UNIT-1

1. INTRODUCTION

A computer is a programmable machine designed to perform arithmetic and logical operations

automatically and sequentially on the input given by the user and gives the desired output after processing.
Computer components are divided into two major categories namely hardware and software. Hardware is
the machine itself and its connected devices such as monitor, keyboard, mouse etc. Software is the set of
programs that make use of hardware for performing various functions. Generally, the term is used to
describe a collection of devices that function together as a system. It performs the following three
operations in sequence.

1. It receives data & instructions from the input device.

2. Processes the data as per instructions.

3. Provides the result (output) in a desired form.

Data : It is the collection of raw facts, figures & symbols. Ex : Names of students and their marks in different
subjects listed in random order.

Information : It is the data that is processed & presented in an organized manner. Ex : When the names of
students are arranged in alphabetical order, total and average marks are calculated & presented in a tabular
form, it is information.

Program : Set of instructions that enables a computer to perform a given task.

CHARACTERISTICS OF COMPUTERS

The characteristics of computers that have made them so powerful and universally useful are speed,
accuracy, diligence, versatility and storage capacity. Let us discuss them briefly. Speed:Computers work at
an incredible speed. A powerful computer is capable of performing about 3-4 million simple instructions per
second.

Accuracy: In addition to being fast, computers are also accurate. Errors that may occur can almost always be
attributed to human error (inaccurate data, poorly designed system or faulty instructions/programswritten
by the programmer)

Diligence: Unlike human beings, computers are highly consistent. They do not suffer from human traits of
boredom and tiredness resulting in lack of concentration. Computers, therefore, are better than human
beings in performing voluminous and repetitive jobs.

Versatility: Computers are versatile machines and are capable of performing any task as long as it can be
broken down into a series of logical steps. The presence of computers can be seen in almost every sphere –
Railway/Air reservation, Banks, Hotels, Weather forecasting and many more.

Storage Capacity: Today’s computers can store large volumes of data. A piece of information once recorded
(or stored) in the computer, can never be forgotten and can be retrieved almost instantaneously.
Cost effectiveness : Computers reduce the amount of paper work and human effort, thereby reducing costs.

Automation : Computers can be instructed to perform complex tasks automatically ( which increases the
productivity).

Limitations of computers : 1. Computers need clear & complete instructions to perform a task accurately. If
the instructions are not clear & complete, the computer will not produce the required result. 2. Computers
cannot think. 3. Computers cannot learn by experience. .

2.COMPUTER ORGANIZATION

A computer system consists of mainly four basic units; namely input unit, storage unit, central processing
unit and output unit. Central Processing unit further includes Arithmetic logic unit and control unit, as
shown in Figure 1.2

A computer performs five major operations or functions irrespective of its size and make. These are

• it accepts data or instructions as input,

• it stores data and instruction

• it processes data as per the instructions,

• it controls all operations inside a computer, and

• it gives results in the form of output.

GENERATIONS OF COMPUTER
Introduction:

A computer is an electronic device that manipulates information or data. It has the ability to store, retrieve,
and process data. Nowadays, a computer can be used to type documents, send email, play games, and
browse the Web. It can also be used to edit or create spreadsheets, presentations, and even videos. But the
evolution of this complex system started around 1940 with the first Generation of Computer and evolving
ever since.

There are five generations of computers.

1. FIRST GENERATION

• Introduction:

1. 1946-1959 is the period of first generation computer.

2. J.P.Eckert and J.W.Mauchy invented the first successful electronic computer called ENIAC,

ENIAC stands for “Electronic Numeric Integrated And Calculator”.

• Few Examples are:

1. ENIAC

2. EDVAC

3. UNIVAC

4. IBM-701

5. IBM-650

• Advantages:

1. It made use of vacuum tubes which are the only electronic component available during

those days.

2. These computers could calculate in milliseconds.

• Disadvantages:

1. These were very big in size, weight was about 30 tones.

2. These computers were based on vacuum tubes.

3. These computers were very costly.

4. It could store only a small amount of information due to the presence of magnetic drums.

5. As the invention of first generation computers involves vacuum tubes, so another

disadvantage of these computers was, vacuum tubes require a large cooling system.
6. Very less work efficiency.

7. Limited programming capabilities and punch cards were used to take inputs.

8. Large amount of energy consumption.

9. Not reliable and constant maintenance is required.

2. SECOND GENERATION

• Introduction:

1. 1959-1965 is the period of second-generation computer.

2. Second generation computers were based on Transistor instead of vacuum tubes.

• Few Examples are:

1. Honeywell 400

2. IBM 7094

3. CDC 1604

4. CDC 3600

5. UNIVAC 1108… many more

• Advantages:

1. Due to the presence of transistors instead of vacuum tubes, the size of electron

component decreased. This resulted in reducing the size of a computer as compared

to first generation computers.

2. Less energy and not produce as much heat as the first genration.

3. Assembly language and punch cards were used for input.

4. Low cost than first generation computers.

5. Better speed, calculate data in microseconds.

6. Better portability as compared to first generation

• Disadvantages:

1. A cooling system was required.

2. Constant maintenance was required.

3. Only used for specific purposes.

3. THIRD GENERATION
• Introduction:

1. 1965-1971 is the period of third generation computer.

2. These computers were based on Integrated circuits.

3. IC was invented by Robert Noyce and Jack Kilby In 1958-1959.

4. IC was a single component containing number of transistors.

Few Examples are:

1. PDP-8

2. PDP-11

3. ICL 2900

4. IBM 360

5. IBM 370… and many more

Advantages:

1. These computers were cheaper as compared to second-generation computers.

2. They were fast and reliable.

3. Use of IC in the computer provides the small size of the computer.

4. IC not only reduce the size of the computer but it also improves the performance of

the computer as compared to previous computers.

5. This generation of computers has big storage capacity.

6. Instead of punch cards, mouse and keyboard are used for input.

7. They used an operating system for better resource management and used the

concept of time-sharing and multiple programming.

8. These computers reduce the computational time from microseconds to nanoseconds.

• Disadvantages:

1. IC chips are difficult to maintain.

2. The highly sophisticated technology required for the manufacturing of IC chips.

3. Air conditioning is required.

4. FOURTH GENERATION

• Introduction:
1. 1971-1980 is the period of fourth generation computer.

2. This technology is based on Microprocessor.

3. A microprocessor is used in a computer for any logical and arithmetic function to be

performed in any program.

4. Graphics User Interface (GUI) technology was exploited to offer more comfort to users.

• Few Examples are:

1. IBM 4341

2. DEC 10

3. STAR 1000

4. PUP 11

• Advantages:

1. Fastest in computation and size get reduced as compared to the previous generation

of computer.

