21IT1701 - MOBILE COMPUTING WITH

MOBILE APPLICATION DEVELOPMENT

(LAB INTEGRATED)
UNIT-I WIRELESS COMMUNICATION AND CELLULAR NETWORKS
Electromagnetic Spectrum – Antenna – Propagation Ranges and Effects – Multipath
Propagation – Spread Spectrum –Multiple Access Techniques: FDMA, TDMA, CDMA,
OFDMA – Duplexing Techniques: FDD, TDD – Cellular Networks – Tessellation, Frequency
Reuse and Handoff – Generations of Cellular Networks – 2G Systems.

INTRODUCTION
Mobile network is a network set up by using radio signal frequency to communicate among
computers and other network devices.
Mobile communication
Mobile communication is the use of technology that allows us to communicate with others in
different locations without the use of any physical connection (wires or cables). Mobile
communication makes our life easier, and it saves time and effort.
Two aspects of mobility:
 user mobility: users communicate (wireless) “anytime, anywhere, with anyone”
 device portability: devices can be connected anytime, anywhere to the network
Characterization of communication devices
(i) Fixed and wired Eg. Desktop Computer in an Office
(ii) Mobile and wired Eg. Laptops
(iii)Fixed and wireless Eg. wireless LANs in historic buildings
(iv) Mobile and wireless Eg. Personal Digital Assistant (PDA) with roaming in
different wireless networks
Mobile computing
Mobile computing refers to the ability to access and utilize data and applications on portable
devices such as smartphones and tablets.
APPLICATIONS OF MOBILE COMPUTING
Applications of wireless networks and Mobile Communications
 Vehicles (GPS)
 Digital Audio Broadcasting (DAB)
 GSM
 Emergencies
 Business
 Replacement of Wired Networks
 Infotainment
 Location dependent Services

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 ELECTROMAGNETIC SPECTRUM
The electromagnetic spectrum is the entire range of electromagnetic radiation according to the
wavelength or frequencies. It has a range of frequencies from 1Hz to Hz. The waves in order
of increasing frequencies are radio waves, microwaves, infrared rays, visible light, UV rays,
X-rays and gamma rays. Among these range, the frequencies between Hz to Hz are used for
communication.
The following diagram shows the electromagnetic spectrum. The first figure gives the full
range of frequency spectrum while the second figure elaborates that part of the spectrum which
can be used for data communication −

The section of the spectrum in the range of radio waves and microwaves has been divided into
a number of frequency bands as officially referred by ITU (International Telecommunication
Union). These bands are rated from VLF (Very Low Frequency) to EHF (Extremely High
Frequency).
The frequency bands and their uses in communication is tabulated as follows −
Band Full Forms Frequency Propagation Uses
Name Range

ELF Extremely Low 30 – 300Hz Ground Power line frequencies

Frequency

LF Low Frequency 3 – 300 KHz Ground Marine Communications,

communication over twisted
pair

MF Medium 300KHz –3MHz Sky AM radio, communication

Frequency over coaxial cables

HF High Frequency 3 – 30 MHz Sky Aircraft and ship

communications

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 VHF Very High 30 – 300 MHz Sky and Line FM radio, TV
Frequency – of - Sight

UHF Ultra High 300 MHz – Line – of - TV, cellular phone

Frequency 3GHz Sight

SHF Super High 3 – 30 GHz Line – of - Satellite, microwave links

Frequency Sight

EHF Extremely High 3 – 300GHz Line – of - Radar, satellite

Frequency Sight

Infrared Infrared Rays 300 Ghz – Line – of - Consumer electronic goods

400THz Sight

Visible Visible Light 400 THz – 900 Line – of - Fiber optic communications
Light rays THz Sight

ANTENNA
An antenna is a metallic structure that is used to transmit radio EM waves. We can define it
as the launching of waves or radiations in space, which is efficiently accomplished with
dielectric structures called antennas.
Antennas: isotropic radiator
Radiation and reception of electromagnetic waves, coupling ofwires to space for radio
transmission
Isotropic radiator: equal radiation in all directions (threedimensional) - only a theoretical
reference antenna
Real antennas always have directive effects (vertically and/orhorizontally)
Radiation pattern: measurement of radiation around an antenna

Antennas: simple dipoles

 Real antennas are not isotropic radiators but, e.g., dipoles with lengths

 Shape of antenna proportional to wavelength

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  Example: Radiation pattern of a simple Hertzian dipole

 Gain: maximum power in the direction of the main lobe compared to the power of an
isotropic radiator (with the same average power)
Antennas: directed and sectorized
Often used for microwave connections or base stations for mobile phones (e.g., radio
coverage of a valley)
Directed Antennas

Sectorized Antennas

Antennas: diversity
 Grouping of 2 or more antennas
o multi-element antenna arrays
 Antenna diversity
o switched diversity, selection diversity
 receiver chooses antenna with largest output
o diversity combining
 combine output power to produce gain
 cophasing needed to avoid cancellation

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 PROPAGATION RANGES AND EFFECTS
Transmission range
 communication possible
 low error rate
Detection range
 detection of the signalpossible
 no communicationpossible
Interference range
 signal may not bedetected
 signal adds to thebackground noise

Fig: Ranges for transmission, detection, and interference of signals

Signal propagation
 Propagation in free space always like light (straight line)
 Receiving power proportional to 1/d² in vacuum – much more in real
environments(d = distance between sender and receiver)
 Receiving power additionally influenced by
fading (frequency dependent)
shadowing
reflection at large obstacles
refraction depending on the density of a medium
scattering at small obstacles
diffraction at edges

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Multipath propagation
Signal can take many different paths between sender and receiver due toreflection,
scattering, diffraction

