A computer device is made up of various elements which help in its effective functioning

and processing. There are five basic components of the computer which help in making
this processing of data easier and convenient.

By definition, components of a computer system are the primary elements which make
the functioning of an electronic device smooth and faster. There are five basic
components which include:

1. Input Unit
2. Output Unit
3. Memory Unit
4. Control Unit
5. Arithmetical and Logical Unit
  Input Unit
A computer will only respond when a command is given to the device. These
commands can be given using the input unit or the input devices.

For example: Using a keyboard we can type things on a Notepad and the computer
processes the entered data and then displays the output of the same of the screen.

The data entered can be in the form of numbers, alphabet, images, etc. We enter the
information using an input device, the processing units convert it into computer
understandable languages and then the final output is received by a human-
understandable language.

 Output Unit
When we command a computer to perform a task, it reverts for the action performed
and gives us a result. This result is called output. There are various output devices
connected to the computer. The most basic of which is a monitor. Whatever we write
using a keyboard or click using a mouse, is all displayed on the monitor.

Thus, the output unit gives us the final result once the entire processing is done within
the mechanism of a device.

For example: when we visit an ATM, we enter our details like language, pin, amount to
be withdrawn, etc. and then the final money which the cash dispenser releases is our
outcome. In this case, the cash dispenser acts as an output unit.

 Memory Unit
When we enter the data into the computer using an input device, the entered
information immediately gets saved in the memory unit of the Central Processing Unit
(CPU). Because of the presence of some existing programming, the Memory Unit
transmits the data further to the other parts of the CPU.
Similarly, when the output of our command is processed by the computer, it is saved in
the memory unit before giving the output to the user.

 Control Unit
This is the core unit which manages the entire functioning of the computer device. It is
one of the most essential components of the computer system.

The Control Unit collects the data entered using the input unit, leads it on for processing
and once that is done, receives the output and presents it to the user. It can be said to
the centre of all processing actions taking place inside a computer device.

Basically, the instructions taken, interpretation of entered data, issuing signals to

execute the data and then finally retrieving the data is all done in the Control Unit.

 Arithmetic & Logical Unit

As the name suggests, all the mathematical calculations or arithmetic operations are
performed in the Arithmetic and Logical Unit of the CPU.

It can also perform actions like a comparison of data and decision-making actions. The
ALU comprises circuits using which addition, subtraction, multiplication, division and
other numerical based calculations can be performed.

Central Processing Unit (CPU)

The Central Processing Unit is the core of any computer devices. It comprises three
major components of the computer which have been discussed above:

 Memory Unit
 Control Unit
 Arithmetic and Logical Unit

All these three units are elements of CPU and together help in the efficient working and
processing of data. It is also known as the “Brain of Computer” and no action can be
conducted by a device without the execution and permission of the Central Processing
Unit.
The device is a close-knit circuit comparison microprocessor which helps in fetching the
data and proving suitable results to the user. Thus, CPU is the main processing unit of
the computer.

Also, while discussing the various components of computers, it must be known that a
device which is so complex and intricately made using circuits and wires comprises
various other elements, which affects its overall programming and performance.

Generations of Computer

There exist 5 computer generations till date. In the following list, approximate dates
against each generation have been mentioned, which are normally accepted. These
five generations of computers are based on their processing hardware.

Generations Period Technology Used

First Generation 1946-1959 Vacuum tube-based

Second Generation 1959-1965 Transistor-based

Third Generation 1965-1971 Integrated Circuit based

Fourth Generation 1971-1980 VLSI microprocessor-based

Fifth Generation 1980-onwards ULSI microprocessor-based

In Computer language, “Generation” is a set of Technology. It provides a frame work for the growth of
the computer technology. There are totally Five Computer Generations till today. Discussed as following.