2. Heat generated is negligible.

3. Small in size as compared to previous generation computers.

4. Less maintenance is required.

5. All types of high-level language can be used in this type of computers.

• Disadvantages:

1. The Microprocessor design and fabrication are very complex.

2. Air conditioning is required in many cases due to the presence of ICs.

3. Advance technology is required to make the ICs.

Introduction:

1. The period of the fifth generation in 1980-onwards.

2. This generation is based on artificial intelligence.

3. The aim of the fifth generation is to make a device which could respond to natural

language input and are capable of learning and self-organization.

4. This generation is based on ULSI(Ultra Large Scale Integration) technology resulting in

the production of microprocessor chips having ten million electronic component.

• Few Examples are:

1. Desktop

2. Laptop

3. NoteBook

4. UltraBook

5. Chromebook… and many more

• Advantages:

1. It is more reliable and works faster.

2. It is available in different sizes and unique features.

3. It provides computers with more user-friendly interfaces with multimedia features.

• Disadvantages:

1. They need very low-level languages.

2. They may make the human brains dull and doomed.

3. computer network and types

Computer networks two or more computers that are connected with one another for the purpose of
communicating data electronically. Besides physically connecting computer and communication devices, a
network system serves the important function of establishing a cohesive architecture that allows a variety
of equipment types to transfer information in a near-seamless fashion. Two popular architectures are ISO
Open Systems Interconnection (OSI) and IBM’s Systems Network Architecture (SNA).

Two basic network types are local-area networks (LANs) and wide-area networks (WANs). LANs connect
computers and peripheral devices in a limited physical area, such as a business office, laboratory, or
college campus, by means of links (wires, Ethernet cables, fibre optics, Wi-Fi) that transmit data rapidly. A
typical LAN consists of two or more personal computers, printers, and high-capacity disk-storage devices
called file servers, which enable each computer on the network to access a common set of files. LAN
operating system software, which interprets input and instructs networked devices, allows users to
communicate with each other; share the printers and storage equipment; and simultaneously access
centrally located processors, data, or programs (instruction sets). LAN users may also access other LANs or
tap into WANs. LANs with similar architectures are linked by “bridges,” which act as transfer points. LANs
with different architectures are linked by “gateways,” which convert data as it passes between systems.

WANs connect computers and smaller networks to larger networks over greater geographic areas,
including different continents. They may link the computers by means of cables, optical fibres, or satellites,
but their users commonly access the networks via a modem (a device that allows computers to
communicate over telephone lines). The largest WAN is the Internet, a collection of networks and
gateways linking billions of computer users on every contin
 UNIT-II

1.IMPORTANT FEATURES OF MS-WORD

Ms-Word not only supports word processing features but also DTP features. Some of theimportant features
of Ms-Word are listed below:

i) Using word you can create the document and edit them later, as and whenrequired, by adding more text,
modifying the existing text, deleting/moving some part of it.

ii) Changing the size of the margins can reformat complete document or part of text.

iii) Font size and type of fonts can also be changed. Page numbers and Header andFooter can be included.

iv) Spelling can be checked and correction can be made automatically in the entiredocument. Word count
and other statistics can be generated.

v) Text can be formatted in columnar style as we see in the newspaper. Text boxescan be made.

vi) Tables can be made and included in the text.

vii) Word also allows the user to mix the graphical pictures with the text. Graphicalpictures can either be
created in word itself or can be imported from outside like from Clip ArtGallery.

viii) Word also provides the mail-merge facility.

ix) Word also has the facility of macros. Macros can be either attached to some function/special keys or to a
tool bar or to a menu.

x) It also provides online help of any option.

GETTING STARTED WITH MS-WORD

We have already told you that for working in Ms-Word you should be familiar with WINDOWS. If you have
not covered WINDOWS so far then read that first and then go through MS-WORD. By now you must be
aware of the fact that a software package is improved from time to time. These improvements are sold in
the market as new versions of the same software. Thus you will find many versions of MS-WORD being used
in different offices. In this lesson we will cover the version MS-WORD 97, which is latest in the market and
contain many improvements over the older versions. However, you do not have to worry if you have an
older version such as WORD6.0 or WORD 95. All the commands available in these older versions are also
available in WORD97 and they are compatible. While working in MS-WORD you have to work with a mouse.
Also, one can work, to some extent, through the keyboard. The use of mouse is simpler as it is fully menu
driven. In MS-WORD every command is available in the form of ‘icons’.

You can go inside MS-WORD by the following way

1. Take the mouse pointer to START button on the task bar. Click the left mouse button.

2. Move the pointer to programs. You will notice another menu coming up to the right.
3. In that menu identify where Microsoft word is placed. Move the cursor horizontally to come

out of programs.

4. Move into the rectangular area meant for Microsoft word. Click the left mouse button there.

The computer will start MS-WORD.

Let us discuss the important components of the screen.

(a) Title Bar

The title bar displays the name of the currently active word document. Like other WINDOWS

applications, it can be used to alter the size and location of the word window.

(b) Tool Bars

Word has a number of tool bars that help you perform task faster and with great ease. Two of the most
commonly tool bars are the formatting tool bar and the standard tool bar. These two

toolbars are displayed just below the title bar. At any point of time any tool bar can be made ON or OFF
through the tool bar option of View Menu.

(c) Ruler Bar

The Ruler Bar allows you to format the vertical alignment of text in a document.

(d) Status Bar

The Status Bar displays information about the currently active document. This includes the page number
that you are working, the column and line number of the cursor position and so on.

(e) Scroll Bar

The Scroll Bar helps you scroll the content or body of document. You can do so by moving the

elevator button along the scroll bar, or by click in on the buttons with the arrow marked on them to move
up and down and left and right of a page.

(f) Workspace

The Workspace is the area in the document window where you enter/type the text of your

document.

(g) Main Menu

The Word main menu is displayed at the top of the screen. The mainmenu further displays a sub menu.
Some of the options are highlighted options and some of themappear as faded options. At any time, only
highlighted options can be executed, faded options arenot applicable. Infect if the option is faded you will
not be able to choose it. You may not that any

option faded under present situation may become highlighted under different situations.
2.Graphics

You can insert special characters, symbols, pictures, illustrations, and watermarks.