Fig: Multi-path propagation and inter symbol interference

Time dispersion: signal is dispersed over time
 interference with “neighbor” symbols, Inter Symbol Interference (ISI)
The signal reaches a receiver directly and phase shifted
 distorted signal depending on the phases of the different parts
Effects of mobility
Channel characteristics change over time and location
o signal paths change
o different delay variations of different signal parts
o different phases of signal parts
 quick changes in the power received (short term fading)
Additional changes in
 distance to sender
 obstacles further away
 slow changes in the average power received (long term fading)

Fig: Short-term and long-term fading

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 SPREAD SPECTRUM
Spread spectrum is a method of transmitting radio signals over a wide range of frequencies.
It spreads the signal over a broader bandwidth than the minimum required to send the
information, which provides advantages such as increased resistance to interference,
improved security, and enhanced privacy.
Characteristics of the Spread Spectrum are:
 Higher channel capacity.
 Ability to resist multipath propagation.
 They cannot easily intercept any unauthorized person.
 They are resistant to jamming.
 The spread spectrum provides immunity to distortion due to multipath propagation.
 The spread spectrum offers multiple access capabilities.
Two types of techniques for Spread Spectrum are:
 Frequency Hopping Spread Spectrum (FHSS)
 Direct Sequence Spread Spectrum (DSSS)
Direct Sequence Spread Spectrum (DSSS):
 In DSSS, the bandwidth of the original signal is also expanded by a different
technique. Here, each data bit is replaced with n bits using a spreading code
called chips, and the bit rate of the chip is called as chip-rate.
 XOR of the signal with pseudo-random number (chipping sequence)
o many chips per bit (e.g., 128) result in higher bandwidth of the signal

Fig: Spreading with DSSS

Fig: DSSS transmitter

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 Fig: DSSS Receiver
Advantages of DSSS:
 The DSSS System combats the jamming most effectively.
 The performance of DSSS in presence of noise is superior to FHSS.
 Interference is minimized against the signals.
Disadvantages of DSSS:
 Processing Gain is lower than FHSS.
 Channel Bandwidth is less than FHSS.
 Synchronization is affected by the variable distance between the transmitter and
receiver.
Frequency Hopping Spread Spectrum (FHSS):
 In Frequency Hopping Spread Spectrum (FHSS), different carrier frequencies are
modulated by the source signal i.e. M carrier frequencies are modulated by the signal.
At one moment signal modulates one carrier frequency and at the subsequent
moments, it modulates other carrier frequencies.
 Discrete changes of carrier frequency
o sequence of frequency changes determined via pseudo random
numbersequence
 Two versions
 Fast Hopping: Several frequencies per user bit
 Slow Hopping: Several user bits per frequency

Fig: Slow and fast frequency hopping

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 Fig: FHSS transmitter

Fig: FHSS Receiver

Advantages of FHSS:
 Synchronization is not greatly dependent on distance.
 Processing Gain is higher than DSSS.
Disadvantages of FHSS:
 The bandwidth of the FHSS system is too large (in GHz).
 Complex and expensive Digital frequency synthesizers are required.
MULTIPLE ACCESS TECHNIQUES
Multiple access techniques allow multiple terminals to share the common
communication medium based on multiplexing. The multiplexing is provided in the physical
layer, and the shared communication medium can be wired cables or wireless spectrum.
There are several different ways to allow access to the channel. These includes mainly
the following
 Space division multiple access (SDMA)
 Frequency division multiple-access (FDMA)
 Time division multiple-access (TDMA)
 Code division multiple-access (CDMA)
MEDIAM ACCESS CONTROL
Multiplexing

- Under the simplest conditions, a medium can carry only one signal at any moment
in time. For multiple signals to share one medium, the medium must somehow be
divided, giving each signal a portion of the total bandwidth.
- Multiplexing enables several user to share a medium with minimum interference or
no interference.

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In case of wireless communication, there can be four types of multiplexing.
1. Space - Division Multiplexing (SDM)
2. Frequency - Division Multiplexing (FDM)
3. Time-Division Multiplexing (TDM)
4. Code Division Multiplexing (CDM)
1. Space Division Multiplexing:
- In this, physical space is separated for each of the user so that the interference is
minimum or nil as shown below:

- S1…S3 are the space segments where each pair of the user has separate space for
communication in his own channel. As the space is separated there is likely to be no
interference among each pair. The transmitter power controls the radius of action. This
is similar to the FM radio station that use the same frequency at different location without
interference.
- However, if several frequencies (pair of user )are to be used, this may need to be
modified with other multiplexing techniques. Using SDM, obvious problems arise if two
or more channels were established within the same space, for example, if several radio
stations want to broadcast in the same city. Then, one of the following multiplexing
schemes must be used (frequency, time, or code division multiplexing).
2. Frequency Division Multiplexing:
- In this the frequency is divided into several bands that are not overlapping. Each user
can use the allotted band of frequency without causing interference to other user.
- Guard band is provided to minimize the adjacent channel interference.
- The drawback of this system is that the frequency remains allocated to the user even
during those times when there is no communication.

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 - It is not an efficient method as it ties up one channel to a user and also limits the
number of users.

3. Time Division Multiplexing:

- In this the user is given the whole bandwidth for a given period of time. That is many
senders can use the same frequency band, but at different point of time.
- Here, there must be guard time, so as to avoid co-channel interference.
- To reduce / avoid co channel interference, precise synchronization between senders is
necessary.
- Here, the receiver and transmitter is to synchronize precisely for proper communication.
- The advantage with the TDM is that it is possible to allocate more time to a user who has
heavy load.
- This is one of the requirement in case of internet access by the mobile user where the
requested traffic is much smaller than the downloaded traffic.

TDM and FDM Combined Multiplexing:

- It is possible to combine the FDM and TDM wherein a certain user can use a certain
frequency for certain amount of time. Now there is a need for guard band as well as
better synchronization to avoid both adjacent and co-channel interference.