 First Generation: Duration: 1942-1955

Duration: 1942-1955 Technology: vacuum tube

o Used as a calculating device.

o Performed calculations in milliseconds.

o To bulky in size & complex design.

o Required large room to place it.

o Generates too much heat & burnt.

o Required continuously hardware maintenance.

o Generates much heat so must air-conditioner rooms are required.

o Commercial production is difficult & costly.

o Difficult to configure.

o Limited commercial use.

o ENIAC, EDVAC, EDSAC are example of 1st generation computer.

 Second Generation:

Duration: 1955-1964 Technology: transistor

o 10 times Smaller in size than 1st generation system.

o Less heat than 1st generation computers.

o Consumed less power than 1st generation system.

o Computers were done calculations in microseconds.

o Air-conditioner is also required.

o Easy to configure than 1st generation computers.

o More reliable in information.

o Wider commercial use.

o Large & fast primary/secondary storage than 1st generation computers

 Third Generation:

Duration: 1965-1975 Technology: IC chip

o Smaller in size than 1st & 2nd generation computers.

o Perform more fast calculations than 2nd generation systems.

o Large & fast primary/secondary storage than 2nd generation computers.

o Air –conditioner is required.

o Widely used for commercial applications.

o General purpose computers.

o High level languages like COBOL & FORTAN are allowed to write programs.

o Generate less heat & consumed less power than 2nd generation computer.

 Fourth Generation:
Duration: 1975-1989 Technology: Microprocessor chip

o Based on LSI & VLSI microprocessor chip.

o Smaller in size.

o Much faster than previous generations.

o Minimum hardware maintenance is required.

o Very reliable as computer to previous generation computers.

o Totally general purpose computer.

o Easy to configure.

o Possible to use network concept to connect the computer together.

o NO requirement of air-conditioners.

o Cheapest in price.

Fifth Generation:

Duration: 1989 to Present Technology: ULSI microprocessor chip

o Much smaller & handy

. o Based on the ULSI chip which contains 100 million electronic components.

o The speed of the operations is increased.

o Consumed less power.

o Air-conditioner is not required.

o More user friendly interface with multi-media features.

o High level languages are allowed to write programs.

o Larger & faster primary/secondary storage than previous generations.

o Notebook computers are the example of 5th generation computer

Computer Classification
A computer is a device that transforms unusable data into information. According
to the set of instructions the user gives it, it processes the input and generates
the desired outcome. Modern digital computers are classified on the basis of their
size and capacity. The size and data handling capabilities of the various types of
computers may be used to categorize them into two groups.

1. Computers according to Size:

 Supercomputer.
 Mainframe computer.
 Personal computer.
 Workstation.
 Minicomputer.

2. Computers according to their Capacity to manage data:

 Digital computer.
 Hybrid computer.
 Analog computer.

Classification of Computers
Different classifications of Computers are as follows.

Classification According to Size

There are four different sorts of computers based on their size and how they are
configured to operate:

1. Supercomputers
The most efficient computers in terms of processing data and performance are
supercomputers. These computers are used for research and exploratory
purposes. Supercomputers are exceedingly large and highly expensive. It can
only fit in large, air-conditioned spaces.

Supercomputers are used for a range of tasks, such as space exploration,

seismic research, and the testing of nuclear weapons.

Supercomputer Features:
 They make use of AI (Artificial intelligence)
 They are the fastest and strongest;
 They are very costly.
 They are enormous in size.
 They are employed by companies that manufacture goods.
 They process information at a rapid rate.
2. Mainframe Computers
Despite being less efficient than supercomputers, mainframe computers are
nevertheless extremely expensive. Large corporations and governmental
organizations frequently employ mainframe computers to run everyday
operations. They have the ability to store and analyze a lot of data. To maintain
information on their customers, students, and insurance policyholders, banks,
colleges, and insurance companies utilize them. They may also act as a server in
a network environment. Hundreds of users may be managed simultaneously by
them.

Mainframe Computer Features:

 They have enormous amounts of memory.
 They are capable of running several different operating systems.
 They have a significant number of CPUs with powerful processing speeds.
 Tightly Coupled Clustering Technology is employed.

