Lecture No: 1

DEFINITION, AIM, OBJECTIVES AND SCOPE OF PLANT

BREEDING
Definition:
Plant breeding can be defined as an art, a science, and technology of improving the
genetic make up of plants in relation to their economic use for the man kind.
or
Plant breeding is the art and science of improving the heredity of plants for the benefit of
mankind.
or
Plant breeding deals with the genetic improvement of crop plants also known as science
of crop improvement.
or
Science of changing and improving the heredity of plants

Aim:
Plant breeding aims to improve the characteristics of plants so that they become more
desirable agronomically and economically. The specific objectives may vary greatly depending
on the crop under consideration.

Objectives of Plant Breeding :

1. Higher yield: The ultimate aim of plant breeding is to improve the yield of economic produce.
It may be grain yield, fodder yield, fibre yield, tuber yield, cane yield or oil yield depending
upon the crop species. Improvement in yield can be achieved either by evolving high yielding
varieties or hybrids.

2. Improved quality: Quality of produce is another important objective in plant breeding. The
quality characters vary from crop to crop. Eg. grain size, colour, milling and backing quality
in wheat. Cooking quality in rice, malting quality in barley, size, colour and size of fruits,
nutritive and keeping quality in vegetables, protein content in pulses, oil content in oilseeds,
fibre length, strength and fineness in cotton.
3. Abiotic resistance: Crop plants also suffer from abiotic factors such as drought, soil salinity,
extreme temperatures, heat, wind, cold and frost, breeder has to develop resistant varieties for
such environmental conditions.

4. Biotic resistance: Crop plants are attacked by various diseases and insects, resulting in
considerable yield losses. Genetic resistance is the cheapest and the best method of minimizing
such losses. Resistant varieties are developed through the use of resistant donor parents
available in the gene pool.

5. Change in maturity Duration / Earliness: Earliness is the most desirable characterwhich has
several advantages. It requires less crop management period, lessinsecticidal sprays, permits
new crop rotations and often extends the crop area. Development of wheat varieties suitable
for late planting has permitted rice-wheat rotation. Thus breeding for early maturing crop
varieties, or varieties suitable for different dates of planting may be an important objective.
Maturity has been reduced from 270 days to 170 days in cotton, from 270 days to 120 days in
pigeonpea, from 360 days to 270 days in sugarcane.

6. Determinate Growth: Development of varieties with determinate growth is desirable in crops

like Mung, Pigeon Pea (Cajanus cajan), Cotton (Gossypium sp.), etc.

7. Dormancy: In some crops, seeds germinate even before harvesting in the standing crop if
there are rains at the time of maturity, e.g., Greengram, Blackgram, Barley and Pea, etc.
A period of dormancy has to be introduced in these crops to check loss due to germinatio n. In
some other cases, however, it may be desirable to remove dormancy.

8. Desirable Agronomic Characteristics: It includes plant height, branching, tillering capacity,

growth habit, erect or trailing habit etc., is often desirable. For example, dwarf ness in cereals
is generally associated with lodging resistance and better fertilizer response. Tallness, high
tillering and profuse branching are desirable characters in fodder crops.

9. Elimination of Toxic Substances: It is essential to develop varieties free from toxic

compounds in some crops to make them safe for human consumption. For example, removal
of neurotoxin in Khesari (Lathyruys sativus) which leads to paralysis of lower limbs, erucic
acid from Brassica which is harmful for human health, and
gossypol from the seed of cotton is necessary to make them fit for human consumption. Removal
of such toxic substances would increase the nutritional valueof these crops.

10. Non-shattering characteristics: The shattering of pods is serious problem in green gram.
Hence resistance to shattering is an important objective in green gram.

11. Synchronous Maturity: It refers to maturity of a crop species at one time. The character is
highly desirable in crops like Greengram, Cowpea, and Cotton where several pickings are
required for crop harvest.

12. Photo and Thermo insensitivity: Development of varieties insensitive to light and
temperature helps in crossing the cultivation boundaries of crop plants. Photo and thermo-
insensitive varieties of wheat and rice has permitted their cultivation in new areas. Rice is now
cultivated in Punjab, while wheat is a major rabi crop in West Bengal.

13. Wider adaptability: Adaptability refers to suitability of a variety for general cultivation over
a wide range of environmental conditions. Adaptability is an important objective in plant
breeding because it helps in stabilizing the crop production over regions and seasons.