Symbols and Special Characters: punctuation, spacing,

or typographical

Place your cursor in the document where you want the symbol Click the Insert Tab on the Ribbon Click the
Symbol button on the Symbols Group Choose the appropriate symbol. Illustrations, Pictures, and Smart Art

To insert a picture:

Place your cursor in the document where you want the illustration/picture Click the Insert Tab on the
Ribbon

Click the Clip Art/ Picture /Smart Art Button The dialog box will open on the screen and you can search for

clip art / picture / smart art. Choose the illustration you wish to include

Click the Picture Button Browse to the picture you wish to include Click the Picture Click Insert

Resize Graphics

All graphics can be resized by clicking the image and clicking one corner of the image and dragging the
cursor to the size you want the picture

Picture Symbols and special characters

Footnotes

Footnotes are sometimes necessary for providing additional information in your document. They normally
use asuperscript number as a marker, making it easy for the reader to simply look down from the text to the
notes atthe bottom to gather further information. Word automatically keeps track of the numbering and
placement ofthe footnotes for you, making this a painless task to perform when writing that thesis, book, or
scientific paper.

To insert footnotes into your Word document, do the following

Click the place in your document that you wish to place the insertion point for the reference mark to the
foot note. In the Ribbon, click the References tab. In the Footnotes section, click Insert Footnote. Word will
insert the reference mark at the point you selected and then take you to the bottom of the page. Type your
foot note. When you are done, right-click the footnote and select Go to Footnote to take you back to the
insertion point in the main body so you can continue working on your document.

Bulleted and Numbered Lists

Lists allow you to format and organize text with numbers, bullets, or in an outline. Bulleted lists have bullet
points, numbered lists have numbers, and outline lists combine numbers and letters depending on the
organization of the list.

To create a list from an existing text:

Select the text you wish to make a list From the Paragraph Group on the Home Tab, Click the Bulleted or

Numbered Lists button

New list

Place your cursor where you want the list in the document Click the Bulleted or Numbered Lists button
Begin

Nested Lists

A nested list is list with several levels of indented text.

To create a nested list:

Create your list following the directions above Click the Increase or Decrease Indent button

Bulleted list Numbered list

Decrease ident Increase ident

Formatting Lists

The bullet image and numbering format can be changed by using the Bullets or Numbering dialog box.

Select the entire list to change all the bullets or numbers, or Place the cursor on one line within the list
tochange a single bullet Right click Click the arrow next to the bulleted or numbered list and choose a bullet
ornumbering style.

Mail merge

Mail Merge consists in combining mail and letters and pre-addressed envelopes or mailing labels for mass
mailings from a form letter.

Microsoft Word can insert content from a database, spreadsheet, or table into Word documents.

This feature is usually employed in a word processing document which contains fixed text (which is the
same in each output document) and variables (which act as placeholders that are replaced by text from the
data source).

Mail Merge is a powerful tool for writing a personalized letter or E-mail to many people at the same time. It
imports data from another source such as Excel and then uses that to replace placeholders throughout the
message with the relevant information for each individual that is being messaged.

3.MS POWER POINT

WHAT IS POWERPOINT?

PowerPoint (PPT) is a powerful, easy-to-use presentation graphics softwareprogram which allows you to
create professional-looking electronic slideshows. PPT is used to present Information in an organized
manner to anindividual or group. Using clip art, sound clips, movie clips, graphs,organization charts,
imported Web screens, and many other features, you caneasily create a presentation that will impress your
audience and convey your

message clearly and professionally.

USING HELP

PowerPoint Help menu offers you numerous ways to find help for a particular task. Type a subject in the
search window to see help topics.

EXERCISE: Creating a Presentation (Please follow along with instructor)

(Slide 1) – Select a design template

1. In the PPT Start-up Window, click “From Design Template”located on the right-hand side of the screen
under the heading“New.”

2. Scroll down to see the various templates and click on one of them.(Slide 1, cont.) – Add title and subtitle

1. Click once on “Click to add title” (this is the title placeholder) and type How to Use PowerPoint.

2. Click once on “click to add subtitle” and type Building an Effective Presentation.

(Slide 2) – Add a Bulleted List slide

1. Click on the “New Slide” button at the toolbar located at the top of the screen.

2. Click once on the title placeholder and type What you can do with PowerPoint.

3. Click once on “Click to add text” (this is the text placeholder) andtype the following text (hit <Enter> at
the end of each line):

• Create electronic presentations

• Use special features to enhance your slides

• Practice and time your slide show

(NOTE: To format bullets, click on the “Format” menu and then click on“ Bullets and Numbering.”)

(Slide 3) – Add a Text & Content Layout Slide

1. Click on the “New Slide” button.

2. On the right side, scroll down until you see the “Text and Content Layout” options.

3. Click once on the option of your choice.

4. Type Content Options in the title placeholder.

5. In the text placeholder, add the following text (hit <Enter> aftereach line):
• Clip Art

• Photographs

• Charts

• Graphs

• Tables

• Diagrams

• Media Clips

6. Click on the Clip Art icon in the “add content” area.

7. Enter medicine in the search window.

8. Scroll through the results and double-click on the Clip Art of yourchoice.

(Hint: Type “photograph” in the Clip Art search window to see the clip artphoto options)

(Slide 4) – Add another Text & Content slide

1. Click on the “New Slide” button.

2. Type Advantages to Using a Variety of Content in the titleplaceholder.

3. In the text placeholder, type the following text (hit <Enter> at theend of each line):

• Graphics keep a presentation lively

• Graphics are effective teaching tools

• Graphics keep the audience awake!

4. Add the Clip Art of your choice to the slide(Slide 5) – Add a Chart

1. Click on the “New Slide” button.

2. Scroll down to “Other Layouts” and click on the “Title and Chart”option (the last option).

3. Type Simple Charts in the title placeholder.

4. Double-click on the chart placeholder.

5. A datasheet will appear. Make changes if you like.

6. Click once in your slide (outside the datasheet) to add the chart to your slide.

EXERCISE: Enhancing Your Slide Show

Adding Transitions

• Click on the “Slide Sorter View” button on the bottom, left-hand corner of your screen.
• Click the “Slide Show” menu and then click on “Slide Transition.”

• Click the “Edit” menu and click “Select All”

• To the right, click a transition of your choice. This will apply to all the selected slides. (Note: Select
“Random Transition” – the last option – to have a variety of transitions in your slide show)

Animating Text

• All slides should still be selected (if they aren’t, click the “Edit” menu and then “Select All”).

• Click the “Slide Show” menu.

• Click on “Animation Schemes.”

• At the right, choose an Animation Scheme. You will see a preview with in your slide sorter view.

(Note: to apply a different Animation Scheme to each slide, you will have to select each slide individually
and then choose a scheme for each one.)

Please Note: For more advanced Animation options, you will need to utilize the “Custom Animation”
options. These are covered in the Advanced PPT class.

Running the Slide Show

• Click once on the first slide to select it.

• Click on the “Slide Show” button on the bottom left-hand corner of the screen.

• To advance to the next slide, click the mouse once.

• To draw on the slide, right-click, select “pointer options,” and “pen”.

Hold down the mouse and write. Any marks you make are NOT permanent. Hit <Esc> to return to the
pointer.