3. Minicomputers
Minicomputers are used by small businesses and industries. They go by the term
"Midrange Computers." These minicomputers frequently have several users, just
as mainframe computers. They are a bit slower than mainframe computers.

For example, the manufacturing department may employ minicomputers to keep

an eye on specific production processes.

Features of Minicomputers:
 It is smaller than mainframes or supercomputers in terms of size.
 In comparison to a mainframe or supercomputer, it is less costly.
 It is able to perform many jobs at once.
 It may be utilized by several users simultaneously.
 It is utilized by small businesses.

4. Microcomputers.
A microcomputer, sometimes referred to as a personal computer (PC), is a type
of computer that runs on a smaller scale than traditional computers (Personal
Computer). A component that is commonly referred to as a motherboard houses
the central processing unit (CPU), a microprocessor, memory in the form of ROM
(Read Only Memory), RAM (Random Access Memory), I/O ports, and a bus
system of connecting wires. They are the most affordable.

Features of Microcomputers:
  They are extensively employed for personal usage.
 They are smaller and comparably less expensive.
 Multi-user functionality is not supported.
 It has a limited computational capacity.
 They are quite simple to use.

5. Workstation

Workstations are computers that are designed to serve a single user and may include
unique hardware advancements not present on a personal computer; currently, the
phrase is used to refer to desktop PCs which also include high-
performance hardware. These are generally used to perform a specific task with
great accuracy.

Based on Capacity
According to fundamental operating principles, there are three different kinds of
computers. They are as follows:
1. Analogous Computers
Analog computers process analog data. Temperature, pressure, weight, depth,
and voltage are a few examples of this type of data. These have an infinite range
of values and are continuous quantities.
The first computers were analog, and they laid the groundwork for today's digital
computers.

2. Digital Computers
In digital computers, letters, numbers, and other special symbols are represented
by digits. On-off (ON-OFF) inputs are used by digital computers, and ON-OFF
signals are also generated by them.
An ON is often represented by a 1 and an OFF by a 0, respectively. A digital
computer is capable of processing both numerical and non-numerical data. In
addition to doing fundamental arithmetic operations like addition, subtraction,
multiplication, and division, it can also perform logical operations.

3. Hybrid Computers
Computers that combine digital and analog components are called hybrid
computers. It combines the best features of both types, having the speed of an
analog computer with the memory and precision of a digital computer. Hybrid
computers are typically used in specific applications where both forms of data
need to be processed. As an example, a gas pump contains a processor that
converts measurements of fuel flow into information about quality and cost.

What is Computer Memory?

 Memory is a very essential part of the computer system as a computer cannot process any task without
it. Memory is used to store data and instructions and then perform specific tasks on the computer
system. Computer memory is a storage space that stores and fetches data.

Memory is a set of several memory cells which are known as the building blocks of memory. Each
memory cell is assigned a unique index number or identification number which is the unique address of
that specific memory cell. CPU selects the memory cells to read or write data.

The performance of the computer system depends on the memory and CPU. A large set of data cannot
be stored in a CPU permanently. They can only store basic instructions required to operate the
computer. Hence, it is necessary to have a memory to run a computer system properly.

Types of Computer Memory

1. primary

2. secondary

What is Primary Memory?

Primary memory is the internal memory of a computer system. It stores and retrieves data, instructions,
and information. The CPU directly and randomly accesses primary memory; hence primary memory is
also referred to as Random Access Memory or RAM. It is a volatile memory and loses data and
instructions when the power turns off.

Primary Memory Characteristics

 The computer cannot function without primary memory.

 Primary memory is also known as the main memory.
 You may lose data in case the power is off
 Also known as volatile memory
 It is the working memory of the computer.
 It is faster as compared to secondary memory.
 Examples: RAM, ROM, cache, PROM, EPROM, registers, etc.
Random Access Memory
Any system process that has to be executed is put into RAM, where it is processed by
the CPU according to the program’s instructions. If we click on an application like
Browser, the Operating System will first load browser code into RAM, following which
the CPU will execute and open the Browser.

