Soap Production

Introduction
What is soap?
Soap is an ionic surfactant which, when mixed with water, is useful for washing and cleaning. It can be
made either bar or liquid forms. In terms of chemistry, soap is a sodium or potassium salt, which is
formed via chemical reaction between an acid and a base. Commonly called neutralization [1].

Saponification
The fats or oils used in the soap making process combines with sodium hydroxide, or lye, in a process
known as saponification. The fats are hydrolyzed by the lye, yielding soap and glycerol.
Major components of soap are
1. Fat/oil
The fats and oils used to make soap are made up of triglycerides. A triglyceride is a molecule that
contains three fatty acid molecules, which are attached to one molecule of glycerin.
2. Lye
The other major component of soap, lye, is an alkali; or a base (the opposite of an acid, on the pH
scale).
There are two major types of lye:
 i. Sodium hydroxide (NaOH, caustic soda): Sodium hydroxide is the one typically used when
making solid soap bars;
ii. Potassium hydroxide (KOH, or caustic potash): potassium hydroxide makes much softer soap,
and is sometimes utilized for making liquid soaps, or shaving cream.
Saponification process
The lye reacts with the triglycerides in the fat or oil molecules, and the fatty acids are released from the
glycerin, and bind to the lye molecules. Both the alkali and the acids are neutralized. The byproducts of
this reaction are a salt (soap) and glycerin. When the process is complete, there will be a ratio of
approximately three soap molecules to every molecule of glycerin. Put another way, glycerin makes up
approximately 25% of the finished product that results from the saponification process.
Other components of soap
In addition to the major components of cleaning products, other ingredients are added to provide a
variety of functions. Each product formula is a careful balance of various ingredients that will work
best for what you are trying to clean. Let us review these other commonly used ingredients:
Surfactants
It is important to know that some surfactants are very good at removing some types of soils, but not
very well at removing others.
Many cleaning products include two or more surfactants in the formula. The choice of surfactants
determines where the product will work best, such as for laundry, dishes, or counter-tops.
Builders
Builders are another important group of ingredients that help makes cleaning products better. Builders
help the surfactants.
Builders help make the surfactant more powerful by reacting with minerals found in your home’s tap
water (such as calcium and magnesium).
The more minerals in your water, the “harder” the water is. It is not bad to have minerals in water, but it
can leave white marks on surfaces (like dishes). When calcium and magnesium are present in water,
they will stop surfactants from doing their job of removing soil.
Builders help prevent this by keeping the minerals out of the way of the surfactants. This leaves the
surfactants alone to focus on the soil.
Preservatives
Just as if it is important to prevent food from spoiling, cleaning products need to be preserved as well.
Adding a small amount of a preservative protects the product from microorganisms.
A preservative is a substance added to a cleaning product in order to make it stable and safe for a longer
period. Without a preservative, it is possible for bacteria or fungi to grow in the product.
This can cause the ingredients in the product (like surfactants and enzymes) to break down and not
work as well. Adding a preservative allows a cleaning product to stay on the shelf longer, both in the
store and in your home.
Fragrances
Fragrances are a group of ingredients that provide the cleaning product with a pleasant smell. They are
not found in every product, and typically, a very small amount can make a large difference in smell. In
many cases, the fragrance is the driving factor for why someone decided to buy a specific product.
A fragrance is a mix of many different substances. These ingredients may be natural compounds (that
come from materials like flowers, fruit, trees, plants, or nuts), essential oils, or synthetic compounds.
Lavender and lemon are two common fragrances that can be found in cleaning products.
Fragrances can also be designed to stay on clothes, which allows clothes to smell cleaner and fresher
for a long period.
Colorants
Colorants are sometime used to give a product a color. This can make a product more appealing to a
shopper at the store.
Forms of soap
The commonly known forms are
 Bar soap
 Liquid soap
How does soap work?
Soap acts as an emulsifier, meaning that it allows one substance to be dissolved into another, into
which it would not dissolve otherwise. Soil contains grease and oil, which are not water-soluble;
however, soap attaches itself to the grease molecules, loosens them, and allows them to dissolve in
water, and be rinsed away.
There are three types of energy, which must be present in order for soap to work well: chemical energy,
thermal energy, and kinetic energy. The chemical energy is provided by the soap, and allows soil that
cannot be removed with just water to be loosened from the soiled surface, and suspended within the
soap molecules. Thermal energy is provided by using warm or hot water. The third type, kinetic energy,
is created by movement – washing machine agitation, or old-fashioned elbow grease.
If any of these elements are missing, the cleansing process will not be as effective; for example,
soaking soiled clothing in soapy water, without scrubbing or agitating it, will not get it as clean as if it
were put in the washer. Similarly, attempting to remove soil with only water, and no soap, is likely to
be ineffective.

Figure
Soap molecules have two ends; one is a carboxylate, and the other is a hydrocarbon chain. The
carboxylate end of the molecule is hydrophilic (“hydro” meaning water, “philic” meaning attracted to),
while the hydrocarbon chain is hydrophobic (meaning repelled by water). Nearly all substances are
either hydrophilic or hydrophobic; anything that will dissolve in water is considered hydrophilic.
Anything that will not is considered hydrophobic.
Naturally, oil and water do not mix, because oil molecules are hydrophobic. Most soil contains some
variety of oil, which means that it will not dissolve in water without the help of an emulsifier, such as
soap. The hydrophilic end of the soap molecules allows the soap to be water-soluble, despite the oils
contained in it. The hydrophobic end is the portion that allows the soap to grab onto the grease
molecules.
Grease normally adheres to skin and clothing; however, the hydrophobic ends of the soap molecules
form micelles, or tiny clusters, which surround the grease molecules. The grease is held by the
hydrophobic end, while the hydrophilic end allows the suspended grease particles to be rinsed away
with clean water.
Water hardness is a factor that greatly affects the efficacy of soap. Hard water refers to water that has
an overabundance of minerals, such as calcium, iron, manganese, or magnesium. When the soap is
used, some of the soap molecules attach themselves to these minerals, instead of to the soil that is
supposed to be cleansed. This creates a twofold problem; there are fewer soap molecules available for
cleaning, and the molecules that react with the minerals create a hard scum on fabrics, skin, or other
surfaces.
Because most soap molecules are similar, and not very versatile, many commercial soaps now use
synthetic surfactants or detergents, which, because of their chemical composition, can be engineered to
be effective in a variety of conditions.
The downfall of synthetic detergents, however, is that they can be harsh and drying to skin – imagine
washing your whole body with dishwashing liquid, or glass cleaner. It works well on your kitchen or
bathroom surfaces, but you would not want it all over you.
This is why many commercially made soaps are drying to the skin; they are engineered to work in hard-
water conditions, which means that they are harsher than plain soap.
Cleaning process
What is cleaning?
Cleaning products play an essential role in daily life. They can remove dirt and stains from our clothes,
dried on food from our dishes, and even germs from our hands.
Cleaning is the process of removing of dirt, grease, grime, microbes and other soils from almost
everything we touch—from our bodies to our bathrooms and everything in between.
Cleaning is needed at homes, schools, in restaurants, at hotels, on buses, and especially in hospitals [2].
No matter the type of product, you are using, good cleaning takes a lot of energy. Three different kinds
to be exact:
1. Chemical energy, provided by the soap or detergent
2. Mechanical energy, provided by a machine or by hand
3. Thermal energy, provided by heating water
How all these elements work together?
Assume we have a great, big, oily, greasy stain on one of our favorite shirts. Water alone is not enough
to remove the stain and get our shirt clean.
Now let’s add some laundry detergent.
The laundry detergent provides chemical energy. This energy is created because of the way the
ingredients in the detergent interact with the stain on our shirt. You cannot see it with your eyes, but the
molecules in the detergent are attracted to the stain and help pull the dirt from the shirt to the wash
water.
To get something clean takes a lot of energy. Whether this energy is used in a tub or a washing
machine, chemical and mechanical energy are needed to get the best results. With detergents that work
in cold water, thermal energy is optional.
Cleaning Chemistry
Have you ever seen a bead of water sitting on a surface? This is because water has a property called
surface tension. This tension causes water to form a bead on the surface of things like glass or fabric.
You can see surface tension at work by placing a drop of water onto a counter top. The drop will hold
its shape and will not spread.

Figure 1
In order to clean the dirt on our clothes, the water needs to be able to reach the surface. Water is able to
get to the surface if surface tension is reduced. To do this, we use a group of chemicals called surface-
active agents, or surfactants.
Surfactants change how water behaves. When a surfactant is added, the surface tension is reduced. Now
water can spread out and wet the surface (e.g., clothes, dishes, counter tops) we are trying to clean.
Now let’s look at what happens on the surface.
Every surfactant has two ends. One end wants to be in water and the other does not.
The water-fearing end is known as the hydrophobic end. Hydrophobic comes from two Greek roots,
hydro- (meaning water) and -phobia (meaning fearing). Have you heard the phrase “oil and water don’t
mix?” This is important here!
The water-fearing end of the surfactant is made up of hydrocarbon chains. A hydrocarbon is a molecule
that is made of hydrogen and carbon. The chains love oil and grease and will try to stay away from
water.
The water-loving end is known as the hydrophilic end. We learned hydro- is a Greek root meaning
‘water’. Therefore, if -phobic means ‘fearing’, then -philic means loving. The water-loving end of the
chemical is attracted to water.