14. Varieties for New Seasons: Traditionally Maize is a kharif crop. But scientists are now able
to grow Maize as rabi and zaid crops. Similarly, mung is grown as a summer crop in addition
to the main kharif crop.

Scope of plant breeding (Future Prospects)

From times immemorial, the plant breeding has been helping the mankind. With
knowledge of classical genetics, number of varieties have been evolved in different crop plants.
In order to combat the global alarm created by population explosion, the food front has to be
strengthened which is serious challenge to those scientists concerned with agriculture. Advances
in molecular biology have sharpened the tools of the breeders, and brighten the prospects of
confidence to serve the humanity. The application of biotechnology to field crop has already led to
the field testing of genetically modified crop plants. Genetically engineered Rice, Maize, Soybean,
Cotton, Oilseeds Rape, Sugar Beet and Alfalfa cultivars are expected to be commercialized before
the close of 20th century. Genes from varied organisms may be expected to boost the
performance of crops especially with regard to their resistance to biotic
and abiotic stresses. In addition, crop plants are likely to becultivated for recovery of valuable
compounds like pharmaceuticals produced by genes introduced into them through genetic
engineering. It may be pointed out that in Europe hirudin, an anti-thrombin protein is already
being produced from transgenic Brassica napus.

Undesirable effects
Plant breeding has several useful applications in the improvement of crop plants. However, it has
five main undesirable effects on crop plants.

1. Reduction in Diversity: Modern improved varieties are more uniform than land races. Thus
plant breeding leads to reduction in diversity. The uniform varieties are more prone to the new
races of pathogen than land races which have high genetic diversity.

2. Narrow genetic base: Uniform varieties have narrow genetic base. Such varieties generally
have poor adaptability.

3. Danger of Uniformity: Most of the improved varieties have some common parents in the
pedigree which may cause danger of uniformity.

4. Undesirable combinations: Sometimes, plant breeding leads to undesirable combinations.

The examples of man-made crops having undesirable combination of characters are
Raphanobrassica and Pomato.

5. Increased susceptibility to minor diseases and pests: Due to emphasis on breeding for
resistance to major diseases and insect pests often resulted in an increased susceptibility to
minor diseases and pests. These have gained importance and, in some cases, produced severe
epidemics. The epidemic caused by Botrytis cinerea (grey mold) in chickpea during 1980-82
Punjab, Haryana. The severe infection by Karnal bunt (Tilletia sp.) on some wheat varieties,
infestation of mealy bugs in Bt cotton.
Lecture No: 2

CONCEPTS OF BREEDING SELF POLLINATED, CROSS POLLINATED AND

ASEXUALLYPROPAGATED CROPS
The mode of pollination and reproduction play an important role in plant breeding. Based
on this, crop plants are divided into three groups viz.

1. Self Pollinated
2. Cross pollinated
3. Vegetatively propagated

Self Pollinated Species:

These are all self fertilizing species. In these species development of seed take place by
self pollination (autogamy). Hence, self pollinated species are also known as autogamous species
or inbreeders. Various plant characters such as homogamy, cleistogamy, chasmogamy, bisexuality
etc. favour self fertilization.

Some important features of autogamous species are:

1. They have regular self pollination

2. They are homozygous and have advantage of homozygosity, means they are truebreeding.
3. Inbreeders do not have recessive deleterious genes, because deleterious genes are

eliminated due to inbreeding by way of gene fixation.

4. Inbreeding does not have any adverse effects on inbreeders.

5. In autogamous species, new gene combinations are not possible due to regular self
pollination.
6. Inbreeders are composed of several component (homozygous) lines. Hence variability is

mostly among component lines.

7. Inbreeders have generally narrow adaptation and are less flexible.

Methods of Breeding in Autogamous Species

1. Plant introduction
2. Pureline selection
3. Mass selection
 4. Pedigree method
5. Bulk method
6. Single seed descent method
7. Backcross method
8. Heterosis breeding
9. Mutation breeding
10. Polyploidy breeding
11. Distant hybridization
12. Transgenic breeding

Four breeding approaches viz., recurrent selection, disruptive selection, diallel selective mating
and biparental mating are used for population improvement.