• To go back one slide use the left arrow key.

• To Exit the slide show quickly, hit <Esc>.

ADDITIONAL EXERCISES

Importing Web Screens

• Start with a blank slide in Normal View.

• Minimize the PPT program by clicking on the “minus” sign in the upper right corner.

• Go into the Web and locate the screen you’d like to use in your presentation.

• When the screen you want is displayed, hit the <Print Screen> key on your keyboard. This automatically
saves the screen to the computer’s clipboard.
• Minimize the web program (the minus button at the top right) and then maximize the PPT program (click
on the Microsoft Power Point button at the bottom of your screen).

• Click on the Paste icon on the toolbar (looks like a clipboard). The screen you saved will now appear on
your blank slide.

• Click once on the image and then drag the corners to fill the screen.

Note: You may want your slide to have a white background to better display the Web screen shot. To do
this, click the “Format” menu, click“Backg round,” and select white from the pull-down menu of colors. You
might also want to click “Omit background graphics.” Be sure to click“Apply” and NOT “Apply to All”!

Inserting Pictures into Your Slides

You can easily add pictures to your PPT slides. To do so, you must first save the picture to the hard drive of
your computer. Then insert it into your presentation:

• In Normal View, display the slide on which you’d like the picture to appear.

• From the Insert menu, choose the Picture from File command.

• Locate the file of the picture you have previously saved and double-click the file name.

• The picture will now appear on your slide.

• You may move and resize the picture as you like.

1 CREATING AND SAVING

A workbook is an Excel file where the data is stored. A workbook consists of many worksheets. A worksheet
is a page in the workbook where data can be entered. The current sheet is always highlighted in the sheet
tab. Sheets belonging to a particular application can be stored in the same workbook. When the workbook
is opened, all the worksheets contained in that workbook are automatically opened. Since each workbook
contains many sheets, the user can organize various types of related information in a single file. To move
from one sheet to another sheet, click the sheet tab.

1. Creating a New Workbook

Every time the user starts Excel, it automatically loads up a blank workbook.

1. Click the File Tab, and then click New.

Fig. 1: Creating a new workbook

2. Under Available Templates, double-click Blank workbook.

To create a new workbook based on an existing workbook.

Select New from existing under Available Templates. In the New from Existing Workbook dialog box, browse
to the location that contains the workbook to open. After finding the required workbook, select it to create
a new workbook based on that.

2. Opening a Workbook

1. Click the File Tab, and then click Open.

Fig.2: Opening a Workbook

In the Open dialog box, browse to the location that contains the workbook to open.

After finding the required workbook, select it.

Click Open.

2. Saving a Workbook

Click the FileTab, and then click Save As. Or

Press Ctrl+S or F12 key on the keyboard.

1. In the Save As dialog box, browse to the location where the workbook is to be saved.

2. Specify the name of the file in the File name box.

3. In the Save as type box, give the type of file.

4. Click Save.
4. SAVING A FILE IN PDF FORMAT

Files created in MS-Excel can also be saved in Portable Document Format (PDF), which is a common format
for sharing documents. PDF is a fixed-Layout electronic file format that preserves document formatting and
enables file sharing. The PDF format ensures that when the file is viewed online or printed, it retains exactly
the format that is intended, and that data in the file cannot easily be changed. The PDF format is also useful
for documents that will be reproduced by using commercial printing methods. To view a PDF file, the PDF
reader must be installed on the computer. The file saved as PDF, can not be directly changed. The changes
have to be made to the source file of Excel and saved again in the PDF format

2 ENTERING AN EDITING DATA

ENTERING DATA:

There are three kinds of data the user can enter into an Excel worksheet: text (a label), a number (a value),
or a formula.

1. Entering a Label (Text) or a Value (Number)

1. Click the cell to enter a label or a value.

2. Type a label (text) or a value (number). A label can include uppercase and lowercase letters, numbers
and keyboard symbols.
2 ENTERING AN EDITING DATA

3 Press the ENTER key on the keyboard or click on another cell with the mouse.

Fig. 1: Entering data into the worksheet

2. Entering Date in different formats

Excel 2010 provides number of DATE functions that can be used to insert date to the worksheet.

1. Click on the cell in which the date is to be entered.

2. On the Formulas Tab, in the Function Library group, click Date & Time.

3. Click TODAY to enter today’s date.

3. Entering Series-Auto Fill

To fill the same number (or text value) over and over, instead of entering the data several times, the

user can enter the data once, then select the fill handle of the selected cell and drag the mouse.

All the cells in between will be filled with the same original value. In this example, the number 1 is repeated
over several cells.

Fig. 2: Auto Fill

The user can also select the range, type the value into a cell, and then press Ctrl + Enter. Incrementing series
of numbers or dates: Excel is designed to recognize, when series or the beginning of series is entered.

Fig. 3: Auto Fill Incrementing Series

In this example, fi ll two cells with 1 and 2. Drag the fill handle down, the cells are filled with the series 1, 2,
3, 4, 5, 6.

Copying and Pasting Cell Contents

To copy a range of cells, follow the steps given below:

1. Select the cell or the range that contains the data to copy.

2. Click the Copy button under the Clipboard group in the Home Tab or press Ctrl+C keys together. An
outline of the selected cells, called a marquee, shows the boundary of the selected cells.

3. Click the fi rst cell where the user wants to paste the data.

4. Click the Paste button under the Clipboard group in the Home Tab or press Ctrl+V keys together.

Moving Cell Contents

To move a selection rather than copy it, the user should use the Cut button or press Ctrl+X keys together
rather than the Copy button or Ctrl+C keys in step

To move a selection rather than copy it, the user should use the Cut button or press Ctrl+X keys together
rather than the Copy button or Ctrl+C keys in step 2.

2. Moving Cell Contents Using Mouse

1. Select the cell or the range that contains the data to move.

2. Move the mouse cursor to one of the thick black outside lines surrounding the selection. The cursor will
change from a white plus sign to a black arrow.

3. Click and hold the mouse button down and drag the selected range of data to where the user wants to
relocate it.
Release the mouse button

To copy a selection rather than moving it, the user should press the Ctrl key while doing step 3. When the
mouse button is clicked, the cursor will change from a black arrow to an arrow with a=(plus) sign.

To move or copy data to a different sheet, press Alt key (with Ctrl key if data is to be copied) while

dragging the selection to the destination sheet’s tab. Excel switches to that sheet, where the selection

can be dropped in the appropriate location.

3. In-cell Editing

1. Double-click the cell to edit. The insertion point appears within the cell.

2. To make corrections: Use the mouse pointer or the arrow keys, Home, and End keys to position

the insertion point where required. The Backspace and Delete keys can also be used to erase unwanted
characters.