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 - One important advantage is that the system has better immunity to frequency selective
interference. Also, this system provides protection against channel tapping.
- The disadvantage is that there needs to be proper coordination between different
senders and receivers both in frequency and time domain.
4. Code Division Multiplexing:
- Code division multiplexing (CDM) is a networking technique in which multiple data
signals are combined for simultaneous transmission over a common frequency band.
- When CDM is used to allow multiple users to share a single communications channel,
the technology is called code division multiple access (CDMA).

- In this all the users trans receive the messages at the same frequency and at the same
time. This is made possible when the digital transmitted codes modulates a pseudo
random codes that are different for each user.
- Similar to FDM and TDM, to avoid interference due to codes that are closer to each
other, codes are allotted to the user with a specific code space by using orthogonal
code selection.
- This technique facilitates a large number of user to share the same frequency
spectrum. Each user having a separate code when communicates adds to the
background noise.

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 - As large users use the system, the noise increases thereby limiting its performance.
However it provides good protection against interference and tapping.
- The main disadvantage of the system, is it is relatively quite complex.
MEDIUM ACCESS CONTROL (MAC) FOR MOBILE COMPUTING
The medium access control mechanisms provided by the MAC layer are also known as
a multiple access protocol. This makes it possible for several stations connected to the same
medium to share it. The medium access protocol may detect or avoid data packet collisions.
In a fixed networks, MAC works effectively. For an example, CSMA/CD - Carrier
Sense Multiple Access with Collision Detection, send as soon as the medium is free, listen into
the medium if a collision occurs retransmit the data.
But exactly this cannot be applied to wireless networks. since,
o signal strength decreases proportional to the square of the distance
o the sender would apply CS and CD, but the collisions happen at the receiver
o it might be the case that a sender cannot “hear” the collision, i.e., CD does not work
o furthermore, CS might not work if, e.g., a terminal is “hidden”
MAC for wired network never solves the “hidden terminal” and exposed terminal problems.
1. Hidden terminals
o A sends to B, C cannot receive A
o C wants to send to B, C senses a “free” medium (CS fails)
o collision at B, A cannot receive the collision (CD fails)
o A is “hidden” for C

2. Exposed terminals
o B sends to A, C wants to send to another terminal (not A or B)
o C has to wait, CS signals a medium in use
o but A is outside the radio range of C, therefore waiting is not necessary
o C is “exposed” to B
The near-far problem is a condition in which a strong signal captures a receiver making it
impossible for the receiver to detect a weaker signal
3. Near and far terminals
Terminals A and B send, C receives
o signal strength decreases proportional to the square of the distance
o the signal of terminal B therefore drowns out A’s signal
o C cannot receive A
If C for example was an arbiter for sending rights, terminal B would drown out terminal A
already on the physical layer

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 The multiplexing schemes are now used to control medium access
- Wireless channel is a shared medium. MAC coordinates transmission between
users sharing the spectrum.
- Goals of the MAC protocol are to prevent collisions while maximizing throughput
and minimizing delay
MAC Protocols has three broad classes:
• Channel Partitioning
– divide channel into smaller “pieces” (time slots, frequency)
– allocate piece to node for exclusive use
• Random Access
– allow collisions
– “recover” from collisions
• “Taking turns”
– tightly coordinate shared access to avoid collisions

Channel Partitioning MAC protocols

1. SDMA (Space Division Multiple Access)
- This method allocate space to users in wireless network. SDMA cannot be used as it
is. It will be combined with FDM, TDM & CDM.
- SDMA algorithm formed by cells and sectorized antennas.
2. FDMA (Frequency Division Multiple Access)
This method contains all algorithms for assigning a certain frequency to a transmission
channel between a sender and a receiver.
Allocation can be either fixed or dynamic.
o Fixed allocation : channel assigned with same frequency for all time. Both sender
and the receiver will be tuned with same frequency. (e.g., radio broadcast),
o Dynamic allocation: frequency for the channel will be assigned based on the load.
Based on the load frequency gets changed either increased or decreased.
FDM provides medium for simultaneous access by base station and mobile station via two
different frequency bands also called Frequency Division Duplex (FDD).
In mobile communication, a downlink is the link from a Base station down to one or more
Mobile stations or receivers, and an uplink is the link from a Mobile station up to a Base station.
The uplink and downlink frequencies for a certain n channel can be calculated as
 Uplink Frequency fu = 890.2 MHZ + n * 0.2 MHZ
 Downlink frequency fd = fu + 45 MHZ ie fd = 935.2 MHZ + n* 0.2 MHZ

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 3. TDMA (Time Division Multiple Access)
- Assign the fixed sending frequency to a transmission channel between a sender and a
receiver for a certain amount of time. Receivers can always listen on the same channel
frequency.
- TDMA contains various algorithms to allocate the time for various channels. It may be
fixed time or dynamic allocation.
Examples for fixed and dynamic scheme.
Fixed TDM
- This method Allocate time slots for channel in a fixed pattern. This results in fixed
bandwidth in wireless phone systems.
- Fixed pattern will be assigned by the Base station. Each MS knows it turn and no
interference. There will be a fixed delay.
- It implements multiple access and a duplex channel between a base station and a mobile
station called Time Division Duplex (TDD)

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 -Base station uses 1 out of 12 slots for downlink. Mobile station uses 1 out of 12 different
slots for uplink. Both uplink and downlink are separated in time.
- This method used in many digital mobile phone systems like IS 54, IS-136, GSM, PHS
and PACS.
ALOHA
- With Pure Aloha, stations are allowed access to the channel whenever they have data
to transmit.
- Because the threat of data collision exists, each station must either monitor its
transmission on the rebroadcast or await an acknowledgment from the destination
station.
- By comparing the transmitted packet with the received packet or by the lack of an
acknowledgement, the transmitting station can determine the success of the transmitted
packet.
- If the transmission was unsuccessful it is resent after a random amount of time to reduce
the probability of re-collision.