Cross pollinated species:

This group refers to cross fertilizing species these species produce seed by cross
pollination (allogamy) hence, referred to as allogamous species or out breeders. Various plant
characters which promote cross pollination which include dichogamy, monoecy, dioecy,
heterostylely, herkogamy, self incompatibility and male sterility.

Some important features of out breeders are

1. They have random mating. In such population, each genotype has equal chance of mating with
all other genotypes
2. Individuals are heterozygous and have advantage of heterozygosity
3. Individuals have deleterious recessive gene which are concealed by masking effect of
dominant genes.
4. Out breeders are intolerant to inbreeding. They exhibit high degree of inbreeding depression
on selfing.
5. Cross pollination permits new gene combinations from different sources.
6. In these species, variability is distributed over entire population.
7. They have wide adaptability and more flexibility to environmental changes due to
heterozygosity and heterogeneity.
Methods of Breeding Allogamous species

1. Plant introduction
2. Mass and progeny selection
3. Back cross method.
4. Heterosis breeding
5. Synthetic breeding
6. Composite breeding
7. Polyploidy breeding
8. Distant hybridization
9. Transgenic breeding
10. Mutation breeding (rarely)

Three breeding approaches viz., recurrent selection, disruptive mating and biparental mating
are used for population improvement.

Asexually propagated species:

Some crop plants propagate by asexual means i.e. by stem or root cuttings or by other
means. Such species are known as asexually propagated species or vegetatively propagated
species. Such species are found in both self and cross pollinated groups. Generally asexually
propagated species are highly heterozygous and have broad genetic base, wide adaptability and
more flexibility.

Methods of breeding Asexually propagated species

1. Plant introduction
2. Clonal selection
3. Mass selection (rarely used)
4. Heterosis breeding
5. Mutation breeding
6. Polyploidy breeding
7. Distant hybridization
8. Transgenic breeding
BREEDING POPULATIONS
The genetic constitution of plants is determined by mode of pollination. Self pollination leads to
homozysity and cross pollination results in heterozygosity to exploit homozygosity in self
pollinated crops and heterozygosity in cross pollinated species, because inbreeders have advantage
of homozygosity and outbreeders have advantage of heterozygosity. Based on genetic constitution,
breeding populations are of four types viz.,
1. Homogenous
2. Heterogenous
3. Homozygous
4. Heterozygous

1. Homogenous population
Genetically similar plants constitute homogenous populations. Examples of homogeneous
populations are pure lines, inbred lines, F1 hybrid between two pure line or inbred lines and
progeny of a clone. Pure lines and inbred lines generally have narrow adoption.

2. Heterogenous populations
Genetically dissimilar plants constitute heterogenous populations. Examples are land
races, mass selected populations, composites, synthetics and multilines. Heterogenous populations
have wide adaptability and stable performance under different environments.
3. Homozygous populations
Individuals with like alleles at the corresponding loci are know as homozygous. Such
individuals do not segregate on selfing. Thus non-segregating genotypes constitute homozygous
populations. Examples are pure lines, inbred lines and mass selected populations in self pollinated
plants. Thus pure lines and inbred lines are homozygous and homogeneous and mass selected
varieties of self pollinated crops and multi lines are homozygous and heterogenous, because they
are mixtures of several pure lines.
4. Heterozygous populations
Individuals with unlike alleles at the corresponding loci are referred to as heterozygous.
Such individuals segregate into various types on selfing. This includes F1 hybrids, composites
and synthetics. Thus F1 hybrids are heterozygous but homogeneous and composites and
synthetics are heterozygous and heterogenous population. Such populations have greater
buffering capacity to environmental fluctuations.
 Different types of genetic populations in plant breeding
population Brief description / definition Examples
Homogeneous Genetically similar population Purelines, inbred line, F1 hybrids
progeny of a clone
Heterogeneous Genetically dissimilar population Land races, composites synthetics
and multilines.
Homozygous
Non-segregating populations Purelines, inbred lines mass selected
autogamous varieties and multilines
Heterozygous Populations segregate on selfing F1 hybrids, composites, synthetics
and a clone
COMBINATIONS
Homogeneous and Genetically similar and non Purelines and inbred lines
Homozygous segregating populations
Homogeneous and Genetically similar but segregating F1 hybrids between inbred lines and
heterozygous on selfing progeny of a clone
Heterogeneous and Genetically dissimilar but non Multilines and mass selected varieties
homozygous segregating populations in autogamous species
Heterogeneous and Genetically dissimilar and Composites and synthetics
Heterozyous segregating populations
 Lecture No: 3,4,
PLANT GENETIC RESOURCES
The sum total of genes in a crop species is referred to as genetic resources.
or
Gene pool refers to a whole library of different alleles of a species
or
Germplasm may be defined as the sum total of hereditary material i.e., all the allele of
various genes present in a crop species and its wild relatives.
Also known as gene pool or genetic stock or germplasm or genetic resources.
Germplasm or gene pool is the basic material with which a plant breeder has to initiate
his breeding programme.
Important features of plant genetic resources are