4. Inserting Cells, Rows or Columns Inserting Cells

1. Select a cell or a range of cells where the user wants to insert new cells.

2. On the Home tab, in the Cells group, click the arrow next to Insert, and then select Insert Cells. The
Insert dialog box will appear
 .

Fig. 4: Inserting cells

3. To insert cells, select the direction in which the user wants the remaining cells to move.

4. Click OK.

Inserting Rows or Columns

1. Select a cell or a range of cells in the rows or columns where the user wants to insert new rows

or columns.

2. Select Insert Sheet Rows from Insert drop-down list of the Cells group of the Home Tab to insert rows.

3 Select Insert Sheet Columns from Insert drop-down list of the Cells group of the Home Tab

to insert columns.

Deleting Cells, Rows or Columns

1. Select the cell or range of cells, rows, or columns that the user wants to delete.

2. On the Home tab, in the Cells group, click the arrow next to Delete and then do one of the

following

To delete selected cells, click Delete Cells..

Deleting cells

1. To delete cells, select the direction in which the user wants the remaining cells to move. Click OK.

2. To delete selected rows, click Delete Sheet Rows.

3. To delete selected columns, click Delete Sheet Columns.

3. PRESENTING A SPREADSHEET

Spreadsheets have basic data handling facilities that, allow data to be sorted, ranked and filtered

Sorting

Sorting this function allows a range of data to be sorted into ascending or descending order. For example:
When sorted by column C, the result will be:

Ranking

This function allows the rank (ie order) of an item to be displayed. For example, Cell B14 below contains the
formula =RANK(C4, C4:C11)

The formula returns the result 6, meaning that the mark of 36 Cell C5) is sixth highest in the range specified
(here C4:C11).
Filtering

Filtering: this allows you to look at only certain (filtered data). Say that in the spreadsheet shown below, you
wanted to see only results relating to Basic exams.

Turning on the filtering function for the range of cells will show drop-down lists:

If Advanced and Intermediate are unselected, leaving only Basic, then the result will be:
Charts and graphs:

All spreadsheet programs allow charts and graphs to be easily prepared.

Bar chart:

Line chart

Scatter graph
Pie chart

Printing spreadsheets

In Excel, the printing controls are:

Margins: Sets margins around what’s printed out. Orientation: Landscape of portrait paper orientation Size:
Paper size eg A4, A3

Print area: Allows specific areas to be printed

Breaks: Specifies how the spreadsheet is to be split up for printing on different pages

Background: Allows an image to be displayed as a background

Print titles: Specifies rows and columns to repeat on each printed page.
 UNIT-IV

Introduction to C Language

C is a programming language developed at AT & T’s Bell Laboratories of USAin 1972. It was designed
and written by a man named Dennis Ritchie. In the lateseventies C began to replace the more
familiar languages of that time like PL/I,ALGOL, etc

ANSI C standard emerged in the early 1980s, this book was split into twotitles: The original was still
called Programming in C, and the title that coveredANSI C was called Programming in ANSI C. This
was done because it tookseveral years for the compiler vendors to release their ANSI C compilers
and forthem to become ubiquitous. It was initially designed for programming UNIXoperating system.
Now the software tool as well as the C compiler is written in C.Major parts of popular operating
systems like Windows, UNIX, Linux is stillwritten in C. This is because even today when it comes to
performance (speed ofexecution) nothing beats C. Moreover, if one is to extend the operating
system towork with new devices one needs to write device driver programs. Theseprograms are
exclusively written in C. C seems so popular is because it is reliable, simple and easy to use. often
heard today is – “C has been already supercededby languages like C++, C# and Java.

Structure of C Language program

1 ) Comment line

2) Preprocessor directive

3 ) Global variable declaration

4) main function( )

Local variables;

Statements;

User defined function

Comment line

It indicates the purpose of the program. It is represented as

/*……………………………..*/

Comment line is used for increasing the readability of the program. It is useful inexplaining the
program and generally used for documentation. It is enclosed withinthe decimetres. Comment line

27
can be single or multiple line but should not benested. It can be anywhere in the program except
inside string constant & characterconstant.

Preprocessor Directive:

#include<stdio.h> tells the compiler to include information about the standardinput/output library.
It is also used in symbolic constant such as #define PI3.14(value). The stdio.h (standard input output
header file) contains definition&declaration of system defined function such as printf( ), scanf( ),
pow( ) etc.Generally printf() function used to display and scanf() function used to read value.

Global Declaration:

This is the section where variable are declared globally so that it can be access byall the functions
used in the program. And it is generally declared outside thefunction :main()It is the user defined
function and every function has one main() function fromwhere actually program is started and it is
encloses within the pair of curly braces.

The main( ) function can be anywhere in the program but in general practice it isplaced in the first
position.

Syntax :

main()

……..

……..

……..

The main( ) function return value when it declared by data type as

int main( )

return 0

The main function does not return any value when void (means null/empty) as

void main(void ) or void main()

printf (“C language”);

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Output: C language

The program execution start with opening braces and end with closing brace.And in between the
two braces declaration part as well as executable part ismentioned. And at the end of each line, the
semi-colon is given which indicatesstatement termination.

/*First c program with return statement*/

#include <stdio.h>

int main (void)

printf ("welcome to c Programming language.\n");

return 0;

Output: welcome to c programming language.

The alphabets, numbers and special symbols when properly combined formconstants,

2.Keyword: There are certain words reserved for doing specific task, these wordsare known as
reserved word or keywords. These words are predefined and alwayswritten in lower case or mall
letter. These keywords cann’t be used as a variablename as it assigned with fixed aning. Some
examples are int, short, signed,unsigned, default, volatile, float, long, double, break, ontinue,
typedef, static,do, for, union, return, while, do, extern, register, enum, case, goto,
struct,char,auto,constetc.

Data types: Data types refer to an extensive system used for declaring variables or functions
ofdifferent types before its use. The type of a variable determines how much space itoccupies in
storage and how the bit pattern stored is interpreted. The value of avariable can be changed
anytime.

C has the following 4 types of data types

basic built-in data types: int, float, double, char
Enumeration data type: enum
Derived data type: pointer, array, structure, union
Void data type: void

A variable declared to be of type int can be used to contain integral valuesonly—that is, values that
do not contain decimal places. A variable declared to beof type float can be used for storing floating-

29
point numbers (values containingdecimal places). The double type is the same as type float, only
with roughly twicethe precision. The char data type can be used to store a single character, such as
theletter a, the digit character 6, or a semicolon similarly A variable declared char canonly store
character type value.

There are two types of type qualifier in c

Size qualifier: short, long
Sign qualifier: signed, unsigned

When the qualifier unsigned is used the number is always positive, and whensigned is used number
may be positive or negative. If the sign qualifier is notmentioned, then by default sign qualifier is
assumed. The range of values forsigned data types is less than that of unsigned data type. Because in
signed type,the left most bit is used to represent sign, while in unsigned type this bit is alsoused to
represent the value.