Figure 2
Once the surfactant is added to water, the water-fearing ends try to stay away from the water.
They do this by organizing into the shape of a sphere with the water-loving ends on the outside and the
water-fearing ends protected on the inside. This spherical shape of surfactants is called a micelle.
Figure 3
Soap cleaning mechanisms
The micelle is important because it is what traps the soil. Remember, the inside of the micelle is
hydrophobic and does not want to be near water. The soil is also hydrophobic, so it likes the
environment the micelle creates.
The attraction of the soil to the inside of the surfactant micelle helps loosen the soil from its surface.
Once the soil lifts off the surface, it becomes suspended in the water in the micelle. This suspension is
also known as emulsification of one liquid into another. Happy inside the micelle, the soil will not
settle back onto the surface. Now that the soil is trapped in the micelle and the micelle is suspended in
water, it is easy to wash the soil way.
Remember the outside of our micelle loves water. Therefore, as we rinse, the micelle floats away and
we are left with a clean surface! This step-by-step diagram shows a highly magnified view of how
micelles of surfactants clear oil or grease in dirt off a piece of cloth.
1. First, the water-fearing ends of the surfactants drift toward some dirt particles.

Figure 4
2. A micelle forms around a particle. This separates the dirt from the surface it was on.

Figure 5
3. With the dirt inside the micelle, the water-loving ends of the surfactants, which are all on the
outside of the micelle, are attracted to water and can be washed away, with the dirt still inside.

Figure 6
Soap Production Process
Introduction
The term "soap" refers to a particular type of detergent in which the water-solubilized group is
carboxylate and the positive ion is usually sodium or potassium.
Soap is made by combining a sodium hydroxide and water solution (also known as lye) with fats
(natural oils, butters and waxes). The combination of three basic ingredients – water, sodium hydroxide
and fat –causes a chemical process called saponification, which results in the creation of hard bars of
nourishing, lather-rich, moisturizing soap. Other ingredients like builders, colorant and perfume may be
added for various functions. The builders may be added to improve the cleaning performance of the
soap.
General introductions
 Safety rules
 Raw material selection
 Formulation and measurement considerations
 Material and equipment needed
Safety Rules
Production of soaps and detergents requires the use of chemical products that are potentially dangerous
for the human organism. A number of safety rules must therefore be observed.
Safety gear
Each operator must have the following safety equipment:
1. A jacket, an apron or a long sleeved shirt made of a hard material must be worn.
2. During the preparation of caustic soda solutions, it is necessary to wear well-fitting plastic or
rubber gloves.
3. To avoid the inhalation of toxic vapours from the dissolving soda, a protective mask or material
soaked in water must be worn, covering the entire nose and mouth area.
4. A pair of rubber boots or closed-toe shoes must be worn during preparation of the caustic soda
solution.
5. A pair of protective goggles must be worn during the soap or detergent production process.
Safety instructions
 It is essential to work near a water source.
 If the caustic soda solution comes into contact with the skin, rinse off thoroughly with water to
alleviate the effects of the soda.
 If the soda solution is swallowed, drink copious amounts of water.
 Always pour the soda into the water, and not the other way round, to avoid experiencing a
violent reaction that could damage your skin or your eyes.
 Drinking, eating and smoking are prohibited during soap production operations.
  Avoid any distractions during soap production operations.
 Chemical products used for the maturing or drying stages of soap production must be kept out
of the reach of children and domestic animals.
 Soap-making equipment must not be used for cooking.

Raw materials preparation

Selection
You can use as little as three ingredients to make soap – water, sodium hydroxide and a fat or oil. The
raw material selection depends on the form and function of soap, and availability. Whilst you have a
choice of fats, there is no substitute for sodium hydroxide if you wish to make ‘real’ soap as this causes
the chemical reaction that eventually converts the fats into soap. Some oils are more readily absorbed
into the skin than others are, and each oil that can be used for soap making has different properties.
A similar choice must be made when using lye; it comes in granular and flake forms, and different
types of lye can be used for different soaps. For instance, sodium hydroxide lye is usually used for bar
soap, whereas potassium hydroxide lye is commonly used for liquid soaps and shaving cream.
As mentioned on the previous section soap composition consists two group of components.
Soap ingredients
Fats
There are wide choices of fats, which can be used in soap production. Each oil, butter or wax brings
slightly different properties to soap. Some oils, such as coconut, will bring a quick, rich lather, whilst
shea butter is richly moisturizing and castor oil creates a fluffy lather as well as moisturizing.
Water
It is recommended to use spring or distilled water as part of your lye solution. However, if spring or
distilled water is not available, tap water will suffice.
Depending on where you live, your water may be hard or soft, and this can have a small impact on the
lathering quality of bars of soap.
If you have a method of filtering and purifying rainwater, this can also be used as part of your soap
making.
Lye
Using sodium hydroxide
Sodium hydroxide is used for creating hard bars of soap. It is white and usually found in tiny granules –
rather like very large grains of salt.
The chemical symbol for sodium hydroxide is NaOH (Na is sodium, OH is hydroxide). Sodium
hydroxide is also known as caustic soda as well as being referred to by soap makers as lye.
Sodium hydroxide mixed with water to create a lye solution
Using potassium hydroxide
Potassium hydroxide is used for creating liquid soap. It is usually found in hard flake form. Flakes are
slightly off-white and sound like shards of broken porcelain when shaken.
The chemical symbol for potassium hydroxide is KOH (K is potassium, OH is hydroxide). Potassium
hydroxide is also known as caustic potash as well as being referred to as lye.
It also possible to add other ingredients, which are surfactant, builders, fragrance, colorant, and
preservatives. The selection of surfactants depends on soil type because some surfactants are very good
at removing some types of soils, but not very well at removing others. Builders are another important
group of ingredients that help makes cleaning products better.
Formulation and measurement
Formulation tips
The formulation you use will depend on
 The qualities you want your final product to possess.
 Form of the soap-do you want a hard, soft or liquid soap
 Washing water quality-, do you want a soap that will work well in cold or hard water?
 Purposes- laundry or household
There is no lye left in the final soap provided it has been made correctly.
Formulation
Fat/oil –used as a base. Its quantity is determined depends on the amount of the final product needed.
Sodium hydroxide-
When making soap, it takes a defined quantity of sodium hydroxide to convert the fats into soap. Too
much sodium hydroxide will make your soaps harsh and sting your skin (or worse) when you wash
yourself. In contrast, too little sodium hydroxide makes your soaps oily and soft.
Calculating the amount of sodium hydroxide to use
‘SAP value’.
The SAP value of a fatty acid indicates how much Sodium hydroxide you will need, so that at least 95
per cent of the oils, butters and waxes are converted into soap.
Fat/ oil SAP value
Castor oil 0.127
Lard 0.138
Olive oil 0.135
Palm oil 0.141
Sunflower oil 0.134
For example, it is supposed to use of 500g palm oil in our formulation for bar soap. By considering the
amount of oil prepared, we need to calculate the amount of sodium hydroxide needed. To do that the
SAP value of the palm oil is required. The SAP value for each oil represents the amount of sodium
hydroxide you will require per gram of ingredient in order to convert that particular ingredient into
soap.
Therefore, we can read the SAP value of palm oil from the table provided above as 0.141. In order to
obtain how much sodium hydroxide is needed to convert the 500 g palm oil into soap multiply 0.141 by
500 (grams)
Calculating how much water to use in your soap
The rule of thumb that we prefer to use is that the weight of the water should be 37.5 per cent of the
total weight of your oils. My oils weigh 500 g in total so we need to work out 37.5 per cent of 500 g.
Safety advice for handling lye
Sodium and potassium hydroxides are corrosive and potentially dangerous if not handled correctly.
Whilst this may put many potential soap makers off, the process of making soap need not be dangerous
if appropriate care is taken.
Handling the sodium and potassium hydroxides
 On no account should you touch the sodium hydroxide grains or potassium hydroxide flakes
with your bare hands.
 Always wear safety gloves when handling these ingredients.
 When mixing the sodium or potassium hydroxide and water to create your lye solution, you will
find that the temperature of the solution increases as you stir.
 As it heats up, it will reach a temperature that causes it to evaporate as a steam and create
airborne fumes. These fumes are unpleasant to breathe, so creating your lye solution should
always be done in a well-ventilated room – make sure that the fumes are being blown away
from rather than towards you.
How to treat lye splashes
If you accidentally splash lye solution on yourself, rinse the affected skin under cold running water for
at least 10 minutes. If your skin feels tingly, stings, burns, has blisters or concerns you in any way, seek
prompt medical advice.
Safety equipment required when mixing sodium or potassium lye
 It is essential that you wear protective gloves when handling lye.
 Household rubber gloves will suffice, but if you prefer something thinner and yet still as
protective, nitrile gloves can be worn. Nitrile gloves are more resistant to chemical splashes
than rubber gloves.
 Make sure that your arms are covered when dealing with lye.
 As a sensible precaution, wear shoes, not sandals to prevent any splashes landing on your bare
feet.
 Since the lye may splash, we strongly advise that you wear a pair of safety glasses. These are
designed so that you can wear them over your normal spectacles, if necessary.
 To prevent the lye splashing on your clothing, wear a protective apron.
 If you feel that, the fumes may be unpleasant for you, wear a protective mask to prevent
breathing them in and make sure that you always work in a well-ventilated room.
 Always wear protective gloves when handling the lye ingredients
Cleaning spilled sodium or potassium hydroxide
 If you spill sodium or potassium hydroxide granules or flakes, use an ash pan and brush to
sweep up the spillage, (be sure to wear safety gloves).
 Dispose of minor spillages in the sink and run cold water to dilute the hydroxide and flush it
away. A regular plastic dustpan can also be fine, as it will only melt if the solution is wet, in
which case wipe up with disposable cloths while wearing safety gloves.
 Do remember that sodium hydroxide is sold as a drain cleaner, so disposing of it via the sink
and the drain needn’t be as harmful to the environment as you may think.
 If you have spilt the caustic lye solution, use thick kitchen paper towels to soak up the solution.
Be sure to wear rubber gloves so that your hands do not come into direct contact with the
solution. Place the paper towels in a polythene bag, tie the bag and then double bag it by placing
in yet another bag before putting it in the bin.
 Spray the area where the lye solution was spilled with vinegar as the acidic content helps to
neutralize the alkaline in the lye. Leave for five minutes then wash the area with warm soapy
water until you are sure there is no lye residue remaining.
Make sure you have all the materials and equipment assembled, and ready to go, before beginning the
soap-making process.
When you are finished making your soap, be sure to clean your materials and work area thoroughly.