Advantages: Superior to fixed assignment when there is a large number of bursty stations.
Adapts to varying number of stations.

Disadvantages: · Theoretically proven throughput maximum of 18.4%. · Requires queueing

buffers for retransmission of packets.
Slotted ALOHA Protocol
By making a small restriction in the transmission freedom of the individual stations, the
throughput of the Aloha protocol can be doubled. Assuming constant length packets,
transmission time is broken into slots equivalent to the transmission time of a single packet.
Stations are only allowed to transmit at slot boundaries. When packets collide they will overlap
completely instead of partially. This has the effect of doubling the efficiency of the Aloha
protocol and has come to be known as Slotted Aloha.

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Advantages:
- Doubles the efficiency of Aloha.
- Adaptable to a changing station population.
Disadvantages:
- Theoretically proven throughput maximum of 36.8%.
- Requires queueing buffers for retransmission of packets.
- Synchronization required.
CSMA - Carrier Sense Multiple Access
- The chance of collision can be reduced if a station senses the medium before trying to
use it. CDMA algorithm, will sense the medium before sending.
- If the Medium is free, will transmit data else will for the availability of the medium.
Types of CSMA protocols:

 1-persistent
- When a station has data to send, it transmits with a probability of 1 whenever it
finds the channel idle. If the channel is busy, the station waits until it becomes
idle (greedy approach).

 nonpersistent
- It differs from 1-persistent w.r.t. the case where the channel is busy. Then, the
station deliberately waits a random period of time before sensing the channel
again.

 p-persistent (applies to slotted channels)

- When a station has data to send, it transmits with a probability of p whenever it
finds the channel idle. With a probability of q = 1- p it defers until the next slot
and the same procedure iterates. If the channel has become busy meanwhile, the
station waits a random time and starts again. If the channel is busy when first
sensing it, the station waits until the next slot and repeats the procedure.
A priori reservation combined with static TDMA
Maximum throughput per frame time (at low load) only 18% (Aloha), 36%
(Slotted Aloha) (assuming Poisson distribution for packet arrival)

Reservation can increase throughput up to 80% due to less collisions

o a sender reserves a future time-slot during a reservation phase
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 o sending within this reserved time-slot is possible without collision
o reservation also causes higher delays
o typical scheme for satellite links

Examples for reservation algorithms:

o Explicit Reservation (DAMA (Reservation-ALOHA))
o Implicit Reservation (PRMA)
o Reservation combined with dynamic TDMA
DAMA - Demand Assigned Multiple Access
- Demand Assigned Multiple Access (DAMA) is a technology used to assign a channel to
clients that don't need to use it constantly.
- DAMA systems assign communication channels based on requests issued from user
terminals to a network control system. When the circuit is no longer in use, the channels
are then returned to the central pool for reassignment to other users.
- Improvement in ALOHA achieved by adding reservation mechanism with some TDM
patter. It is also called Reservation ALOHA.
Two modes:
o ALOHA mode for reservation:
competition for small reservation slots, collisions possible
o reserved mode for data transmission within successful reserved slots (no
collisions possible)
It is important for all stations to keep the reservation list consistent at any point in
time and, therefore, all stations have to synchronize from time to time.
DAMA is widely used in satellite communications.

PRMA: Packet Reservation Multiple Access

Implicit reservation :
a certain number of slots form a packet, packets are repeated in time. A base station
broadcast the status of each slot to MS. Stations compete for empty slots according to the
slotted aloha principle. Once a station reserves a slot successfully, this slot is automatically
assigned to this station in all following packets as long as the station has data to send.
Competition for this slots starts again as soon as the slot was empty in the last packet

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DAMA combined with dynamic TDMA – Reservation TDMA
Reservation without collision for a fixed number of N stations:
- each frame consists of N reservation slots and x = N * k data-slots
- each station has its own mini-slot and can reserve up to k data-slots (guaranteed)
- all other stations can send data in not reserved data-slots according to some method,
e.g. ALOHA (random) or round-robin (fixed) sending scheme (best-effort)

Example: N=6, k=2

MACA (Multiple Access with Collision Avoidance)

MACA (Multiple Access with Collision Avoidance) uses short signaling (control) packets for
collision avoidance:

- RTS (request to send): a sender request the right to send from a receiver with a short
RTS packet before it sends a data packet
- CTS (clear to send): the receiver grants the right to send as soon as it isready to receive

Signalling packets contain:

 sender address
 receiver address
 packet size (from which the transmission time can be derived)

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MACA avoids the problem of hidden stations
A and later C want to send to B
1. A sends RTS first
2. B sends CTS to A and B
3. C waits after receiving CTS from B

MACA avoids the problem of exposed stations

1. B wants to send to A, C to another station
2. now C does not have to wait because it
cannot receive CTS from A

Protocol Machine for MACA

Polling Mechanism
- If one station can be heard by all others, this master station (e.g. satellite, base station)
can poll all other slave stations according to a certain scheme
Example: Randomly Addressed Polling
- master signals readiness to all (mobile) slaves
- slaves ready to send can now transmit a random number without collision with the help
of CDMA or FDMA (the random number can be seen as dynamic address)
- master now chooses one address for polling from the list of all random numbers
(collision if two slaves choose the same address)
- master acknowledges correct packets and continues polling the next slaves
- this cycle starts again after all slaves have been polled