1. Gene pool represents the entire genetic variability or diversity available in a crop species.

2. Germplasm consists of land races, modern cultivars, obsolete cultivars, breeding stocks,
wild forms and wild species of cultivated crops.
3. Germplasm includes both cultivated and wild species or relatives of crop plants.

4. Germplasm is collected from the centres of diversity, gene banks, gene sanctuaries,farmers
fields, markets and seed companies.
5. Germplasm is the basic material for launching a crop improvement programme.

6. Germplasm may be indigenous (collected with in country) or exotic (collected fromforeign

countries)

Kinds of Germplasm
The germplasm consists of various plant materials of a crop such as
(1) land races (4) advanced (homozygous), breeding materials,
(2) obsolete cultivars (5) wild forms of cultivated species
(3) modern cultivars (6) wild relatives
(7) mutants
These are briefly discussed below:
1. Land races
These are nothing but primitive cultivars which were selected and cultivated by thefarmers
for many generations without systematic plant breeding efforts.
- Land races were not deliberately bred like modern cultivars. They evolved under
 subsistence agriculture.

- Land races have high level of genetic diversity which provides them high degreeof
resistance to biotic and abiotic stresses.
- Land races have broad genetic base which again provides them wider adoptability.
- The main drawbacks of land races are that they are less uniform and low yielders.

- Land races were first collected and studied by N.I. Vavilor in rice.

2. Obsolete Cultivars
These are the varieties developed by systematic breeding effort which were popular earlier
and now have been replaced by new varieties. Improved varieties of recent past are known as
obsolete cultivars.
- Obsolete varieties have several desirable characters they constitute an important part of gene
pool. Example : Wheat varieties K65, K68, pb 591 were most popular traditional tall varieties
before introduction of high yielding dwarf Mexican wheat varieties. Now these varieties are
no more cultivated. They aregood genetic resources and have been widely used in wheat
breeding programmes for improvement of grain quality. Now such old varieties are found in
the genepool only.
3. Modern cultivars
The currently cultivated high yielding varieties are referred to as modern cultivars. They are
also known as improved cultivars or advanced cultivars.
- These varieties have high yield potential and uniformity as compared to obsolete varieties
land races.

- They constitute a major part of working collections and are extensively used as parents in the
breeding programmes.

- As these are good sources of genes for yield and quality, can be introduced in anew area
and directly released.
- However, these have narrow genetic base and low adoptability as compared to

land races.

4. Advanced breeding lines

These are pre -released plants which have been developed by plant breeders in modern scientific
 breeding programmes. These are known as advanced lines, cultures and stocks. This group
includes, nearly homozygous lines, lines derived from biotechnology programmes
i.e. transgenic plants and mutant lines etc. These lines which are not yet ready for release to
farmers. They often contain valuable gene combinations.
5. Wild forms of cultivated species
Wild forms of cultivated species are available in many crop plants. Such plants have generally
high degree of resistance to biotic and abiotic stresses and are utilized in breeding programmes.
They can easily cross with cultivated species. Wild forms of many crop species are extinct.
6. Wild Relatives

Those naturally occurring plant species which have common ancestry with crops and can cross
with crop species are referred to as wild relatives or wild species. Wild relatives include all other
species, which are related to the crop species by descent during their evolution. Both these groups
are sources of valuable genes for biotic and abiotic stress and for quality traits and yield.
7. Mutants

Mutation breeding is used when the desired character is not found in the genetic stocks of
cultivated species and their wild relatives. Mutations do occur in nature as well as can be induced
through the use of physical and chemical mutagens. The extra variability which is created through
induced mutations constitutes important components of genepool. Mutant for various characters
sometimes may not be released as a variety, but they are added in the genepool. The germplasm
includes those carrying gene mutations, chromosomal aberrations and markers genes etc. are
considered special genetic stocks. They are useful in breeding programmes.