3.Control Statement
Generally C program statement is executed in a order in which they appearin the program. But
sometimes we use decision making condition for executiononly a part of program, that is called
control statement. Control statement definedhow the control is transferred from one part to the
other part of the program. Thereare several control statement like if...else, switch, while, do....while,
for loop,break, continue, goto etc.

Loops in C
Loop:-it is a block of statement that performs set of instructions. In loopsRepeating articular portion
of the program either a specified number of time oruntil a particular no of condition is being
satisfied.
There are three types of loops in c
1.While loop
2.do while loop
3.for loop
While loop
Syntax:-
while(condition)
{
Statement 1;
Statement 2;
}
Or while(test condition)
Statement;

The test condition may be any expression .when we want to do something a fixedno of times but not
known about the number of iteration, in a program then whileloop is used.Here first condition is

30
checked if, it is true body of the loop is executed else, Ifcondition is false control will be come out of
loop.
Example:-
/* wap to print 5 times welcome to C” */
#include<stdio.h>
void main()
{
int p=1;
While(p<=5)
{
printf(“Welcome to C\n”);
P=p+1;
}
}
Output: Welcome to C
Welcome to C
Welcome to C
Welcome to C
Welcome to C
So as long as condition remains true statements within the body of while loop will

get executed repeatedly.

do while loop

This (do while loop) statement is also used for looping. The body of this loop may

contain single statement or block of statement. The syntax for writing this

statement is:

Syntax:-

Do

Statement;

while(condition);

Example:-

#include<stdio.h>

void main()

31
int X=4;

do

Printf(“%d”,X);

X=X+1;

}whie(X<=10);

Printf(“ ”);

Output: 4 5 6 7 8 9 10

Here firstly statement inside body is executed then condition is checked. If thecondition is true again
body of loop is executed and this process continue until thecondition becomes false. Unlike while
loop semicolon is placed at the end ofwhile.There is minor difference between while and do while
loop, while loop test thecondition before executing any of the statement of loop. Whereas do while
looptest condition after having executed the statement at least one within the loop.If initial
condition is false while loop would not executed it’s statement on otherhand do while loop executed
it’s statement at least once even If condition fails forfirst time. It means do while loop always
executes at least once.

Notes:

Do while loop used rarely when we want to execute a loop at least once.

for loop

In a program, for loop is generally used when number of iteration are known inadvance. The body of
the loop can be single statement or multiple statements. Its

syntax for writing is:

Syntax:-

36 *Under revision

for(exp1;exp2;exp3)

Statement;

Or

for(initialized counter; test counter; update counter)

32
{

Statement;

Here exp1 is an initialization expression, exp2 is test expression or condition andexp3 is an update
expression. Expression 1 is executed only once when loopstarted and used to nitialize the loop
variables. Condition expression generallyuses relational and logical operators. And updation part
executed only when afterbody of the loop is executed.

Example:-

void main()

int i;

for(i=1;i<10;i++)

Printf(“ %d ”, i);

Output:-1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9

Nesting of loop

When a loop written inside the body of another loop then, it is known as nesting ofloop. Any type of
loop can be nested in any type such as while, do while, for. Forexample nesting of for loop can be
represented as :

void main()

int i,j;

for(i=0;i<2;i++)

for(j=0;j<5; j++)

printf(“%d %d”, i, j);

Output: i=0

33
j=0 1 2 3 4

i=1

j=0 1 2 3 4

38 *Under revision

Break statement(break)

Sometimes it becomes necessary to come out of the loop even before loopcondition becomes false
then break statement is used. Break statement is usedinside loop and switch statements. It causes
immediate exit from that loop in whichit appears and it is generally written with condition. It is
written with the keywordas break. When break statement is encountered loop is terminated and
control istransferred to the statement, immediately after loop or situation where we want tojump
out of the loop instantly without waiting to get back to conditional state.

When break is encountered inside any loop, control automatically passes to thefirst statement after
the loop. This break statement is usually associated with ifstatement.

Example :

void main()

int j=0;

for(;j<6;j++)

if(j==4)

break;

Output:

0123

Continue statement (key word continue)

Continue statement is used for continuing next iteration of loop after skippingsome statement of
loop. When it encountered control automatically passesthrough the beginning of the loop. It is
usually associated with the if statement. It isuseful when we want to continue the program without
executing any part of theprogram.

The difference between break and continue is, when the break encountered loop isterminated and it
transfer to the next statement and when continue is encountercontrol come back to the beginning
position.

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In while and do while loop after continue statement control transfer to the testcondition and then
loop continue where as in, for loop after continue controltransferred to the updating expression and
condition is tested.

Example:-

void main()

int n;

for(n=2; n<=9; n++)

if(n==4)

continue;

printf(“%d”, n);

Printf(“out of loop”);

Output: 2 3 5 6 7 8 9 out of loop

if…..else ... Statement

it is bidirectional conditional control statement that contains one condition & twopossible action.
Condition may be true or false, where non-zero value regarded astrue & zero value regarded as
false. If condition are satisfy true, then a single orblock of statement executed otherwise another
single or block of statement isexecuted.
Its syntax is:-
if (condition)
{
Statement1;
Statement2;
}
else
{
Statement1;
Statement2;
}
Else statement cannot be used without if or no multiple else statement are allowedwithin one if
statement. It means there must be a if statement with in an elsestatement.

35
Example:-
/* To check a number is eve or odd */

void main()
{
int n;
printf (“enter a number:”);
sacnf (“%d”, &n);
If (n%2==0)
printf (“even number”);
else
printf(“odd number”);
}
Output: enter a number:121
odd number
Nesting of if …else
When there are another if else statement in if-block or else-block, then it is callednesting of if-else
statement.
Syntax is :-
if (condition)
{
If (condition)
Statement1;
else
statement2;
}
Statement3;
If….else LADDER
In this type of nesting there is an if else statement in every else part except the lastpart. If condition
is false control pass to block where condition is again checkedwith its if statement.
Syntax is :-
if (condition)
Statement1;
else if (condition)
statement2;
else if (condition)
statement3;
else
statement4;
This process continue until there is no if statement in the last block. if one of thecondition is satisfy
the condition other nested “else if” would not executed.

But it has disadvantage over if else statement that, in if else statement wheneverthe condition is
true, other condition are not checked. While in this case, allcondition are checked

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 UNIT-V

1. Types of crimes happened by the Internet access

IT crimes can be categorized into following types –

1. Hacking

Hacking is the unauthorized use of computer access. In hacking activity the hackers generally –-
Access or steal confidential data from a website or some profile

-Access files from a computer without proper authorization.