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ISMA (Inhibit Sense Multiple Access)
Current state of the medium is signaled via a “busy tone”. the base station signals on the
downlink (base station to terminals) if the medium is free or not. terminals must not send if the
medium is busy. terminals can access the medium as soon as the busy tone stops. the base
station signals collisions and successful transmissions via the busy tone and
acknowledgements, respectively (media access is not coordinated within this approach)
- mechanism used, e.g., for CDPD (USA, integrated into AMPS)

4. CDMA (Code Division Multiple Access)

Using CDMA method, all terminals send on the same frequency probably at the same time and
can use the whole bandwidth of the transmission channel. each sender has a unique random
number, the sender XORs the signal with this random number. the receiver can “tune” into this
signal if it knows the pseudo random number, tuning is done via a correlation function
 Disadvantages:
o higher complexity of a receiver (receiver cannot just listen into the medium and
start receiving if there is a signal)
o all signals should have the same strength at a receiver
 Advantages:
o all terminals can use the same frequency, no planning needed
o huge code space (e.g. 232) compared to frequency space
o interferences (e.g. white noise) is not coded
o forward error correction and encryption can be easily integrated
CDMA in theory (example)
Sender A
Sends Ad = 1, key Ak = 010011 (assign: 0= -1 & 1= +1)

As = Ad*Ak = +1*(–1, +1, –1, –1, +1, +1) = (–1, +1, –1, –1, +1, +1)

Sender B

sends Bd = 0, key Bk = 110101 (assign: 0= -1 & 1 = +1)

Bs = Bd*Bk = –1*(+1, +1, –1, +1, –1, +1) = (–1, –1, +1, –1, +1, –1).

Both signals superimpose in space interference neglected (noise etc.)

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C= As + Bs = (–2, 0, 0, –2, +2, 0)

Receiver wants to receive signal from sender A

Apply key Ak bitwise (inner product)

C*Ak = (–2, 0, 0, –2, +2, 0)*(–1, +1, –1, –1, +1, +1) = 2 + 0 + 0 + 2 + 2 + 0 = 6.

result greater than 0, therefore, original bit was “1“

Tuning in to sender B,

Applying B’s code gives C*Bk = (–2, 0, 0, –2, +2, 0)* (+1, +1, –1, +1, –1, +1) = –2 + 0 + 0 –

2 – 2 + 0 = – 6. The result is negative, so a 0 has been detected.

Example

sender A that wants to transmit the bits 101. The key of A is shown as signal and binary key
sequence Ak. In this example, the binary “0” is assigned a positive signal value, the binary “1”
a negative signal value. After spreading, i.e., XOR ing Ad and Ak, the resulting signal is As.

Coding and spreading of data from sender A

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Coding and spreading of data from sender B

Reconstruction of A’s data

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Reconstruction of B’s data

Receiving a signal with the wrong key

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SAMA - Spread Aloha Multiple Access
- This method combines the advantages of ALOHA and CDMA. Aloha has only a very
low efficiency, CDMA needs complex receivers to be able to receive different senders
with individual codes at the same time
- Idea: use spread spectrum with only one single code (chipping sequence) for spreading
for all senders accessing according to aloha

Cell breathing depending on the current load

- Cell breathing is the constant change of the range of the geographical area covered by a
cellular telephone transmitter based on the amount of traffic currently using that
transmitter.
- When a cell becomes heavily loaded, it shrinks. Subscriber traffic is then redirected to a
neighboring cell that is more lightly loaded, which is called load balancing.
- Cell breathing is a common phenomenon of 2G and 3G wireless systems including code-
division multiple access (CDMA). CDMA2000 and wideband code-division multiple
access (WCDMA) are designed to manage cell breathing.

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Comparison of SDMA, TDMA, FDMA, and CDMA mechanisms

OFDMA - ORTHOGONAL FREQUENCY DIVISION MULTIPLE ACCESS

Orthogonal Frequency-Division Multiple Access (OFDMA) is an advanced digital
modulation technique, primarily used in telecommunications, and is a key feature in the latest
wireless technologies, including LTE, 5G, and notably Wi-Fi 6.
Here's a breakdown of its key aspects with a focus on its use in Wi-Fi 6:
Multiplexing Technique: OFDMA is a sophisticated method for encoding digital data on
multiple carrier frequencies. It efficiently divides a wireless channel into several independent
data streams, making it ideal for high-density Wi-Fi environments.
Orthogonality: The technique's name comes from the way it arranges frequency channels to
minimize interference. In OFDMA, the peaks of the waveforms in one channel align with the
nulls in the waveforms of other channels, significantly reducing interference and enhancing
signal quality.
Efficient Spectrum Usage: OFDMA excels in utilizing the available frequency spectrum. By
dividing the spectrum into smaller subcarriers, each can be allocated to different users, allowing
simultaneous data transmission with minimal interference - a crucial aspect in the crowded
frequency space of Wi-Fi 6 environments.
Resource Allocation Flexibility: One of OFDMA's strengths is its dynamic allocation of
subcarriers and power levels, which is particularly beneficial in Wi-Fi 6. It can adaptively
assign resources to users based on their current data requirements and changing channel
conditions, optimizing network performance.