Materials and Equipment

The equipment must be made from plastic or stainless steel. The following table shows equipment
required for production of each type of soap or detergent.
Do not use any equipment made of copper, aluminum, cast iron, or zinc – the lye mixture will react
with them.
 Stainless steel mixing tanks
 Plastic pitchers, for lye
 Plastic jugs
 Large heat-resistant container, to mix the lye and water. This container should be clearly labeled
and utilized only when making soap.
 Miscellaneous bowls
 Thermometers
 Soap molds
 Digital weighing scale
Digital weighing scale
Measurement tips
Digital scale: it is essential for accurate measuring of your ingredients. Never guess the weight as the
recipe can go wrong and the soap can be potentially dangerous if the measurements are not precise.
Whatever formulation use make sure that you measure the raw materials in correct proportions, and add
them at the proper times.
Use weight measurements: - it is generally best to weigh using a weighing scale, instead of measuring
them with measuring spoons or cups, because different materials have different densities, and volume
measurements can be inaccurate.
Molds
Once the soap paste is produced, it will need to be poured into your chosen molds. Some molds may
require lining to make it easier to remove the finished soap, in which case you may need pegs or tape to
hold the liner in place.
The mold may be large and in such cases, the soap will need to be cut into smaller bars or may use
individual molds.
The mold to be use can be a purpose-made soap or a household item, it may allow flexibility in shapes
and sizes of the soap.
There are a range of soap molds available in the market but before you spend your money, think about
what size and shape of soap bar you wish to make and look the possibilities to use household items.
Lining the mold will make easy to remove the soap but, depending on the type of mold liner you use, it
may not produce soap with super-smooth sides. Molds can be lined with parchment paper, greaseproof
(baking) paper, freezer paper, waxed paper, cling film (also known as saran or plastic wrap) or
polythene.
Production method
We got an idea on raw materials and what molds we are going to use, then now we need to discover the
soap production method. There are two major methods for the production of bars of soap and there are
advantages and disadvantages to each.
1. Cold process
Although this is called ‘cold’ process, there may be some requirement for heat. The heat is needed to
melt any solid fats, such as shea butter, palm oil and beeswax, before they can be combined with the
sodium hydroxide and water solution (lye). The lye solution itself will be hot, since it is exothermic and
heats spontaneously.
Whilst this might be a quick method of making soap, the soap then needs to rest for up to four weeks
before it can be used. Although safe to use as early as two weeks, it will be on the soft side and more
prone to going squishy when used.
Cold process method, is favored most commonly by those who make soap by hand. It takes longer time
than other methods, but it allow a complete control over the quality of the ingredients that go into your
soap, and it is easier for beginners than the warm- or hot-process methods.
The cold-process method is so named because after the lye, water and fat are mixed, no additional heat
is added to the batter.
 2. Hot process
The hot process soap making method requires heating the cold process soap mixture in a pan over heat
until the soap is cooked. This is more time consuming but the soap is ready to use as soon as it has
hardened up (usually two or three days after the date of manufacture).

Production of soap using the cold process method

The steps to follow for the production of bar soap using cold process is outlined below

Step 1
Get all your equipment, ingredients, safety wear ready. Line your mold if necessary and place to one
side.

Step 2
Lye Mixture Preparation
Weigh out the water required for the lye solution and place to one side whilst you weigh your NaOH
Weigh NaOH, making sure that you adhere to all the safety instructions given about handling NaOH
Carefully tip the sodium hydroxide into the water and stir until it completely dissolved.

Step 3
Prepare the fat
Weigh the oils, butters and waxes and transfer to a pan. Place on the heat until all melted.

Step 4
Mix the lye with the oil
Wearing your safety goggles and gloves and paying careful attention to the safe handling of the lye,
pour a very small amount of lye into the melted oils.