The gene pool system of classification

The pool of a crop includes all cultivars, wild species and wild relatives containing all the
genes available for breeding use.

Based on degree of relationship, the gene pool of crops can be divided into three groups
(Harland and Dewet, 1971), viz.,
1. Primary gene pool
2. Secondary Gene pool
3. Tertiary gene pool
These are briefly discussed below:
1. Primary gene pool (GP1): This is also known as gene pool one (GP1). The gene pool in which
intermating is easy and leads to production of fertile hybrids is known as primary gene pool. It
includes plants of the same species or of closely related species which produce completely
fertile offspring on intermating. In such gene pool, genes can be exchanged between lines
simply by making normal crosses. This is the material of prime breeding importance.
2. Secondary gene pool (GP2): This type of gene pool is also known as gene pool two (GP2).
The genetic material that leads to partial fertility on crossing with GP1 is referred to as
secondary gene pool. It includes plants that belong to related species. Such material can be
crossed with primary gene pool, but usually the hybrids are sterile and some of the progeny to
some extent are fertile. Transfer of gene from such material to primary gene pool is possible
but difficult.
3. Tertiary gene pool (GP3): The genetic material which leads to production of sterile
hybrids on crossing with primary gene pool is termed as tertiary gene pool or gene pool three
(GP3). It includes material which can be crossed with GP1, but the hybrids aresterile. Transfer
of genes from such material to primary gene pool is possible with thehelp of special
techniques.

Types of seed collections

Based on the use and duration of conservation, seed collections are of three types
1. Base collections
2. Active collections
3. Working collections
1. Base collections: It is also known as principal collection. These consist of all the accessions
present in the germplasm of a crop. They are stored at about -180C or -200C with 5 + 1%
moisture content; they are disturbed only for regeneration. When the germination of an
accession falls below, usually, 95% of its germination at the start of storage, the accession is
regenerated. For reasons of safety, duplicates of base collections should be conserved in other
germplasm banks as well. High quality orthodox seeds can maintain good viability upto 100
years.
2. Active collections: The accessions in an active collection are stored at temperatures below
150C (often near 00C), and the seed moisture is kept at 5%. The storage is for medium duration,
 i.e., 10-15 years. These collections are actively utilized in breeding programme. These
collections are used for evaluation, multiplication and distribution of the accessions. They are
usually maintained by multiplying the seeds of their own accessions. But from time to time,
base collection material should be used for regeneration of these collections. Germination test
is carried out after every 5-10 years to assess the reduction in seed viability.
3. Working collections: The accessions being actively used in crop improvement programmes
constitute working collection. Their seeds are stored for 3-5 years at less than 150C and they
usually contain about 10% moisture. These collections are maintained by the breeders using
them.

Core collection

The concept of core collection was proposed by Franked it refers to a subset of base collection
which represents the large collection. Or a limited set of accessions derived from an existing
germplasm collections.
Germplasm activities

There are six important activities related to plant genetic resources.

1. Exploration and collection 4. Documentation
2. Conservation 5. Multiplication and Distribution
3. Evaluation 6. Utilization
1. Exploration and collection

Exploration refers to collection trips and collection refer to tapping of genetic diversity from
various sources and assembling the same at one place.
The exploration and collection is a highly scientific process. This process takes into account
six important items, viz, (1) sources of collection, (2) priority of collection, (3) agencies of
collection, (4) methods of collection, (5) methods of sampling and (6) sample size.
Merits and Demerits
There are several merits and demerits of exploration and collection of germplasm, some of
which are as discussed below:
Merits
1. Collection helps in tapping crop genetic diversity and assembling the same at one place.

2. It reduces the loss of genetic diversity due to genetic erosion.

3. Sometimes, we get material of special interest during exploration trips.

4. Collection also helps in saving certain genotypes from extinction.

Demerits

1. Collection of germplasm especially from other countries, sometimes leads to entry of new
diseases, new insects and new weeds.
2. Collection is a tedious job.