Types of RAM
We can broadly classify RAM into SRAM or Static RAM and DRAM or Dynamic RAM on
the

basis of behaviour.

1. DRAM- Dynamic Random Access Memory is widely used in computer systems.

Earlier, there was a single data rate (SDR) used in computers but now, a dual data rate
(DDR) is used in them. DDR is also available in different versions such as DDR2, DDR3
and DDR4 which are more energy efficient and provide better performance. DRAM is
made up of a transistor and a capacitor in each cell because of which it has a leakage
problem. Hence, we need to refresh a DRAM again and again

To keep data, dynamic RAM, or DRAM, must be refreshed every few milliseconds.
DRAM is made up of capacitors and transistors, and capacitors leak electric charge;
hence DRAM must be charged on a regular basis. Because DRAM is less expensive
than SRAM, it is commonly used in personal computers and servers.

2. SRAM – Static Random Access Memory or SRAM stores the data in a static form,
meaning the data remains in the memory for as long as the computer is on. SRAM uses
 a matrix of six transistors and no capacitors. Transistors do not need the power to
prevent leakage hence, we do not need to refresh SRAM again and again

The data is stored in static RAM, or SRAM, as long as the system is powered on. SRAM
stores a bit using sequential circuits, similar to a flip-flop, so it does not need to be
refreshed on a regular basis. Because SRAM is so expensive, it’s only used when
speed is critical.

ROM

ROM stands for Read Only Memory into which the data cannot be normally written.
While the data can easily be read from this type of memory. ROM is a primary non-
volatile memory, meaning it can retain all the data in the memory without the power
supply. It is a very fast computer memory that stores the instructions required to start
the computer as soon as we connect it to the power source. When we connect the
computer to the power source, the CPU starts reading the instructions stored in ROM. It
also does not require support from the driver or any complex software to load the
necessary parts of the operating system in the primary memory

ROM can be divided into the following subcategories-

1. MROM: MROM stands for “Masked Read Only Memory”. It is a type of memory whose
contents are pre-programmed with specific functional data by the integrated circuit
manufacturer. MROM cannot enable users to change the data stored, like other types
of ROM. If it tries to do so, the process would be difficult or slow.

2. PROM: It stands for Programmable Read Only Memory and as the name suggests,
these memory are programmable. A user can program or code this memory as PROM
is manufactured as a blank memory. A PROM programmer can be used to enter a set
of programs or codes in a blank PROM. Once data or instructions are written in it, they
cannot be changed.

3. EPROM: This stands for Erasable Programmable Read Only Memory which is an
upgraded version of PROM. This type of memory allows its users to erase the stored
data as well as rewrite it. The data stored in EPROM can be erased by passing
ultraviolet light for a particular length of time using an EPROM eraser.
4. EEPROM: This stands for “Electrically Erasable Programmable Read Only Memory”
and as per its name, this memory can be programmed and erased electrically. The
programming and erasing of data takes around 4 to 10 milliseconds and this can be
done around 10,000 times. EEPROM can be erased 1 byte at a time rather than
erasing the entire memory at once. Hence, the entire process is flexible but slow.

What is Secondary Memory?