Step 5
Mixing
Process conditions
Step 1: Get all your equipment, ingredients, and safety wear ready. Line your mold if necessary and
place to one side.
 Don protective equipment
For making soap, it is a good idea to wear a long-sleeved shirt, long pants, goggles, an apron, shoes,
and gloves. Lye will irritate and burn skin and the oils will ruin clothing and make your skin feel
greasy; also, if you are using additives, certain essential oils can irritate your skin in large quantities.
 Prepare molds
Determine which molds you want to use; almost anything can be utilized as a mold, and the soap you
make can look as plain or as decorated as the mold you use.
Candy or gelatin molds will make intricately designed soaps, but even a cardboard tube or PVC pipe
will suffice (the soap can be removed in a cylinder and sliced into bars). Cardboard milk and juice
containers are great for making plain, square soap, because they are coated with wax, and the solidified
soap can be easily removed. If you want to use an untreated cardboard or wooden box, the soap can be
cut into squares when it is removed. Line the mold with wax paper, so that the soap can be easily
removed after it has set. (If you are using a non-porous material, such as glass or plastic, you may be
able to simply grease the mold with cooking spray, and avoid the lining procedure, if you like.) Make
sure that you have enough molds prepared to accommodate all of the soap mix – you do not want to be
scavenging for more molds while the soap is beginning to set in the kettle.
Step 2: Lye mixture preparation
Raw materials measurement
Water:
 Weigh the cold water using a jug, which is big enough to hold at least twice the amount of water
needed, placed on the digital scale
 Place the jug to one side-to remove accidental contact with the hydroxide.
 Do not forget to make “zero” the scale – measure the container’s weight first, and then set that
weight as zero.
Sodium hydroxide:
Weigh NaOH, making sure that you adhere to all the safety instructions given about handling NaOH
In the cold-process method, measurements must be exact in order to ensure full neutralization of the lye
and fats. This step is vitally important. Incorrect measurements will result in excess lye, which can
cause burning and irritation of the skin, or excess fats, which will leave skin feeling greasy. Often, soap
makers will use a formulation that allows for some excess fat, but that depends on the preferences of
the soap-maker, and the type of skin for which the soap is intended.
Weigh the hydroxide(s) into a clean, dry bowl. The bowl can be made of glass or plastic (See the
calculation to determine the amount of the hydroxide needed)
Lye mixture
Before you make up the lye solution re-read the safety precautions and handling advice on the side of
the container.
 Ensure you are wearing the correct protective clothing, such as safety glasses, gloves, an apron
and a protective mask (optional).
Carefully tip the sodium hydroxide into the water and stir until it completely dissolved.
 Use a stainless steel, long-handled mixer to stir the mixture to avoid your hands getting too near
the mixture.
 Add the measured sodium or potassium hydroxides to the water and stir gently to encourage the
hydroxide to dissolve.
Keep stirring the lye mixture until you can no longer feel any undissolved particles of sodium or
potassium hydroxide. This should take less than two minutes.
Set the lye solution aside somewhere whilst you get on with preparing your other soap making
ingredients. Please make sure that whilst it is cooling, you leave it somewhere safely out of the reach of
children and pets.
Always add the lye to the water, never the other way around. Never add the water to the hydroxide,
always add the hydroxide to the water to start as a much-diluted mixture that gets stronger.
 Adding the water to the hydroxide would start with a very strong mixture that is diluted – the
first few droplets of water would make this too strong for regular handling.
 If water is poured onto lye, it will form a crust on the surface; the lye underneath will continue
to react as more water is added, and eventually, so much pressure will build up that the lye
underneath will erupt through the crust, spraying lye powder, hot steam, and fumes everywhere.
 As the hydroxide is added to the water, the water will become very hot; it creates an exothermic
reaction, meaning that the chemical reaction between lye and water releases a lot of heat during
the process.
Use a thermometer to monitor the temperature of the solution while mixing; it should not exceed 80°C.
If the mixture gets any hotter, it may begin to boil over. If the lye mixture is getting too hot, try
submerging the container in a larger container of ice water.
As a preventative measure, if you are going to be mixing a large quantity of lye, use refrigerated or ice
water to mix the lye solution. Continue stirring until the mixture is clear, and all of the lye has been
completely dissolved.
Once all of the lye has been dissolved in the water, allow the water to sit and cool until it is 38-43°C.
Step 3: prepare the fats (heat the fats)
Heat the oils, butters and waxes until all melted
 As the lye mixture is cooling, the fats must be heated. Be very careful while heating the oils;
each oil has a flash point – a temperature at which it will ignite – and some are lower than
others, so the oils must be heated very gently.
 Use a stainless- steel pot on low-heat, and stir often. Heat the oils and test with a thermometer
each time. If the fats used are liquid, then they must be heated to approximately 38-43°C, to
match the temperature of the lye mixture.
 If the fats are saturated enough they will be solid at room temperature, so they will have to be
melted; this will most likely mean heating the fats past 43°C, then allowing them to cool to the
proper temperature.
  Regardless of which method you use to heat the oils, check the lye mixture’s temperature as you
go; this way you can determine whether the fats need to be heated more, to match the lye
mixture.
 When measuring the temperature of the mixtures, be sure to keep the thermometer floating
somewhere in the middle of the mixture; if the thermometer is placed on the bottom of the
container, it will give you an inaccurate reading.
Step 4: Mix the fat and lye
Once both the fat and lye mixtures are at 38-43°C, they can be combined. Pour the lye mixture into the
fat, slowly and steadily, stirring it in small, rapid circles as you pour.
Step 5: Mixing
 After the raw materials are combined, they must be mixed. If mixing by hand, the mixture must
be mixed for 5 minutes, and then allowed to set for 15. This pattern is repeated for up to 3
hours; the amount of stirring required will vary based upon the formulation.
 A stick blender is more convenient, and speeds up the process substantially; the mixture will
only need to be blended for about 30 minutes, instead of being stirred for 3 hours.
 Use caution with a stick blender, however. If the mixture is stirred too long, it may have air
bubbles in it. In addition, the stick blender stirs the mixture so quickly that by the time the
mixture is fully stirred, it is still raw, and may not have reached trace yet. If that happens, stir
occasionally, by hand, until it starts to trace.
Trace stage
Trace is when the soap mixture looks rather like a pancake batter or custard. When you drizzle a little
of the soap batter back into the mixture it will briefly sit on the surface before sinking into the rest of
the batter or when you can see a shape left by the blender when you lift it out. Light trace is when your
batter is still runny, medium trace is slightly thicker soap batter and heavy trace is very thick soap
mixture that will dollop rather than pour smoothly when you tip it out.
Trace refers to the viscosity of the mixture as it is mixed; the term “trace” originated from a method of
testing the soap mixture.
Take a spoonful and drizzle it across the top of the mixture; if it remains visible, or leaves a trace, for a
few seconds before blending back into the mix, then the mixture has begun to trace.
Light trace refers to mixture that has just begun to thicken, whereas medium trace and heavy trace refer
to a mixture that is thicker and more difficult to stir.
Some formulations will take longer to trace than others; humidity and temperature also affect tracing
times. If the mixture does not trace as quickly as it should, don’t worry; keep stirring, and it will
eventually.
Step 6: adding minor ingredients (colorant, perfume and preservatives)
Most additives, such as superfatting oils, herbs or colorants, will be added at the trace stage; once the
soap mixture has reached this stage, the lye and fats are about 80-90% saponified, meaning that
anything added to the mixture will not be significantly affected by the saponification process.
Depending on the ingredients, they may be added at light, medium, or heavy trace.
Measure out the essential oils, colorants, or any other additives you plan to use in a separate bowl.
Mix a spoonful of the soap mixture with the additives.
When it is well-blended, add it to the soap mix, stirring slowly and steadily as you pour.

Step 7: Molding
 Pour into molds
At the end of the trace stage, the soap mixture is poured into the molds, and allowed to set for 18-48
hours; saponification takes place during this period.
If the soap becomes too solid to stir, or pour easily, it has reached the point of seize; saponification has
progressed so far that the soap has begun to solidify. The soap must be poured into the molds before it
reaches this stage; if you notice the soap getting increasingly hard to stir, it must be poured into the
molds as quickly as possible.
 Insulate the molds, and allow setting
The molds should be wrapped in towels or blankets, to retain as much of the mixture’s heat as possible.
If the soap turns transparent during the molding stage, it means that the soap mixture has overheated in
the mold. If this happens, unwrap the molds, and put them some place a bit cooler. The soap should
return to its normal opacity.
The soap may have lost its scent, due to the essential oils or other additives having been “cooked” by
the soap’s high temperature; it may also have a hard rind, but this should only be noticeable if the soap
is cut. Other than these flaws, the soap is still perfectly usable.
If you notice your soap developing a light coating of white powder while in the mold, it means that the
soap is reacting with the air. To avoid this problem, seal the soap while it is in the mold. The white
powder will be highly acidic, and irritating to the skin, so it must be rinsed or trimmed from the soap. If
the mold is airtight, this problem should not occur; however, monitor the soap closely, as sealing it off
from the air may also cause it to overheat.
After being poured into the mold, the soap should turn slightly darker in the middle, continue to get
hotter, and have some bubbles rising to the surface. This is an indication that proper saponification is
taking place. Once the neutralization process begins to slow, the soap should return to a normal,
uniform color. If the soap is poured into, a mold that is too small, or is not insulated properly (or if it
cooled too much during tracing) you may not see these signs of neutralization taking place, and caution
should be used with the soap, as it may be greasy, or have an excess of lye.
If you notice, within the first 24 hours of the molding stage, that the mold is no longer warm to the
touch, or the soap fails to harden, there may be a problem with the mixture. If your measurements were
off, then the saponification process may have failed. If you are sure that the measurements were correct,
then pour the soap into a pot and heat it on the stove, until it reaches approximately 130°F. Then pour it
back into the molds. If the soap still does not solidify normally, then you may have to discard the batch.
 Remove the soap from the molds
Once the one- to two-day molding process is completed, the soap is firm enough to be removed from
the mold and cut. Be sure to use gloves when you remove the soap from the mold, because the lye may
still burn your skin. If you lined the mold with cellophane or wax paper, it should be easy to get the
soap to release; if not, try putting the mold in the freezer for a while. The cold will cause the soap to
contract, and it can be removed much more easily, but if you used colorant in the soap, it may fade a
bit.
Step 8: Curing the soap
After they are removed from the mold, the bars should be placed on wax paper, and left in a cool, dry
place for 2 to 6 weeks, to cure and harden. The actual curing time required will depend upon the recipe,
because the initial water content of the mixture will vary depending upon the ingredients used.
Step 9: packing and Storing
If your soap is satisfactory, and you want to keep it, be sure to store it in a cool, dry place, out of direct
sunlight. Label each bar clearly with the batch code, so that you will be able to quickly reference what
is in each bar, when it was made, etc. Your memory is good now, but after a few months go by, and
you have made several batches, it may become difficult to distinguish one bar from another.
Bar Soap Production Practical
Formulation 1:
Raw materials
 Palm oil
 Caustic soda
 Water
 Colorant perfume
Quantity
 Oil -1000g
 Water-375
 NaOH-141
 Colorant and perfume
Method
 Use the cold process method
Procedure
Mix the lye and water, and set aside. Heat the palm oil to approximately 43°C. When both mixtures are
at the proper temperature, mix them together. It should take about 25 minutes for the mixture to trace.
When it does, pour it into the molds, and allow it to set for 24 hours. After removing it from the molds,
allow it to cure for approximately 4 weeks before packaging/using the bars.
Product evaluation
 Texture
 Color
 Fragrance
 Alkalinity
NOTE: Lye Preparation
Preparing [water + caustic soda] solution
Lye Compound=Volume of Caustic Soda+2∗Vol. of Caustic Soda∈Vol. of Water
For example: for 70g of caustic soda, the amount of water = 2*70g = 140g
140g of water is used to dissolve 70g caustic soda
The remaining ie 190 – 140 = 50g, amount of water will be added with other ingredients.
Lay compound = 70g + 2*70g = 210g
Formulation 2:
Bar soap raw materials and measurements
Raw material Unit Target product volume %