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Performance in Multipath Environments: OFDMA, like its predecessor OFDM, effectively
handles multipath propagation, a common issue in wireless communication where signals
arrive at different times, causing interference. This is achieved by breaking the signal into
slower sub-signals, thus reducing the impact of multipath interference, which is vital for
maintaining the robustness of Wi-Fi 6 connections.
Enhanced Wi-Fi 6 Performance: In the context of Wi-Fi 6 (802.11ax), OFDMA is a central
technology enabling more efficient and faster data transmission. It supports a higher density of
users and is capable of handling high-data-rate applications, making it ideal for environments
with many connected devices, such as smart homes, offices, and public hotspots.
OFDMA's role in modern wireless communication systems, especially in Wi-Fi 6, is pivotal.
It's instrumental in achieving high data rates, efficient spectrum use, and improved network
performance in environments with multiple users and devices.
DUPLEXING TECHNIQUES: FDD, TDD
The technologies of today enable speech and data transmission in both directions. Duplexing
is the name for this specific capability to permit simultaneous bidirectional data transport.
Duplexing is possible in both the time and frequency domains.
 Frequency Division Duplexing (FDD)
 Time Division Duplexing (TDD)

Frequency Division Duplexing (FDD)

The simultaneous transfer is achieved by using two different frequency bands, one for uplink
transmission and the other for downlink transmission. These uplink and downlink frequencies
might be fixed and are separate from one another. Hence, devices that enable FDD often have
two antennas—one for each link. FDD allows for simultaneous signal transmission and

27
reception since a frequency band divides the uplink and downlink communication channels.
Both cellular networks like 3G and 4G and satellite communication technologies typically use
this technique. FDD can be used for applications that require an even distribution of capacity
between the uplink and the downlink.
Time Division Duplexing (TDD)
This duplexing method employs the full frequency range for the period of the one-time slot for
transmission and the following slot for the reception. The time frame is kept brief enough to
give the user the impression that both uplink and downlink are occurring at the same time in
order to prevent interference and time delays. Time-division duplexing (TDD), a duplexing
technique, employs a single frequency band for both signal transmission and reception, but the
transmission and reception happen at different times. Since the uplink and downlink
communication channels use the same frequency range but are separated by time intervals,
TDD enables consecutive signal transmission and reception.
Comparison of FDD and TDD Duplexing Techniques

Frequency Division Duplexing Time Division Duplexing

Criteria
(FDD) (TDD)

Two separate frequency bands are A single frequency band is

Frequency
used for uplink and downlink used for both uplink and
Band Usage
transmission downlink transmission

Time is divided into time slots

Time Interval
NA for both uplink and downlink
Usage
transmission

Two antennas are required, one for One antenna is sufficient for
Antenna
uplink and one for downlink both uplink and downlink
Requirement
transmission transmission

Spectral
Lower than TDD Higher than FDD
Efficiency

Flexibility Limited More flexible

More susceptible to
Interference Less susceptible to interference and
interference and delay than
and Delay delay than TDD
FDD

FDD is suitable for applications TDD is suitable for

Capacity that require even distribution of applications with variable
Allocation capacity between uplink and capacity allocation between
downlink uplink and downlink

28
 Frequency Division Duplexing Time Division Duplexing
Criteria
(FDD) (TDD)

Examples of 3G, 4G cellular networks, satellite WiMAX, TD-SCDMA, LTE

Usage communication technologies TDD, Wi-Fi

CELLULAR NETWORKS
A Cellular Network is formed of some cells. The cell covers a geographical region and has a
base station analogous to 802.11 AP which helps mobile users attach to the network and there
is an air interface of physical and data link layer protocol between mobile and base station. All
these base stations are connected to the Mobile Switching Center which connects cells to a
wide-area net, manages call setup, and handles mobility.
There is a certain radio spectrum that is allocated to the base station and to a particular region
and that now needs to be shared. There are two techniques for sharing mobile-to-base station
radio spectrum:
 Combined FDMA/TDMA: It divides the spectrum into frequency channels and divides
each channel into time slots.
 Code Division Multiple Access (CDMA): It allows the reuse of the same spectrum over
all cells. Net capacity improvement. Two frequency bands are used one of which is for the
forwarding channel (cell-site to subscriber) and one for the reverse channel (sub to cell-
site).
Cell Fundamentals
In practice, cells are of arbitrary shape(close to a circle) because it has the same power on all
sides and has same sensitivity on all sides, but putting up two-three circles together may result
in interleaving gaps or may intersect each other so order to solve this problem we can use
equilateral triangle, square or a regular hexagon in which hexagonal cell is close to a circle
used for a system design. Co-channel reuse ratio is given by:
DL/RL = Square root of (3N)
Where,
DL = Distance between co-channel cells
RL = Cell Radius
N = Cluster Size
The number of cells in cluster N determines the amount of co-channel interference and also the
number of frequency channels available per cell.
Cell Splitting
When the number of subscribers in a given area increases allocation of more channels covered
by that channel is necessary, which is done by cell splitting. A single small cell midway
between two co-channel cells is introduced.

29
 Cell Splitting
Need for Cellular Hierarchy
Extending the coverage to the areas that are difficult to cover by a large cell. Increasing the
capacity of the network for those areas that have a higher density of users. An increasing
number of wireless devices and the communication between them.
Cellular Hierarchy
 Femtocells: The smallest unit of the hierarchy, these cells need to cover only a few meters
where all devices are in the physical range of the uses.
 Picocells: The size of these networks is in the range of a few tens of meters, e.g., WLANs.
 Microcells: Cover a range of hundreds of meters e.g. in urban areas to support PCS which
is another kind of mobile technology.
 Macrocells: Cover areas in the order of several kilometers, e.g., cover metropolitan areas.
 Mega cells: Cover nationwide areas with ranges of hundreds of kilometers, e.g., used with
satellites.
Fixed Channel Allocation
For a particular channel, the frequency band which is associated is fixed. The total number of
channels is given by
Nc = W/B
Where,
W = Bandwidth of the available spectrum,
B = Bandwidth needed by each channels per cell,
Cc = Nc/N where N is the cluster size
Adjacent radio frequency bands are assigned to different cells. In analog, each channel
corresponds to one user while in digital each RF channel carries several time slots or codes
(TDMA/CDMA). Simple to implement as traffic is uniform.
Global System for Mobile (GSM) Communications
GSM uses 124 frequency channels, each of which uses an 8-slot Time Division Multiplexing
(TDM) system. There is a frequency band that is also fixed. Transmitting and receiving do not
happen in the same time slot because the GSM radios cannot transmit and receive at the same
time and it takes time to switch from one to the other. A data frame is transmitted in 547
microseconds, but a transmitter is only allowed to send one data frame every 4.615