3. Collector, sometimes has encounter with wild animals like elephants, tigers etc.

4. Transportation of huge collections also poses difficulties in the exploration andcollection.

2. Germplasm conservation

Conservation refers to protection of genetic diversity of crop plants from genetic erosion.
There are two important methods of germplasm conservation or preservation. or
Germplasm conservation refers to maintain the collected germplasm in such a state that
there is minimum risk for its loss and that either it can be planted directly in the field or it can be
prepare for planting with relative ease when ever necessary.
There are two important methods of germplasm conservation or preservation viz.,
1. In situ conservation 2. Ex situ conservation

1. In situ conservation
Conservation of germplasm under natural habitat is referred to as in situ conservation. This
is achieved by protecting this area from human interference : such an area is often called as natural
park, biosphere reserve or gene sanctuary. A gene sanctuary is best located within the centre of
origin of crop species concerned, preferably covering the microcenter with in the centre of
origin. NBPGR, New Delhi is making attempts to establish gene sanctuaries in Meghalaya for
Citrus and in the North-Eastern region for Musa, Citrus, Oryza, Saccharum and Megifera.
This method of preservation has following main disadvantages

1) Each protected area will cover only ve ry small portion of total diversity of a crop species,
hence several areas will have to be conserved for a single species.
2) The management of such areas also poses several problems.
3) This is a costly method of germplasm conservation

Merits : Gene sanctuaries offer the following two advantages.

1. A gene sanctuary not only conserves the existing genetic diversity present inthe population,
it also allows evolution to continue. As a result, new alleles and new gene combinations would
appear with time.
2. The risks as sociated with ex situ conservation are not operative.

2. Ex situ conservation

Conservation of germplasm away from its natural habitat is called ex situ germplasm
conservation. This method has following three advantages.
1) It is possible to preserve entire genetic diversity of a crop species at one place.
2) Handling of germplasm is also easy
3) This is a cheap method of germplasm conservation
Preservation in the form of seed is the most common and easy method, relatively safe,
requires minimum space and easy to maintain. Glass, tin or plastic containers are used for
preservation and storage of seeds. The seed can be conserved under long term, medium term and
short term storage conditions.
Roberts in 1973 classified seeds on the basis of their storability, into two major groups.

1. Orthodox seeds 2. Recalcitrant seeds

1. Orthodox Seeds : Seeds of this type can be dried to low moisture content of 5% and stored
at a low temperature without losing their viability are known as orthodox seeds. Most crop
seeds belong to this category. Such seeds can be easily stored for long periods; their longevity
increases in response to lower humidity and storage temperature. Eg. Wheat, Rice, Corn,
Chickpea, Cotton, Sunflower
2. Recalcitrant seeds : The viability of this group of seeds drops drastically if their moisture
content is reduced below 12-30%. Seeds of many forest and fruit trees, and of several tropically
crops like Citrus, cocoa, coffee, rubber, oil palm, mango, jackfruit, etc. belong to this group.
Such seeds present considerable difficulties in storage. They require in situ conservation.
3. Evaluation
Evaluation refers to screening of germplasm in respect of morphological, genetical,
economic, biochemical, physiological, pathological and entomological attributes.
 Evaluation requires a team of specialists from the disciplines of plant breeding, physiology,
biochemistry, pathology and entomology. First of all a list of descriptors (characters) for which
evaluation has to be done is prepared. This task is completed by a team of experts from IPGRI,
Rome, Italy. The descriptors are ready for various crops. The evaluation of germplasm is down in
three different places, viz., (1) in the field, (2) in green house, and (3) in the laboratory.
4. Documentation

It refers to compilation, analysis, classification storage and dissemination of information.

In plant genetic resources, documentation means dissemination of information about various
activities such as collection, evaluation, conservation, storage and retrieval of data. Now the term

documentation is more appropriately known as information system. Documentation is one of the

important activities of genetic resources. Large number of accessions are available in maize, rice,
wheat, sorghum, potato and other major crops. About 7.3 million germplasm accessions are
available in 200 crops species. Handling of such huge germplasm information is only possible
through electronic computers.
5. Distribution

The specific germplasm lines are supplied to the users on demand for utilization in the crop
improvement programmes.
1. Distribution of germplasm is the responsibility of the gene bank centres

2. The germplasm is usually supplied to the workers who are engaged in research work of
a particular crop species.
3. Supplied free of cost to avoid cumbersome work of book keeping.