1 Fat/oil g 1000 500 250 100

2 Dolomite g 200 100 50 20
3 Sodium Silicate g 150 75 37.5 15
4 Caustic soda g 140 70 35 14
5 LABSA g 20 10 5 2
6 Colorant g 5 2.5 1.25 0.5
7 Perfume g 10 5 2.5 1
8 Water g 380 190 95 38
Total g 1905 952.5 476.25
Method
 Use cold process method
Procedure
1. Prepare a tank that can hold your final product volume or greater
 2. Add oil according to the formulation and heat the oil to a temperature of 38-50oC
3. Pour lye water into oil and mix
4. Prepare mixture of [water + silicate + dolomite + LABSA + color + perfume] and
5. Add and mix until it becomes thick and light
6. Add to mold
7. Dry, pack and store

Product evaluation
 Texture
 Color
 Fragrance
 Alkalinity
Detergent Production process
Introduction
What is detergent?
A detergent is a surfactant or a mixture of surfactants with cleansing properties in dilute solutions.
These substances are usually alkylbenzene sulfonates, a family of compounds that are similar to soap
but are more soluble in hard water, because the polar sulfonate (of detergents) is less likely than the
polar carboxylate (of soap) to bind to calcium and other ions found in hard water.
In domestic contexts, the term detergent by itself refers specifically to laundry detergent or dish
detergent, as opposed to hand soap or other types of cleaning agents. Detergents are commonly
available as powders or concentrated solutions. Detergents, like soaps, work because they are
amphiphilic: partly hydrophilic (polar) and partly hydrophobic (non-polar). Their dual nature facilitates
the mixture of hydrophobic compounds (like oil and grease) with water. Because air is not hydrophilic,
detergents are also foaming agents to varying degrees.
Classification of detergent
Depending on surfactants ionic properties in the water detergents usually divided into four major
classes:
1. Anionic detergents
As the name implies, the hydrophilic component of anionic surfactants comprises an anionic group,
typically a sulfate, sulfonate, or carboxylate moiety.
Commonly used washing detergents, shampoo and utensil washers are grouped with this type. When
they dispossessed in the water to become negatively charged anions are looking for a positive for the
adherence of dirt, and have excellent cleaning standards, with high foam. The following are surfactants
which has anionic properties. Sulphonic acids salts: It is the most important and best known substance
called Dodosel benzene sulphone (Alky Aryl Sulphone) attending of petroleum derivatives.
Sulfate salts of Fatty alcohols and fatty ethers, such as composite sodium lauryl sulfate and composite
sodium lauryl ether sulfate
2. Detergents cationic
Likewise, the cationic surfactants comprise molecules containing a positively charged group such as a
quaternary amine.
This type is characterized
 ○ For its antiseptic and disinfectant effects and used in hospitals for handwash before and
after surgical operations.
○ Can enhance final products. May improve textile texture, hair and fiber.
3. Detergents Amphoteric
They consist both negative and positive charges so they have characteristics of cationic and anionic
detergents. The amphoteric surfactants are perhaps the most unique in that they comprise a hydrophilic
group containing both anionic and cationic character such as the amino acids.
4. Non ionic detergents
The organic compounds with high energy although it is limited to just the foam, which is not
dispossessed in the water, and therefore have no electric charge, the harshness of water does not affect
them negatively, and removes dirt, oil and paraffin well.
The nonionic surfactants have a hydrophilic component that is not ionized. Typical nonionic groups
consist of polyoxyethylene, polyoxypropylene, alkanolamides, or sugar esters.
Types of detergent
By far the most common and familiar detergents are those used in household cleaning and personal
care. These products can be grouped into four general categories:
1. Laundry detergents and laundry aids. These comprise mainframe laundry detergents in powder,
liquid, tablet, gel, and bar form, fabric conditioner products typically in liquid or sheet form,
and an array of specialty products like pretreaters (as sticks, gels, sprays, bars), presoaks
(liquids, powders), and bleaches (liquids, powders). Typical laundry detergents are formulated
to provide general cleaning, which includes removal of soils and stains as well as the ability to
maintain whiteness and brightness. In addition, many premium laundry detergents offer
additional benefits like fabric softening, dye lock, fiber protection, and disinfectancy.
2. Dishwashing products. These include detergents for hand and machine dishwashing and are
typically provided in liquid, gel, powder, or tablet form. Hand dish wash products are
formulated to remove and suspend food soils from a variety of surfaces. They also must deliver
long-lasting suds, even at high soil loads, and they must be mild to skin. Products designed for
automatic dishwashing must provide soil removal and suspension, control of water hardness and
sheeting of water off dish surfaces in order to achieve a spot- and film-free finish, and produce
little or no suds that would otherwise interfere with the operation of the machine. Rinse aids are
specialty detergent formulations for automatic dishwashing designed to promote drainage of
 water from surfaces via lowering of surface tension. This helps minimize spotting and filming
during drying.
3. Household cleaning products. Because no single product can provide the range of cleaning
required on the various surfaces found in the home a broad range of household cleaning
products are currently marketed. These are typically formulated either in liquid or powder form
although gel, solid, sheet, and pad products are also available. So-called “all-purpose” cleaners
are designed to penetrate and loosen soil, control water hardness, and prevent soil from
redepositing onto clean surfaces. Many of these products also contain low levels of antibacterial
actives like Triclosan to sustain disinfectancy claims. Powdered abrasive cleaners remove heavy
accumulations of soil via the use of mineral or metallic abrasive particles. Some of these
products may also bleach and disinfect through the incorporation of a bleach precursor like
sodium perborate, sodium percabonate, or sodium dichloroisocyanurate.
4. Personal cleansing products. These include products for hand and body washing as well as
shampoos, conditioners, and toothpastes. They are marketed primarily in bar, gel, and liquid
forms. A major consideration in formulation of such products is the desired consumer aesthetic
such as lather, skin feel, rinsability, smell, and taste. Formulations designed for cleaning may
also provide moisturizing benefits, disinfectancy, conditioning, and styling effects. Within each
of these categories, products are formulated with specific ingredients selected based on their
ability to perform the desired function and deliver “consumer preferred” aesthetics while
meeting specific cost constraints, environmental regulations, and human safety guidelines.
Soap vs Detergent
Soaps and detergents are widely used as cleaning agents. Chemically soaps and detergents are quite
different from each other. The common feature of soaps and detergents is that when dissolved in water
the molecules of soap and detergent tend to concentrate at the surface of the solution or at interface.
Therefore, the surface tension of the solution is reduced, it causes foaming of the solution.
Soaps and detergents lower the surface tension of the solution. Such substances are called surface-
active agents or surfactants.
To sum up, soaps and detergents:
1. Are surfactants, used as cleansing agents
2. cause foaming of the solution
3. molecules tend to concentrate near the surface of the solution
 4. are the surface active agents (lower surface tension)
5. can emulsify grease
Soaps
Soaps are the sodium or potassium salts of long chain fatty acids. These fatty acids are present in oils
and fats in the form of glycerides. The glycerides present in oils and fats are the esters of glycerol and
long chain carboxylic acids for example palmitic acid and stearic acid.
Saponification
Saponification is the process of making soap. Saponification is done by hydrolysis of oils or fats (of
vegetable or animal origin) with the help of alkali like sodium hydroxide (NaOH) or potassium
hydroxide (KOH)
Synthetic Detergents
Synthetic detergents are used as cleaning agents much like soaps. Chemically, detergents are sodium
salts of long-chain alkyl hydrogen sulphate or sodium salts of long-chain alkyl benzene sulphonic
acids. (Remember that soap is a sodium or potassium salt of long-chain fatty acid.)
Detergent molecules are similar to that of soap molecules that is they have an oil-soluble (lipophilic)
long chain of carbon atoms and a polar (hydrophilic) water-soluble part. For example, sodium lauryl
sulphate (C12H25–O – SO3Na) has a 12-carbon atom hydrocarbon like alkyl chain. The long carbon
chain is oil-soluble (lipohilic) part and the sulphate is polar (hydrophilic) part that makes the molecule
water-soluble. The water-soluble part is referred to as water-soluble head and the long chain of carbon
atoms is referred to as oil-soluble tail.
Advantages and Disadvantages of Synthetic Detergents
The synthetic detergents are better than soaps in certain respects. Synthetic detergents can be used for
washing of clothes even if the water is hard. Calcium and magnesium ions present in hard water make
corresponding salts with detergent molecules. The calcium and magnesium salts of detergent molecules
are soluble in water (unlike that formed by soap molecules). However, detergent containing branched
alkyl benzene sulphonate is not completely biodegradable. Soap is completely biodegradable.
Therefore, excessive use of synthetic detergents is a cause of worry. The problem has been partly
solved by using linear alkyl benzene sulphonate, which has better bio-degradability then the branched
alkyl benzene sulphonate
Cleaning mechanism
Generally, the term “detergents” is applied to materials and/or products that provide the following
functions:
1. Promote removal of material from a surface, e.g., soil from a fabric, food from a dish, or soap
scum from a hard surface;
2. Disperse and stabilize materials in a bulk matrix, e.g., suspension of oil droplets in a mobile
phase like water.
The ability of a detergent to perform either of these functions depends on the composition of the
formulation, the conditions of use, the nature of the surfaces being treated, the nature of the substance
to be removed and/or dispersed, and the nature of the bulk phase. Accordingly, detergent formulation is
a complex process driven by the specific needs of the end user, economics, environmental
considerations, and the availability of specific “actives” that can provide the required functionality.
Detergent performance
Cleaning in aqueous wash liquor is a complex process involving the cooperative interaction of
numerous physical and chemical influences. In the broadest sense, washing can be defined as both the
removal by water or aqueous surfactant solution of poorly soluble matter and the dissolution of water-
soluble impurities from textile surfaces.
A fundamental distinction exists between the primary step, in which soil is removed from a substrate,
and secondary stabilization in the wash liquor of dispersed or molecularly dissolved soil. Stabilization
is necessary to prevent redeposition onto the fibers of soil that has already been removed.
Cleaning Performance Factors
Cleaning performance is highly sensitive to the following factors
1. Water quality
2. Soil type
3. Detergent composition
1. Influence of the Water quality
Water as a solvent:
The most obvious role of water is to serve as a solvent, both for the detergent and for soluble salts
within the soil. Water is also the transport medium for dispersed and colloidal soil components,
however. The cleaning process begins with wetting and penetration of the soiled laundry by the
detergent solution. Water has a very high surface tension (72 mN/m), and wetting can only take place
rapidly and effectively if the surface tension is drastically reduced by surfactants to values of 30 mN/m
and below. The surfactants thus become key components of any detergent. [3].
Water hardness
Water hardness has also a significant influence on the results of the cleaning process. Water hardness is
defined in terms of the amount of calcium and magnesium salts present, measured in millimoles per
liter (mmol/L). A calcium hardness of 1 mmol/L corresponds to 40.08 mg of calcium ions per liter of
water.
Water of poor quality can severely impair the cleaning process. The calcium and magnesium ions,
which are responsible for water hardness, are prone to precipitate, either in the form of carbonates or as
insoluble compounds derived from ingredients present in detergents. These precipitates may cause the
formation of residues on the laundry. A high calcium content in the water also impedes the removal of
particulate soil.
2. Soil Type
The soil can be categorized as table 1
Table 1: Soil types
No Type Examples
.
1 Water-soluble materials inorganic salts
sugar
urea
2 Particles metal oxides
carbonates
silicates
3 Fats and oils animal and vegetable fat and oil
mineral oil and grease
wax
4 Proteins Proteins from blood
egg and milk
keratin from skin
 5 Carbohydrates Starch
6 Bleachable dyes fruit/fruit juices
vegetables
coffee and tea
3. Detergent Components
Detergents use are complex formulations containing up to more than 25 different ingredients. The
essential components of liquid detergent are:
1. Surfactants
2. Alkalis
3. Builders
4. Fillers,
5. Solvents
6. Other minor agents
 Colorant and perfume
Each individual component of a detergent has its own very specific functions in the cleaning process.
To some extent, they have synergistic effects on one another. In addition to the above ingredients,
certain additives are made necessary for production reasons, whereas other materials may be added to
improve product appearance.
Surfactants
The term surfactant stands for Surface Active Agents. Surfactants are the most common ingredient of
the detergent formulations. Their primary function is to modify the interface between two or more
phases in order to promote the dispersion of one phase into another. In cleaning formulations, for
example, surfactants serve to wet surfaces and reduce the interfacial tension between soil and water
such that the soil is removed from the surface to be cleaned and dispersed in the aqueous phase. The
ability of surfactants to concentrate at interfaces derives from their amphiphilic character—the
combination of hydrophilic and hydrophobic moieties within the same molecule.
Generally, surfactants are water-soluble surface-active agents comprised of a hydrophobic portion
(usually a long alkyl chain) attached to hydrophilic or solubility-enhancing functional groups.
Due to this structure, surfactants in solution will migrate to phase boundaries, for example, oil-water,
oil-solid, water-air, where they have very significant effects.
Wetting action of surfactant
Actions of Surfactant
It has the following actions
1. Wetting
2. Emulsification
3. Foaming
4. Dispersion