-Access computers remotely using some services.

-Plant virus programs which can help to access the computer by intruders.

2. Cyber theft

This fraudulent activity by un authorized access of network and alternation of a database and
stealing money from it.

3. Unauthorized use at work

This is misuse or unauthorized use of computer resources for entertainment, especially in a

workplace by employees.

-Playing video games

-Unauthorized use of the internet for the personal purpose

-No work-related upload or download of the document

-Sharing confidential data over the Internet

-Moonlighting

Software Piracy

Every software is protected by individual copyright and user license that protects software to be
made for a limited number of times. So, software piracy means unauthorized copying of software.

Piracy of intellectual property –

This involves unauthorized copying of videos, articles, images, music, etc.

Privacy Issues:

Information technology has enabled us to find and share relevant information through online mode.
On the other hand, it has also exploited the value of privacy. There are so many ways privacy is
exploited. Some examples are:

37
(1) By using internet webcams, proficient computer users can use any webcam of any computer
online, and it will have access to people’s private life. Many celebrities have become victims of these
online scams.

(2) Although the main concept of this networking is to connect with friends and relatives and to
share life with them, however, the flaw in this is that using your private profile anyone can share
your confidential information like photos, or can send fake friend requests to unknown people. This
might expose one to users with wrong intentions. Also some companies use social media for spying
on their employees. Cybercrime has increased these days through social media which is alarming for
the society.

Copyright issue:

Using information technology it is now easy for users to access any information or artifact at any
given point of time. With the enhanced development of music sharing networks and photo
bookmarking sites, the original creators of these artifacts are losing the credibility of their work,
because IT users of can easily get access and share that data with friends. Availability of free music
and different file downloading sites are increasing on the internet every day.

Besides, users can freely download music albums, files, books, etc. In this scenario, one genuine user
will purchase the item by onetime payment, and they will submit it to a free download site. From
these sites, other users can simply download that data freely. It is profitable and useful news for the
users as it saves their money, but it is copyright infringement for the original creator of the work.
Though Government has closed some of these sites, but many are still there and running
successfully.

Rising pressure on IT experts:

As the information technology service is committed to providing the service 24hrs a day, so there is
immense pressure on the IT people. Most of the IT giants need a standby IT team to operate for 24
hours. Overwork and an increased amount of stress create imperfection among the employees.

Security

With the advancement of the internet, it has become very easy for hackers to hack into any
computer or related system as long when it is connected on the internet. Using an IP address
hackers can easily access a user’s computer and use data for unethical reasons. Also, the wide usage
of internet cookies which is used to collect information whenever we use the internet has given IT
users to high risks of fraudulent activities and conflicting interests.

These cookies are used by big companies to determine the products or services they can use for
advertisement. A hacker can easily interrupt online banking operation in between the transaction,
and the whole transacted amount can be transferred to hackers’ account. This can have severe
implication to both the bank as well as their customers. This is a misuse of technology.

Digital divide

Information technology has immense opportunities, and it has reformed many industries in
developed and developing countries. But developing countries have difficulties taking the same

38
benefits of Information technology. To get proper benefits, they need to train their human resources
and end users. They should also have to adopt the new culture which is a bit costly comparing the
economic conditions of the society of these developing countries.

Also,there are remote areas in these countries where they do not even have power, so information
technology tools like computers cannot be used. In other sectors like education, most of these
developing countries have poor old education systems, so a student will not be aware of new
information technologies.

2.How to minimize the occurrences and impact of security attacks

Prevention is better than cure. It is expected that preventive measures should be taken care of
before the event of any security incident. However, the reality is, it is not possible to prevent all such
incidents. But with proper precautions, at least minimization of the impact can be possible. There
are few points to be taken care while establishing a security measure in an organization:

1. All the policies related to security and procedures need to be developed and must be clearly
stated to the employees. Because it is seen that many incidents happen due to the mistakes of IT
people who are responsible for configuring security devices like firewalls, authentication systems,
etc. They might not follow the proper procedures as guided by the management. So the security
policies with procedures must be thoroughly checked to confirm that they have clarity and provide
the appropriate level of security for the organization.

2. Management support is necessary for implementing security policies as well as incident

management.

3. Routine assessment is needed to find out vulnerabilities in the environment. These assessments
must be performed by security personnel with expertise in that field. He must have appropriate
permission to perform the actions which may include bonds as well.

4. Routine check-up to all computers along with network devices is necessary to confirm that these
devices have all of the latest security patches installed in it.

5. Arranging training programs related to the safety for IT people and end users is necessary to make
them aware of the latest scenarios. Because it is extremely vulnerable if the end users are not
experienced and efficient.

6. Security banners can play a significant role to take preventive measures. Because it can remind a
user about their responsibilities and limitations.It also warns people about the possible prosecution
in the case of any violation. Proper legal advice is necessary before posting such banners.

7. Developing and implementing a strong password is necessary to enforce security.

8. Monitoring network traffic system is needed to analyze the system performance.

9. Checking all log files including operating system logs, application logs, etc. are needed. Scrutinizing
logging mechanism and performance is also necessary.

39
10. Maintaining a backup system is needed, besides that verifying those backup and restore
procedures along with access rights should regularly be monitored.

11. Assigning a Computer Security Incident Response Team (CSIRT) to deal with security incidents is
necessary for every organization.

Making a Core CSIR Team

The CSIRT(Computer Security Incident Response Team) is the key team who deals with computer
security incidents of an organization. This team of people is consists of individuals who are
responsible for dealing with all security incidents. The duties of team members should be defined
precisely so that no area of response remains uncovered.

This CSIRT team assembling is critical to an organization, and this can influence positively how
incidents are handled in any situation. The responsibilities of a CSIRT team are:

1. Monitoring systems for security breaches.

2. Serve as a central point of communication, as a receiver of security incident reports and to

disseminate valuable information to proper channel about the incident.

3. Documenting security incidents.

4. Promoting security consciousness within the company to prevent incidents from occurring in an
organization.

5. Auditing support system and network system using processes like risk assessment and penetration
testing.

6. Learning about new risk and security threats.

7. Researching on implementing new software patches.

8. Analyzing and development of new technologies to minimize security threats and risks.

9. Providing security consulting services.

10. Continually help to update current systems and procedures.

When a CSIRT team is created, an organization needs to prepare the team in a way so that they are
capable and equipped to handle incidents.

3.Cyber Law in India

India witnesses many cybercrimes annually, with over 44,000 reported cases. Among the states in
India, Karnataka emerges as the leader in terms of cybercrime rates. According to a 2022 report by
Statista, the average cost of data breaches was USD 2 million in India. This financial impact reflects
the consequences of data breach incidents. For more detailed statistical information, please refer
here.