4. The quantity of seed samples depends on the availability of seed material and demands

5. Proper records are maintained about the distribution of material.

6. It helps in acclimatization and purification of the material.

6. Utilization

It refers to use of germplasm in crop improvement programmes. The germplasm can be

utilized in various ways. The uses of cultivated and wild species of germplasm are briefly
discussed below:
a) Cultivated Germplasm
It can be used in three main ways: (1) as a variety, (2) as a parent in the hybridization,
and (3) as a variant in the gene pool.
b) Wild Germplasm

it is used to transfer resistance to biotic and abiotic stresses, wider adaptability and
sometimes quality such as fibre strength in cotton.
Organizations associated with germplasm

IPGRI – International Plant Genetic Resources Institute

NBPGR – National Bureau of Plant Genetic Resources

CENTRES OF DIVERSITY AND GENE BANKS

Gene Sanctuaries

The genetic diversity is sometimes conserved under natural habitat. The areas of great
genetic diversity are protected from human interference. These protected areas in natural habitat
are referred to as gene sanctuaries. Gene sanctuary is also known as natural park or biosphere
reserve. Gene sanctuary is generally established in the centre of diversity or microcenter. India has
setup its first gene sanctuary in the Garo Hills of Assam for wild relatives of citrus. Efforts are also
being made to setup gene sanctuaries for Banana, Sugarcane, Rice and Mango. In Ethiopia gene
sanctuary for conservation of wild relatives of coffee was setup in 1984.
Gene sanctuaries have two main advantages.

1. It protects the loss of genetic diversity caused by human intervention.

2. It allows natural selection and evolution to operate.

3. The risks associated with ex situ conservation are not operativeThere are two main
Drawbacks of gene sanctuary.
1. Entire variability of a crop species can not be conserved.

2. Its maintenance and establishment is a difficult task.

3. It is a very good method of in situ conservation.

Genetic Erosion

Genetic erosion refers to loss of genetic diversity between and within populations of
thesame species over a period of time.
or
Gradual reduction in genetic diversity in the populations of a species, due to
eliminationof various genotypes, is called genetic erosion.
Thus genetic erosion leads to reduction of the genetic base of a species due to
human intervension and environmental changes. There are five main reasons of genetic erosion
1. Replacement of land races with improved cultivars : The main features of modern cultivars
are high yield, uniformity, narrow genetic base and narrow adaptability. On the other hand land
races and primitive cultivars have more genetic diversity, broad genetic base, wider adaptability
and low yield potential. Thus replacement of land races with modern cultivars has resulted in
reduction in genetic diversity because land races are disappearing.
2. Modernization of agriculture : Clean and modern agriculture , Improved crop management
practices has resulted in the elimination of wild and weedy forms of many crops. These weedy
forms enhance the genetic diversity through introgression of genes from crop to weedy
forms and weedy forms to crop plants.
3. Extension of farming into wild habitats : It has resulted in destruction of wild relativesof
various crops resulting in reduction of their genetic diversity.

4. Grazing into wild habitats : Grazing of animals in the wild habitat also reduces genetic
diversity by destroying the wild and weedy forms of crop plants.
5. Developmental activities like Hydroelectric projects, growth of towns, cities, roads, air

ports and industrial areas also lead to genetic erosion of crop plants, because vast areasare
cleaned for such activities.
Extinction
Extinction refers to permanent loss of a crop species due to various reasons.
Introgression

Transfer of few genes from one species into the full diploid chromosome complement
of another species.
Gene banks
Gene bank refers to a place or organization where germplasm can be conserved in living
state. Gene banks are also known as germplasm banks. The germplasm is stored in the form of
seeds, pollen or in vitro cultures, or in the case of a field gene banks, as plants growing in the field.
Gene banks are mainly of two types, viz.,
1. Seed gene banks

2. Plant or field gene banks

3. Meristem gene banks

4. Cell and organ gene banks and

5. DNA gene banks

These are briefly discussed below:
1. Seed gene banks:

A place where germplasm is conserved in the form of seeds is called seed gene banks. Seeds
are very convenient for storage because they occupy smaller space than whole plants. However,
seeds of all crops can not be stored at low temperature in the seed banks. The germplasm of only
orthodox species (whose seed can be dried to low moisture content without losing variability)
can be conserved in the seed banks. In the seed banks, there arethree types of conservation,
viz., (1) short term, (2) medium term, and (3) long term. Base collections are conserved for long
term (50 years or more) at – 18 or – 200C. Active collections are stores for medium term(10-15
years) at zero degree Celsius and working collection are stored for short term (3-5years) at
5-100C. The main advantages of gene banks are as follows.
1) Large number of germplasm samples or entire variability can be conserved in a very small
space.
2) seed banks, handling of germplasm is easy

3) Germplasm is conserved under pathogen and insect free environment

There are some disadvantages of germplasm conservation in the seed banks.
1) Seed of recalcitrant species can not be stored in seed banks

2) Failure of power supply may lead to loss of viability and there by loss of germplasm

3) It requires periodical evaluation of seed viability. After some time multiplication is essential
to get new or fresh seeds for storage.
2. Field Gene banks

Field gene banks also called plant gene banks are areas of land in which germplasm
collections of growing plants are assembled. This is also ex situ conservation of germplasm.
Those plant species that have recalcitrant seeds or do not produce seeds readily are conserved in
Field gene banks. In field gene banks, germplasm is maintained in the form of plants as a
permanent living collection. Field gene banks are often established to maintain working
collections of living plants for experimental purposes. Field gene banks have been established in
many countries for different crops.

In Field gene banks in some countries

Name of country Crop species for which field gene bank is established

Malaysia Oil palm has been conserved on 500 hectares

Indonesia Earmarked 1000 hectare area for coconut and other perennial crops
Philippines South East Asia germplasm of banana has been conserved
India Global collection of coconut has been conserved in Andman & Nicobar

Field gene banks have some advantages and disadvantages.

Advantages
1. It provides opportunities for continuous evaluation for various economic characters.

2. It can be directly utilized in the breeding programme

Disadvantages
1. Field gene banks can not cover the entire genetic diversity of a species. It can cover onlya
fraction of the full range of diversity of a species.
2. The germplasm in field gene banks is exposed to pathogens and insects and sometimes is

damaged by natural disasters such as bushfires, cyclones, floods, etc.

3. Maintenance of germplasm in the field gene banks is costly affair
Meristem gene banks

Germplasm of asexually propagated species can be conserved in the form of meristems.

This method is widely used for conservation and propagation of horticultural species. In vitro
method can be used in two ways. First for storage of tissues under slow
growth conditions. Second, for long term conservation of germplasm by
cryopreservation. In cryopreservation, the tissues are stored at a very low
temperature i.e. at -1960C in liquid nitrogen. At this temperature, all
biological processes virtually come to a stop.
Shoot Tip Gene Banks

In such gene banks, germplasm is conserved as slow growth cultures

of shoot-tips and nodal segments. Their regeneration consists of sub-
culturing the cultures, which may be done every 6 months to 3 years. The
chief merits for the conservation of germplasm of vegetatively propagated
crops and tree species.
1. Genotypes of the accessions can be conserved indefin itely free from diseases and
pests.
2. They can be used for such crops, which either do into produce seeds
or producerecalcitrant seeds.
3. Subculture becomes necessary only after relatively long periods (every 6-36
months).
4. Regeneration i.e., subculturing, requires a comparatively very short time.

In addition, cuttings, bulbs and tubers can be maintained under

controlled humidity and temperature conditions; however, this approach is
practical for the short and medium term storage, and it should be used in
conjunction with a field gene bank.
Cell and Organ Gene Banks

A germplasm collection based on cryopreserved (at -1960C in liquid

nitrogen) embryogenic cell cultures, shoot-tips and or somatic/zygotic
embryos may be called cell and organ bank. The techniques for
cryopreservation of plant cells and tissues are being rapidly refined, and
some such banks have been established, e.g., for potato in Germany.
DNA Gene Banks

In these banks, DNA segments from the genomes of germplasm

accessions are maintained as cosmid clones, phage lysates or pure DNA
(the last one being for relatively short periods). These DNA segments can
be evaluated and the desired ones may be used to produce transgenic plants.
This approach is applicable to the conservation of genetic materials of
already extinct species since DNA extracted from well preserved herbarium
specimens can often be cloned. However, it is very expensive and highly
sophisticated. A world -wide network of DNA banks for threatened /
endangered species has been established.