Wetting
At water / air surfaces, the alignment of surfactants with their oil-loving tails out of the water surface
breaks down the
 “surface tension” of the water
  the “skin” on the surface of water that allows insects to walk on water and that pulls
water droplets into beads on oily surfaces.
The ability of surfactants to reduce the surface tension of water allows water droplets to spread and
“wet” oily surfaces, hence the other common name for surfactants – “wetting agents”.
Emulsification
When oil droplets are dispersed in water the oil quickly floats to the surface to form a continuous oil
film. The following will happen when surfactants are added to the water:
 The surfactants adsorb onto the surface of the oil droplets with their oil-loving tails in the oil
droplet with their water-loving heads extending into the water.
 This gives the surface of the oil droplets a water-loving “skin” which allows the droplets to
remain dispersed in the water.
This property of surfactants, to keep oil droplets dispersed, is called “emulsification”
The stable dispersion of oil droplets in the water is called an “emulsion” When oil droplets are
dispersed in a continuous water phase, the emulsion formed is called an “oil in water” emulsion.
Dispersions
A dispersant or a dispersing agent is a substance, typically a surfactant, that is added to a suspension of
solid or liquid particles in a liquid (such as a colloid or emulsion) to improve the separation of the
particles and to prevent their settling or clumping.
It is used to bring oily contamination into water suspension, and of emulsifier, used to create
homogeneous mixtures of immiscible liquids like water and oil.
Foaming
A foaming agent is a material such as a surfactant or a blowing agent that facilitates the formation of
foam. A surfactant, when present in small amounts, reduces surface tension of a liquid (reduces the
work needed to create the foam) or increases its colloidal stability by inhibiting coalescence of bubbles.
Eg. Sodium lauryl ether sulfate (SLES), is a surfactant and it is an effective foaming agent.
A blowing agent is a gas that forms the gaseous part of the foam. Baking powder (Sodium bicarbonate,
NaHCO3) is an example of blowing agents.
Functions of Surfactants
The main functions of surfactants are
 Wetting and dispersion: Rapid wetting of the fabric
 Surfactants serve to wet surfaces and reduce the interfacial tension between soil and water such
that the soil is removed from the surface to be cleaned and dispersed in the aqueous phase.
 Emulsification
 Foaming /Defoaming
 Removal of particulate soil from the fabric, achieved by electrostatic repulsion
 Solubilization of oil, achieved by micellar action
 Suspension of soiling matter in the wash liquor
Builders
Detergents also consist compounds called builders. Builders are added in detergents to upgrade and
protect the cleaning efficiency of the surfactant(s). Builders have a number of functions including
softening, buffering, and solubilizing
 Builders soften water by deactivating hardness minerals (metal ions like calcium and magnesium).
They do this one of two ways:
1. Sequestration – holding metal ions in solution.
2. Precipitation – removing metal ions from solution as insoluble materials.
Sequestrants
It works by preferentially reacting with the problem metal ions to prevent their interaction with the
other chemicals. The main metal ions in the water are calcium and magnesium ions but can also contain
iron, manganese, copper, and minor levels of other metals ions. The water which contains such ions
called hard water. Common sequestrate example: SODIUM SILICATE
A detergent formulation to be used in hard water areas will require higher levels of sequestrants than a
similar detergent for use in soft waters. These higher levels are necessary to handle the higher levels of:
calcium and magnesium present in the water. Water hardness salts become less soluble as the alkalinity
level increases and start to precipitate at pH greater than 7.6 unless appropriate sequestrants are present
in solution to prevent this from occurring.
Metal ion control is a common need in many detergent formulations. For example, in aqueous cleaning
applications the presence of Ca2+ in the water can lead to the precipitation of anionic surfactant
reducing the effective concentration available for cleaning. Fatty acids can precipitate as calcium soaps
resulting in the formation of soap scum on hard surfaces, and many soils, especially inorganic clays,
will precipitate with calcium leading to redeposition of the soil onto the surface being cleaned.
 Builders, in addition to softening, provide a desirable level of alkalinity (increased pH), which aids
in cleaning.
In general detergents are formulated to be either: neutral or alkaline. Many soils will be acidic
therefore alkalinity in the detergent assists in their removal by neutralizing them to make soluble salts.
Functions of the alkalinity in the detergent include:
 saponifying fats and oils
 breaking down and solubilizing proteins
 neutralizing acids present in soils
 removal of acidic metal oxides from surfaces
 alkalinity also assists in wetting of surfaces and dispersing and suspending solid soils
Builders help emulsify oily and greasy soil by breaking it up into tiny globules. Many builders will
actually peptize or suspend loosened dirt and keep it from settling back on the cleaned surface.
Some of the commonly used builders -
Phosphates* - usually sodium tripolyphosphate (STPP) is used as builders. They combine with
hardness minerals to form a soluble complex which is removed with the wash water. They also
sequester dissolved iron and manganese which can interfere with detergency.
Sodium carbonate (soda ash) is used as a builder but can only soften water through precipitation.
Precipitated calcium and magnesium particles can build up on surfaces, especially clothing, and
therefore sodium carbonate is not used in laundry detergents.
Sodium silicate serves as a builder in some detergents when used in high concentrations. When used in
lower concentrations, it inhibits corrosion and adds crispness to detergent granules.
Alkalis
Alkalis are almost universally used in detergents for commercial laundries.
Alkalis provide and control the detergent for:
 An appropriate pH
 An appropriate alkalinity
Alkalinity in cleaning
In general, detergents are formulated to be either: neutral or alkaline.
Many soils will be acidic therefore, alkalinity in the detergent assists in their removal by neutralizing
them to make soluble salts. Alkalis are highly effective in improving wash performance. Their
functions include
  saponifying fats and oils
 breaking down and solubilizing proteins
 neutralizing acids present in soils
 removal of acidic metal oxides from surfaces
 alkalinity also assists in wetting of surfaces and dispersing and suspending solid soils
 Enhancement of soil removal, for example, with anionics
 Improving soil suspension and preventing re-depostion
 Optimizing bleach conditions
 Optimizing enzyme conditions
The key alkali for commercial laundry detergent products is Silicate.
 Sodium Metasilicate (pentahydrate or anhydrous) is used extensively for medium / heavy duty
detergent powders.
 The potassium analogue of sodium metasilicate is used for liquid systems.
 Sodium Carbonate is generally blended with silicates to provide an appropriate alkalinity and
operating pH of 10-11.
 Sodium Hydroxide is utilised in detergent powders used for extreme levels of soiling.
 Potassium and Sodium Hydroxide are widely used as the main alkali for liquid detergent
systems.
Fillers
Detergent fillers are the materials, which are added in detergents to alter their physical characteristics
and properties. The objective of adding fillers to detergents is to make detergents fluid or to turn the
fluidized detergents in powder form.
Generally, the fillers are bulk components in various detergents with their primary role to modify and
alter the physical properties of the material.
The other objective of detergent fillers is to adjust cost.
Solvents
When the word “solvent” is mentioned, most people immediately think of petroleum solvents like
paraffin and white spirit or chlorinated solvents like methylene chloride and trichloroethylene.
However, a solvent is simply a liquid that dissolves another substance. Using this general definition
water is the most common solvent used in cleaning.
The range of solvents that are employed in cleaning processes is extensive. Some of the many types
include hydrocarbons, chlorinated solvents, natural oils, alcohols, ketones, esters, ethers, glycols and
glycol ethers
Solvents – water makes up a large percentage of most liquid cleaner formulas. It is not uncommon for
water-based detergents to contain 50% water or more. Some ready-to-use formulations may contain as
much as 90% to 95% water.
Water can be considered an active ingredient that actually adds to the detergency of cleaners. Some of
its uses are-
 It acts as a solvent that breaks up soil particles after the surfactants reduce the surface tension
and allow the water to penetrate soil.
 It has capable of dissolving a variety of different substances
 It also aids in the suspension and anti-redeposition of soils.
Once the soil has been dissolved and emulsified away from the surface, we want to prevent it from
being redeposited. Water keeps the soil suspended away from the clean surface so that it can be carried
away easily during the rinsing process. It is clear that without water, our cleaning formulas would be
much less effective.
In addition to water, other chemical solvents are often added to cleaners to boost performance.
Compounds such as 2-Butoxyethanol (butyl), isopropyl alcohol (rubbing alcohol) and d-Limonene are
all considered solvents. Their main function is to liquefy grease and oils or dissolve solid soil into very
small particles so surfactants can more readily perform their function.
1. Alkali hydroxides (Sodium hydroxide).
2. Neutral inorganic salts (Sodium Chloride).
3. Colloidal additives (Carboxy methylcellulose (CMC)).
Preservatives
Colorant and perfume
Perfume: perfume intervention of various kinds in the composition of laundry detergent, it gives the
distinctive smell cleaner, and hide the washing water smells unpleasant, and give the lovely smell of
laundry last for a longer period.
Colorants are sometime used to give a product a color. This can make a product more appealing to a
shopper at the store.
Thickeners
Thickeners give soap the proper viscosity (thickness), making sure it can flow out of a bottle slowly
enough to avoid spills. Can you imagine trying to wash your hands with a soap that feels like water?
It would run right off of your skin!
Just a little bit of thickener can change the consistency of a cleaning solution.
How thick or thin a cleaning solution is can be controlled by using more or less thickener.
Other
Sealant of the oxidation and corrosion of metal parts for washing machines like aluminum. Sodium
silicate is added for such use.
Sealant to re - deposition of dirt on the clothes. For example Carboxy Methyl Cellulose (CMC), it is
dissolved and helps to keep the dirt in the water and fails to return to clothing .
Special material to remove dirt that are difficult to remove. Enzymes and yeasts that are used to remove
blood and protein albumin and other contaminants on clothing
Bleached optical materials: a complex agents that converts ultraviolet light to visible light is subject to
reflection, which increases the total amount of visible light reflected from the tissue, helps to show a
dull glitter of tighter, brighter whites. It is also the optical material bleached indigo blue, which absorbs
the yellow portion of the spectrum reflected from the tissue, invalidating yellowing, which sometimes
arise on the white fabric .
Foaming agents: Alkynol high fatty acid amide, in order to stabilize the foam and prevent the cleaner to
remove the fat so the skin remains soft smooth skin after washing or
bathing. The use of these compounds also increase the viscosity of liquid detergent.
Other useful materials : I often add some drugs and medical supplies, particularly to shampoo to make
the impact of therapeutic and medically as an addendum lanolin - wool fat - to lubricate the skin and
hair. In addition, Lecithin and some protein and some of the herbal extracts to nourish the hair bulbs.
Also add some medical supplies and disinfectant Kalfinol , sulfur , tar and other treatments for
scabies and some other skin diseases .
Anti-foam : which add a special liquid and powder washing mechanism and the foremost of which is
organic silicon oils.
Detergent Production Process
Liquid Detergent Production
The production process consists the transfer of liquid and solid ingredients, and mixing of these
ingredients as to create homogeneity. The main components are surfactants (to remove dirt and other
unwanted materials), builders (to treat the water to improve surfactant performance), and additives to
improve cleaning performance. Additives may include bleaches, bleach activators, antistatic agents,
fabric softeners, optical brighteners, antiredeposition agents, and fillers.