40
Cyber law in India is governed by two key legislations: the Indian Penal Code and the Information
Technology Act of 2000. These legal frameworks provide the necessary guidelines and provisions to
address cybercrime and protect digital assets and individuals’ rights in cyberspace.

A variety of cybercrimes are addressed by Indian cyber laws, covering two main aspects: hacking
systems and employing them to commit crimes of different magnitudes. Additionally, Indian cyber
law encompasses a comprehensive range of domains, such as intellectual property rights and privacy
rights, among others.

Cyber law in India encompasses a broad range of subjects, although it is important to note that the
list provided is not exhaustive. Similar concepts may also be addressed in other jurisdictions globally.
The following outlines the various types of cybercrimes and the corresponding cyber law
protections.

Fraud

Cyber law in India identifies the theft of identities, credit cards, and other finance-based crimes as
fraud; these cybercrime offenses may lead to fines, imprisonment, or both.

Copyright

Cyber law in India protects copyrighted works present in online forums. The accused are punished
based on the Copyright Act and other applicable acts, rules, and regulations.

Defamation

The Indian constitution ensures the right to speech, but it comes with limitations; when the
limitations are crossed, it constitutes defamation. A person who defames another person or an
organization will be punished under cyber law.

But, What constitutes defamation activity online? In brief, according to cyber law, spreading false
information or information without evidence online constitutes defamation activity.

41
Indeed, with the growth of social media usage, stronger cyber law protection is required against
defamation.

Harassment and stalking

Cyber law in India protects online users from harassment and stalking. When someone speaks in a
targeted way against you online, it would constitute harassment. The factors of harassment are
circumstantial.

When online information is used to harass someone, it is known as stalking.

Harassment and stalking are serious offenses in India that have repercussions in both civil law and
criminal law.

Trade secrets

In general, trade secrets are confidential information about companies. Attempting to leak
confidential information to the public or using the same for monetary gain is a serious offense, as
per Indian cyber law. The penalty for leaking or using trade secrets is determined by the gravity of
the injury experienced by the infringing party.

But, why exactly is cyber law in action against cybercrimes? What are its objectives? The following
section will answer the same.

Types of Cyber Law

42
There are several types of cyber laws, each addressing specific aspects of digital activities and cyber
security. Here are some common categories of cyber laws:

1. Privacy Laws:

o Privacy laws govern the collection, use, and protection of individuals’ personal
information online.

o Examples include the General Data Protection Regulation (GDPR) in Europe and the
California Consumer Privacy Act (CCPA) in the United States.

2. Cybercrime Laws:

o Cybercrime laws focus on criminal activities conducted online, including hacking,

identity theft, online fraud, and cyber bullying.

o These laws define offenses, penalties, and procedures for investigation and
prosecution.

3. Data Breach Notification Laws:

o Data breach notification laws mandate that organizations inform affected individuals
and authorities when a data breach occurs.

o These laws aim to ensure transparency and help individuals take necessary actions
to protect themselves.

4. Intellectual Property Laws:

o Intellectual property laws protect digital content, patents, trademarks, and

copyrights in the digital realm.

o They address issues like copyright infringement and online piracy.

5. Cyber security Laws:

o Cyber security laws require organizations to implement measures to protect their

digital infrastructure and sensitive data.

o These laws often set standards and requirements for data security practices.

6. E-Commerce and Online Contracts:

o Laws related to e-commerce and online contracts establish legal frameworks for
online transactions, electronic signatures, and consumer rights.

o They provide a basis for resolving disputes in the digital marketplace.

7. Social Media and Online Content Regulations:

o Regulations governing social media and online content address issues such as hate
speech, defamation, and harmful content.

43
 o They set guidelines for the removal or restriction of such content.

8. Computer Crime Laws:

o Computer crime laws specifically target offenses involving computer systems and
networks.

o They encompass unauthorized access, malware distribution, and cyberattacks on

critical infrastructure.

9. Crypto currency and Block chain Regulations:

o As digital currencies and block chain technology gain prominence, regulations

address issues like crypto currency trading, initial coin offerings (ICOs), and block
chain-based contracts.

10. International Cyber security Agreements:

o Some laws and agreements focus on international cooperation in combating

cybercrimes and promoting cyber security best practices.

o Examples include the Budapest Convention on Cybercrime and bilateral cyber

security agreements between nations.

These are just a few examples of the types of cyber laws that exist to govern and regulate various
aspects of digital activities, protect individuals’ rights, and ensure cyber security in the digital age.
The specific laws and regulations can vary significantly from one jurisdiction to another.

Objectives of Cyber Law

Lawmakers have executed cyber law legal protections with the following objectives: The following
features of cyber law make the internet a much safer place to explore:

• To be a safety net against online data predators.

• To ensure justice for cybercrime victims

• To prevent debit card or credit card fraud. Many people have switched to digital payment
methods. Cyber law tries to make sure that victims do not have to go through the additional
agony of long procedures.

• To block transactions when there is any unusual activity such as the input of an incorrect
password.

• To ensure the safety of protected data. By knowing what cyber law is, one can easily adopt
preventative measures.

• To ensure national security.

The various advantages of cyber law include the following:

44
 • Better protection of e-commerce sites ensures better revenue for the companies; this, in
turn, ensures a better economy for the country.

• Grievances for online transactions will be heard by the court as a part of the remedial
measures of cyber law.

• Recognition of e-documents and grievances on the same will be heard by the court.

• Fixing security issues by the companies leads to better data protection standards.

• Ensuring proper usage of data by the companies.

The above-mentioned are a few of the popular aspects of cyber law in India. This is not legal advice.
If you require cyber law remedies, contact a lawyer immediately.

How to protect yourself on the Internet

• Try to maintain a few social media accounts as possible. Every information you put online is
a potential way to hack your account. If you are serious about maintaining your presence on
several social media platforms, always ensure that your passwords are strong. Regular
changing of passwords is a great way of protecting your data from hackers. You can use
password manager apps to create strong passwords. Two-factor authentication would add
an additional layer of security for sure.

• Always question the app’s access permission. When you download any app/ visit any
website, you will be requested a particular number of permissions. If basic permissions are
requested, it is fine. However, if permissions are requested to access sensitive information
such as your gallery and such, immediately deny such requests. More so, quit the website
immediately/ delete the app immediately.

• Free wi-fi is always intriguing. But oftentimes it is a honey trap laid by hackers to lure you
into using it. When you access the internet via free wi fi hackers can easily get into your
device, spread viruses, steal information, and more of a similar sort.

• Finally, always be suspicious of any “too good to be true” kind of messages/ calls. If you get
any such calls/ messages, always report to the respective officials immediately.

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