30
microseconds since it is sharing the channel with seven other stations. The gross rate of each
channel is 270, 833 bps divided among eight users, which gives 33.854 kbps gross.
Control Channel (CC)
Apart from user channels, there are some control channels which is used to manage the system.
1. The broadcast control channel (BCC): It is a continuous stream of output from the base
station’s identity and the channel status. All mobile stations monitor their signal strength
to see when they move into a new cell.
2. The dedicated control channel (DCC): It is used for location updating, registration, and call
setup. In particular, each base station maintains a database of mobile stations. Information
needed to maintain this database is sent to the dedicated control channel.
Common Control Channel
Three logical sub-channels are:
1. Is the paging channel, that the base station uses to announce incoming calls. Each mobile
station monitors it continuously to watch for calls it should answer.
2. Is the random access channel that allows the users to request a slot on the dedicated control
channel. If two requests collide, they are garbled and have to be retried later.
3. Is the access grant channel which is the announced assigned slot.
Advantages of Cellular Networks
 Mobile and fixed users can connect using it. Voice and data services also provided.
 Has increased capacity & easy to maintain.
 Easy to upgrade the equipment & has consumes less power.
 It is used in place where cables can not be laid out because of its wireless existence.
 To use the features & functions of mainly all private and public networks.
 Can be distributed to the larger coverage of areas.
Disadvantages of Cellular Networks
 It provides a lower data rate than wired networks like fiber optics and DSL. The data rate
changes depending on wireless technologies like GSM, CDMA, LTE, etc.
 Macrophage cells are impacted by multipath signal loss.
 To service customers, there is a limited capacity that depends on the channels and different
access techniques.
 Due to the wireless nature of the connection, security issues exist.
 For the construction of antennas for cellular networks, a foundation tower and space are
required. It takes a lot of time and labor to do this.
TESSELLATION
• Some groups of small regions tessellate a large region if they over the large region without
any gaps or overlaps.
• There are only three regular polygons that tessellate any given region.
• Three regular polygons that always tessellate:
 Equilateral triangle
 Square
 Regular Hexagon

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 FREQUENCY REUSE
Frequency Reuse is the scheme in which allocation and reuse of channels throughout a
coverage region is done. Each cellular base station is allocated a group of radio channels or
Frequency sub-bands to be used within a small geographic area known as a cell. The shape of
the cell is Hexagonal. The process of selecting and allocating the frequency sub-bands for all
of the cellular base station within a system is called Frequency reuse or Frequency
Planning. Salient features of using Frequency Reuse:
 Frequency reuse improve the spectral efficiency and signal Quality (QoS).
 Frequency reuse classical scheme proposed for GSM systems offers a protection against
interference.
 The number of times a frequency can be reused is depend on the tolerance capacity of the
radio channel from the nearby transmitter that is using the same frequencies.
 In Frequency Reuse scheme, total bandwidth is divided into different sub-bands that are
used by cells.
 Frequency reuse scheme allow WiMax system operators to reuse the same frequencies at
different cell sites.

Cell with the same letter uses the same set of channels group or frequencies sub-band. To
find the total number of channel allocated to a cell: S = Total number of duplex channels
available to use k = Channels allocated to each cell (k<S) N = Total number of cells or
Cluster Size Then Total number of channels (S) will be,
S = kN
Frequency Reuse Factor = 1/N
In the above diagram cluster size is 7 (A,B,C,D,E,F,G) thus frequency reuse factor is 1/7. N
is the number of cells which collectively use the complete set of available frequencies is
called a Cluster. The value of N is calculated by the following formula:
N = I2 + I*J + J2
Where I,J = 0,1,2,3… Hence, possible values of N are 1,3,4,7,9,12,13,16,19 and so on. If a
Cluster is replicated or repeated M times within the cellular system, then Capacity, C, will be,

32
C = MkN = MS
In Frequency reuse there are several cells that use the same set of frequencies. These cells are
called Co-Channel Cells. These Co-Channel cells results in interference. So to avoid the
Interference cells that use the same set of channels or frequencies are separated from one
another by a larger distance. The distance between any two Co-Channels can be calculated by
the following formula:
D = R * (3 * N)1/2
Where, R = Radius of a cell N = Number of cells in a given cluster
Advantages:
Improved Spectral Efficiency: By reusing the same frequency in different geographic areas,
spectral efficiency can be improved, enabling more efficient spectrum usage.
 Better Quality of Service: With the ability to reuse the same frequency in different cells,
the interference between cells can be minimized, leading to better quality of service.
 Cost-Effective: Frequency reuse can reduce the cost of building a cellular network since
fewer frequency bands are required.
Scalability: Frequency reuse enables the network to be easily scaled by adding more cells
as needed.
 Increased Network Capacity: Frequency reuse allows more cells to be served with the
same amount of spectrum, resulting in increased network capacity.
 Scalability: Frequency reuse enables the network to be easily scaled by adding more cells
as needed.
Disadvantages:
 Increased Interference: Frequency reuse can result in increased interference,
particularly in areas where cells are closely spaced. This can reduce the quality of service
and network capacity.
 Implementation Complexity: Frequency reuse requires careful planning to ensure that
cells are appropriately spaced and that interference is minimized. This can make the
implementation process more complex and time-consuming.
 Reduced Coverage: With the use of smaller cells to achieve higher capacity, the
coverage area of each cell is reduced, requiring more base stations and infrastructure.
 Increased Power Consumption: Due to the use of smaller cells, more base stations are
required, leading to higher power consumption and operational costs.
 Increased Network Cost: The cost of implementing a frequency reuse system may be
higher due to the need for additional infrastructure and careful planning to ensure proper
frequency reuse.
HANDOFF
In cellular telecommunications, the terms handover or handoff refers to the process of
transferring an ongoing call or data connectivity from one Base Station to another Base
Station. When a mobile moves into a different cell while the conversation is in progress then
the MSC (Mobile Switching Center) transfers the call to a new channel belonging to the new
Base Station.