Figure: liquid detergent production process

Main production steps:
1. Prepare formulation
2. Making inputs ready (set-up)
3. Measurement according to the formulation
4. Mixing major raw materials
5. Quality control (Measuring and monitoring pH, thickness and other quality parameters)
6. Adding auxiliary raw materials like perfume and colorant
7. Packaging and storage
The production process consists neutralization of acid slurry. Known quantity of acid slurry such as
LABSA, is added to mixing tank and diluted with known quantity of water with continuous mixing.
A lye mixture, a solution of caustic soda, is prepared by dissolving measured quantity of caustic soda in
measured quantity of water. Then the acid slurry is neutralized by a slow addition of lye.
Other minor ingredients also added for different purposes and check for quality and the pH to
maintained at desired level. The small quantity of colorant and perfume are also added.
 1. Prepare formulation
Unifying formulation concepts
The key, unifying concept of all the different forms and formulations is that consumers expect their
laundry detergent to clean their clothes.
As such, the underlying chemistry of detergents is, not unexpectedly, quite similar. Most of detergents
their primary function is the same—clean clothes.
All detergents in one way or another need to:
 Hydrate the soil,
 Remove the soil from the fabric,
 Fragment the soil to aid suspension,
 Prevent the re-deposition of said soils,
 Bleach any residual soils to lessen their visual impact, and
 Provide any final modification to the fabric as desired (e.g., deposit perfume, brighteners, etc.).
The general approach to meeting these needs looks quite similar in all detergents.
In all cases, one or more surfactants provide the primary wetting and soil removal power (excluding
the very large impact of water via machine or hand agitation alone).
Surfactants provide the basis and bulwark of the cleaning power.
Builders of one sort or another are included to protect anionic surfactant from precipitation as calcium
salts, aid in removal of calcium sensitive soils like clay and particulate soils, and depending on the
builder, aid in peptization and suspension of soils.
The actual selection of surfactant(s) and builder and their relative ratios can vary widely however, the
level of cleaning and overall price desired largely determines the presence and level of additional
actives besides surfactant and builder.
In less expensive, more basic detergents, there may be nothing additional besides a buffer system to
maintain pH and some level of perfume.
In top-tier, flagship detergents, typically one or more enzymes, soil suspension polymers, and/or
bleaching agents are also added.
There are a number of variants of each available to the formulator. The exact choice and number is
often dictated by questions of availability of proprietary materials, mutual compatibility with other
actives present in the detergent, and the particular role the detergent is designed for.
Regardless of the form, for a detergent whose focus is primarily cleaning you can expect to see
surfactant and builder at the core, with one or more cleaning adjuncts added to boost the performance
further and some level of perfume. The exception to this is those detergents that are designed to deliver
a different primary benefit, plus a base level of cleaning.
In these cases, the formulator is often forced to make tradeoffs in absolute cleaning (either for cost or
chemical reasons) to facilitate delivering these benefits.
2. Make inputs ready
Raw material selection
The raw materials will be selected to work as the following functions
 Surfactant
 Builder
 Solvent
 Thickener
 Preservative
 Colorant and Fragrance
Material and Equipment
The equipment must be made from plastic or stainless steel. The following are the major materials and
equipment required for the production of detergent.
▪ Water heater
▪ Digital weighing balance
▪ Stainless or plastic buckets
▪ Stainless steel pot
▪ Mixer and wooden or plastic mixing stick
▪ Indicator (litmus paper) or pH meter
▪ Sealing gun
3. Measurement
 Weighing scale
Mass along with volume is the most common measurements during detergent production.
Measurement Unit Conversion
Mass kg 1000g
Volume L 1000ml
 4. Mixing major raw materials
5. Quality control (Measuring and monitoring pH, thickness and other quality parameters)
6. Adding auxiliary raw materials like perfume and colorant
7. Packaging and storage
Detergent Production method
1. Detergent Powder production process
Most widely used production methods are:
1. The spray-drying method
2. The mixing dry
Spray drying method
The spray-drying method is the most common method for the production of washing powder. It allows
flexibility in the formation of the particles, to produce homogenized, free flowing, easily melts and
dissolves in the water. The slurry preparation and spray drying are the major processing operations. The
slurry consists all the major components.
The major components of detergent are surfactants (to remove dirt and other unwanted materials),
builders (to treat the water to improve surfactant performance), and additives to improve cleaning
performance. Additives may include bleaches, bleach activators, antistatic agents, fabric softeners,
optical brighteners, antiredeposition agents, and fillers.
The formulation of slurry for detergent granules requires the intimate mixing of various liquid,
powdered, and granulated materials.
Operation
Detergent slurry is produced by blending liquid surfactant with powdered and liquid materials (builders
and other additives) in a closed mixing tank.
Premixing of various minor ingredients is performed in a variety of equipment prior to charging to the
final mixer.
During the mixing process it need to regulate the temperature and the proportion of water to give the
product mix feature proper treatment later.
The formulation is pumped into the relatively higher concentration to the top of spray-drying tower,
where the output mix in the form of spray nozzles accurate, and under high pressure, and fall sprays the
mixture through a rising stream of hot air as dry granules and fragile mutant of large size and density of
virtual few.
Dry granules fall to the bottom of the tower was passing on the sieve to secure access to a relatively
uniform size and cooled.
Then added to the material sensitive to heat and which cannot afford to heat spray - drying, such as
perfume, bleach and others.
Mixing dry
The method can be manual or mechanical. It is often used for the production of detergent powder. The
production of detergent powder, as the slurry us produced by mixing the dry ingredients, liquid
surfactant and other liquid materials (builders and other additives) in a closed mixing tank. Then drying
the mix in forced or open air-drying.
Detergent Production Practical
Liquid detergent raw materials and formulations
# Raw materials %

