mid-range computers.
• Used in small and minimum size companies or institutions like departments of institutions
or universities.

4. Microcomputers

A microcomputer or Personal computer (PC) is a small single user computer system based on a
microprocessor. Micros are generally equipped with a keyboard, display unit; floppy
diskette/hard disk drives. A microcomputer with a powerful microprocessor and a high quality
monitor is called a workstation.
Yet another type of microcomputers is known as portable computers which are further classified
as laptop, notebook, and personal digital assistant (PDAs). As the name implies, portable
computers can be easily carried around making it easier to use a computer anywhere.
• Also known as personal computers (pc).
• Use Microprocessors inside it.
• It is a general purpose computer that can easily fit on a normal size office table.
• Generally designed to be used by one person at a time. (Single user).
• They have limited input and output capacities and little storage capacity.
• On the other hand, they are cheap and easy to use.

The Two physical models of PCs (Personal computers) are:-

� Desktop model
� Tower model
� Other portable PCs are: Laptop, Notebook, sub note book, palmtop etc.

7|Page Bonga University

 Fig 1.5 Palmtop computer

1.5 APPLICATION OF COMPUTERS

Why we use Computers?

Today computes can find a role in nearly every aspect of our lives. In our everyday activities
they can help us get things done better and faster, making humans‟ life simple and easy.
The following are some of the capability of Computers, which are reasons to use Computers.
�Store and process large amount of information with high speed and accuracy;
�Transmit information across continents via communication channels;
�Simulate events;
�Perform complex mathematical computations and make comparisons;
�Monitor ongoing industrial operations;
�Perform repetitive processes with great ease, speed, and reliability;

The main areas of computer applications can be listed as follows:

 IN OFFICES: - Type writers are being replaced by computers.
 IN EDUCATION: - Computers are widely used in educational fields; for instruction and
administration /Interactive education/
CAL- Computer Aided Learning
CAI- Computer Assisted Instruction
 IN MEDICINE: - Medical diagnostic technologies and computer-based medical imaging
represents one of the fastest-growing areas in the computer field. E.g. Telemedicine.
- Computers can be used to hold details of patient‟s history and to aid diagnosis and treatment
procedures.
 INLIBARARY: - Computers has been a powerful tool for libraries, providing users
access to bibliographic information. It provide on-line catalog, information about
available books & other materials, and whether or not they are currently checked out or
not.
IN COMMUNICATION: - Computers can be used in different ways for
Communication purpose between users. This can include:
- Fax- hard copy - Usenet
- Electronic mail - Internet
- Teleconferencing - Video conferencing
IN MANUFACTURING :- Computers can be used in production process, from the
design stage to the manufacturing stage.
CAD- Computer-Aided Design

8|Page Bonga University

 CAM- Computer-Aided Manufacturing.
 IN BUSINESS: - Computers are used to record sales, maintain information about
inventories, payroll records, generate paychecks, and advertise goods or products.
 IN RESEARCH: - Computers use to analyze and process data. E.g. EPI, SPSS.
ADVANCED APPLICATION OF COMPUTERS
 Artificial Intelligence (AI) are computer programs that utilize special
programming routines that make decisions based on available evidence rather
than hard and fast rules. The computers have the capability to learn from past
events. These programs are expected to give computers new capabilities for
understanding the human voice and for interpreting users‟ natural language
responses to programs.
 Natural Language processing and speech recognition.
 Computer vision – ability to understand what they see. E.g. X-ray results read by
a computer.
 Problem solving – computers designed to give solutions by themselves.
 Expert system- AI programs that use the same rules as human experts to make
decisions based on available evidence.
E.g. Robotic system is a science of using a machine (robot) that is programmable,
capable of operating on its own without human intervention. Automatic machines that
operate without computer program control do not qualify as robots.

9|Page Bonga University