The type of memory which is attached to a computer system separately is known as External
Memory. It is also known as secondary memory or auxiliary memory and is used to store data
permanently. The CPU cannot access this type of memory directly so data is first transferred to
the primary memory and then the CPU can access it. The secondary memory is not as fast as
the primary memory. Backup storage or mass storage media are the other names
for Secondary memory.
Secondary memory is a storage device that the CPU cannot access directly. It is a
permanent storage device.
The CPU accesses these devices through an input/output channel. The data first
transfers to primary from secondary storage before its assessment. Modern computers
often use hard drives and optical storage devices (CDs, DVDs) as secondary storage
devices.
A secondary storage device organizes data into files and directories based on a file
system. It also allows the user to access or use additional information like access
permissions, owner, last access time, etc. Also, secondary memory keeps less used
data temporarily when primary memory gets full.
Secondary memory devices are less expensive and can store vast amounts of data,
audio, video, and multimedia files. Organizations can store the equivalent of a roomful
of data on disks that consume dramatically and significantly less physical space.
Secondary Memory Characteristics
 These are magnetic and optical memories.
 It is a type of non-volatile memory.
 Data is permanently stored even when the computer is turned off
 It helps store data on a computer
 The computer can function without secondary memory
 Slower than primary memory
 Examples: magnetic tapes, optical discs, floppy disks, flash memory [USB drives], paper tape,
punched cards, etc.
Types of Secondary memory

 Mass storage devices: The magnetic disk is a mass storage device

that provides cheap storage and can be used for both small and large
devices. There are two types of magnetic disks one is Floppy disks
second is Hard disks.
 Flash/SSD: SSD stands for Solid State Drive that provides a persistent
flash memory that is very fast compared to Hard Drives. These drives
are frequently found in Mobile phones, laptops, and Mac.
 Optical drives: This drive is a secondary storage device from which
data is read and written with the help of lasers. It can contain data up to
185TB. Examples: CD, DVD, Blue-Ray
 USB drives: These are the most popular secondary storage devices
that are removable, rewritable, and very small in size.
 Magnetic tape: These devices are serial access storage devices that
have the storage of a very high volume of data, and they are usually
used for backups.
 Cache Memory-Cache Memory is small-sized chip-based memory in a
computer that lies between the main memory and CPU. It is very close
to the chip of the CPU. The aim of this type of computer memory is to
enhance the performance of the CPU. This memory is an extremely fast
memory type that acts as a buffer between RAM and the CPU. This
Memory holds frequently request data and instructions so that they are
immediately available to the CPU when needed. Cache memory is
costlier than main memory or disk memory but more than CPU
registers.
 Comparison
Memory Secondary Memory
Parameters
Primary memory is the main memory Secondary memory is the external memory and stores
Storage validity
and stores data temporarily. data permanently.
The CPU can directly access the
Access The CPU cannot directly access the data.
data.
Primary memory is volatile. It loses Secondary memory is non-volatile; data is stored e
Volatility
data in case of a power outage. ven during a power failure.
Data is stored inside costly Data is stored on external hardware devices like hard
Storage
semiconductor chips. drives, floppy disks, etc.
They do not have such a classification. Secondary
Division It can be divided into RAM and ROM memories are permanent storage devices like CDs,
DVDs, etc.
Speed Faster Slower
It saves the data that the computer is It can save various types of data in various formats and
Stored data
currently using. huge sizes.
RAM ROM

Definition of RAM is Random Access Definition of ROM is Read-only Memory

Memory

Random Access Memory (RAM) is ROM is cheaper when compared to RAM.

expensive when compared to ROM

The speed of Random Access Memory The speed of Read-only Memory (ROM) is slower when compared
(RAM) is higher when compared to to RAM.
ROM

Random Access Memory (RAM) has a ROM has a lower capacity compared to RAM
higher capacity when compared to
ROM

Data in RAM can be modified, erased, Data in ROM can only be read, it cannot be modified or erased.
or read.

The data stored in RAM is used by the The data stored in ROM is used to bootstrap the computer.
Central Processing Unit (CPU) to
process current instructions

Data stored on RAM can be accessed If the Central Processing Unit (CPU) needs to access the data on
by the Central Processing Unit. ROM, first the data must be transferred to RAM, and then the
Central Processing Unit (CPU) will be able to access the data.

Data of RAM is very volatile, it will exist Data present in Read-Only Memory (ROM) is not volatile, it is
as long as there is no interruption in permanent. Data will remain unchanged even when there is a
power. disruption in the power supply.
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