Unit
Target product volume

L 100 50 25 10 5 1 100
1 LBSA kg 14 7 3.5 1.4 0.7 0.14 14
2 SLES kg 6 3 1.5 0.6 0.3 0.06 6
3 Caustic soda kg 1.8 0.9 0.45 0.18 0.09 0.018 1.8
4 Soda Ash kg 0.2 0.1 0.05 0.02 0.01 0.002 0.2
5 (STPP) kg 0.25 0.125 0.0625 0.025 0.0125 0.0025 0.25
6 CAPB kg 1 0.5 0.25 0.1 0.05 0.01 1
7 Thickener kg 0.2 0.1 0.05 0.02 0.01 0.002 0.2
8 Preservative kg 0.2 0.1 0.05 0.02 0.01 0.002 0.2
9 Colorant kg 0.075 0.0375 0.0187 0.0075 0.0037 0.0007 0.075
5 5 5
10 Perfume kg 0.1 0.05 0.025 0.01 0.005 0.001 0.1
11 Salt kg 2 1 0.5 0.2 0.1 0.02 2
12 Water kg 78 39 19.5 7.8 3.9 0.78 78
Litter 101.6 50.8 25.4 10 5 1

PROCEDURES
Procedure 1
 1. First make ready 3 tanks and tag them as 1, 2 and 3
2. Dissolve the specified amount of salt
3. Add water in tank 1
4. Add the specified amount of LABSA and SLES in tank 1 and mix well
5. Add silicate and dissolved salt in tank 2 and mix well
6. Add tank 2 in tank 1 and mix well.
7. Measure and check the pH
8. Adjust the pH by adding dissolved sodium hydroxide, NaOH
9. Add the thickener in tank 3
10. Add a mixture of tank 1 and 2 on tank 3 and mix well
11. Check the pH and add the auxiliary raw materials preservative, colorant and perfumes
12. Pack and store
Pre-preparations:
Brine (salt solution)
Thickener (CMC)
Lye
Procedure 2

1. Prepare a tank that can hold your final product volume or greater
2. Add water according to the formulation
3. Add salt to water and stir adequately until all dissolved
4. Then add LABSA and SLES consecutively and mix well
5. Add sodium silicate and mix well and check pH.
6. Add caustic slowly to turn pH of the detergent to neutral
7. Add perfume and color and mix well
Packaging of soap and detergent products
Packaging is the final stage of the soap and detergents production process. The bar soaps may packed in
plastic wrap or cartoon in single packs or multipacks. If the soap is molded into bars (and especially if
you want to show off the color of the soap), you can wrap a square of paper or cardboard around the
soap, leaving a bit of soap exposed on either end; this will allow buyers to see the soap’s color and
texture. Detergents, including household cleaners, dishwashing cleansers and laundry cleansers are
packaged in, bottles, jaricans, plastic poly-packs etc.
Packaging benefits
Some benefits of packaging of soaps and detergents are
 Enhances the marketability of product
 Improves the appearance and attractiveness of product
 Increases the shelf appeal of product
 Increases the shelf life of product
 Reduces the waste during usage
 Makes the product easy and convenient to use
 The product can be packed in different sizes to meet the varying demands of consumers
Packaging considerations
Packaging material selection may depends on the following factors
 Material compatibility and stability
 The cost
 Package safety
 Shelf appeal
 Ease of use
 Meet the regulation
 Recyclability, reusability and biodegradability
Packaging options
Packaging materials that are easy and convenient to use, and that can maximize the performance of
product can be packaging options for the soap and detergent. Some packaging options:
 Plastic bottles - Generally liquid detergents specialty spray cleansers are packaged in plastic
bottles to make their usage convenient and effective.
  Paper wrap - Soap bars are generally wrapped or cartooned in single packs or multi packs for
the convenience of users.
 Cartoons - Soaps and detergents are offered in cartoons for bulk supply.
 Poly packs - Soaps and detergents are offered in poly packs of different sizes to meet the
varying demands of consumers.
Packaging components
Bar soap
 Wrapping material or cartoon
 Labeling or printing
Liquid Detergent
 Packaging material
 Labeling
 Cap
 Inner fit
 Shrink film cover
The label on the package is provided with information regarding the soap and detergents ingredients
used. The package labels now days are generally accompanied by detailed instructions for proper use to
maximize the performance and minimize wastage.
Packaging process
Bar soap packing process steps
1. Wrapping
2. Sealing
3. Stamping
4. Bulk packing
Liquid detergent packing process steps
1. Filling /filler
2. Capping
3. Sealing
4. Labeling
5. Bulk packing
Marketing and cost analysis
Marketing
To sell the product marketing is needed
The marketing activities consists
 Finished goods beginning inventory
 Cost of goods produced
 Finished goods ending inventory
 Cost of goods sold
Marketing concept
Product Life Cycle
The product life cycle is an important concept in marketing. It describes the stages a product goes
through from when it was first thought of until it finally is removed from the market. Not all products
reach this final stage. Some continue to grow and others rise and fall.
The main stages of the product life cycle are:
1. Research & development
2. Introduction – launching the product into the market
3. Growth – when sales are increasing at their fastest rate
4. Maturity – sales are near their highest, but the rate of growth is slowing down, e.g. new
competitors in market or saturation
5. Decline – final
Extending the Product Life Cycle
For successful products, a business will want to do all it can to extend the growth and maturity phases
of the life cycle, and to delay the decline phase.
What can businesses do to extend the product life cycle?
Examples of extension strategies
 Advertising – try to gain a new audience or remind the current audience
 Price reduction – more attractive to customers
 Adding value – add new features to the current product, e.g. improving the specifications on a
detergent
 Explore new markets – selling the product into new geographical areas or creating a version
targeted at different segments
  New packaging – brightening up old packaging or subtle changes
Cost Analysis
Reasons for cost analysis
 To know where your money is going
 To reduce unnecessary cost
 To know and maximize your profitability
 To become competitive
References
1. Michelle Gaboya, Soap Making Made Easy 2nd Ed., 2012
2. An introduction to the science of how things get clean, American Cleaning Institute, 2019
3. Source Category Survey: Detergent Industry, EPA Contract No. 68-02-3059, June 1980
4. R. N. Shreve, Third Edition: Chemical Process Industries, McGraw-Hill Book Company, New
York, NY.