33
When a mobile user A moves from one cell to another cell then BSC 1 signal strength loses
for the mobile User A and the signal strength of BSC 2 increases and thus ongoing calls or
data connectivity for mobile users goes on without interrupting.
Types of Handoff
 Hard Handoff
 Soft Handoff
 Delayed Handoff
 Mobile-Assisted Handoff
Hard Handoff
When there is an actual break in the connectivity while switching from one Base Station to
another Base Station. There is no burden on the Base Station and MSC because the switching
takes place so quickly that it can hardly be noticed by the users. The connection quality is
not that good. Hard Handoff adopted the ‘break before make’ policy.
It is generally implemented in Time Division Multiplexing and Frequency Division
Multiplexing when a user connects to the base station with a fluctuating radio frequency.
 Hard Handoff is cheaper in cost as compared to soft Handoff because only one channel
needs to be active at a time.
 It is more efficient than soft handoff, that’s why hard handoffs are widely implemented.
 Sometimes, a delay can be experienced while switching base stations.

Soft Handoff
Soft Handoff is a mechanism in which the device gets connected with two or more base
stations at the same time. At least one of the links is kept when radio signals are added or
removed to the Base Station. Soft Handoff adopted the ‘make before break’ policy. If a
channel is in power loss then another channel will always be on standby mode so this makes
it best in terms of quality as compared to Hard handoff. Soft handoffs are used in devices
supporting CDMA/WDMA networks
 High Transmission speed as more than one repeater can transmit signals.
 It has a very low delay in signals.
 It can’t be implemented on devices supporting GSM or LTE networks.

34
Delayed Handoff
Delayed handoff occurs when no base station is available for accepting the transfer. The call
continues until the signal strength reaches a threshold, and after that, the call is dropped.
Generally, it happens when the user is out of the network coverage area, or at some dead
spots where network reach is very low.
Mobile-Assisted Handoff
Mobile-Assisted handoff is generally used when a mobile phone helps a base station to
transfer the call to another base station with better-improvised connectivity and more signal
strength. This handoff is used in TDMA technique-based GSM devices.
GENERATIONS OF CELLULAR NETWORKS
The aim of wireless communication is to provide high quality, reliable communication just like
wired communication(optical fibre) and each new generation of services represents a big
step(a leap rather) in that direction.
- This evolution journey was started in 1979 from 1G and it is still continuing to 5G. Each
of the Generations has standards that must be met to officially use the G terminology.
- There are institutions in charge of standardizing each generation of mobile technology.
- Each generation has requirements that specify things like throughput, delay, etc. that
need to be met to be considered part of that generation.
- Each generation built upon the research and development which happened since the last
generation.
- 1G was not used to identify wireless technology until 2G, or the second generation, was
released. That was a major jump in the technology when the wireless networks went
from analog to digital.
1G - First Generation
- This was the first generation of cell phone technology.
- The very first generation of commercial cellular network was introduced in the late 70's
with fully implemented standards being established throughout the 80's.
- It was introduced in 1987 by Telecom (known today as Telstra), Australia received its
first cellular mobile phone network utilizing a 1G analog system.
- 1G is an analog technology and the phones generally had poor battery life and voice
quality was large without much security, and would sometimes experience dropped
calls.
- These are the analog telecommunications standards that were introduced in the 1980s
and continued until being replaced by 2G digital telecommunications. The maximum
speed of 1G is 2.4 Kbps.
2G - Second Generation
- Cell phones received their first major upgrade when they went from 1G to 2G.
- The main difference between the two mobile telephone systems (1G and 2G), is that
the radio signals used by 1G network are analog, while 2G networks are digital .
- Main motive of this generation was to provide secure and reliable communication
channel.
- It implemented the concept of CDMA and GSM.
- Provided small data service like sms and mms.
- Second generation 2G cellular telecom networks were commercially launched on the
GSM standard in Finland by Radiolinja (now part of Elisa Oyj) in 1991.

35
 - 2G capabilities are achieved by allowing multiple users on a single channel via
multiplexing.
- During 2G Cellular phones are used for data also along with voice. The advance in
technology from 1G to 2G introduced many of the fundamental services that we still
use today, such as SMS, internal roaming, conference calls, call hold and billing based
on services e.g. charges based on long distance calls and real time billing.
- The max speed of 2G with General Packet Radio Service (GPRS) is 50 Kbps or 1 Mbps
with Enhanced Data Rates for GSM Evolution (EDGE). Before making the major leap
from 2G to 3G wireless networks, the lesser-known 2.5G and 2.75G was an interim
standard that bridged the gap.
3G - Third Generation
- This generation set the standards for most of the wireless technology we have come to
know and love.
- Web browsing, email, video downloading, picture sharing and other Smartphone
technology were introduced in the third generation.
- Introduced commercially in 2001, the goals set out for third generation mobile
communication were to facilitate greater voice and data capacity, support a wider range
of applications, and increase data transmission at a lower cost .
- The 3G standard utilises a new technology called UMTS as its core network
architecture - Universal Mobile Telecommunications System. This network combines
aspects of the 2G network with some new technology and protocols to deliver a
significantly faster data rate.
- Based on a set of standards used for mobile devices and mobile telecommunications
use services and networks that comply with the International Mobile
Telecommunications-2000 (IMT-2000) specifications by the International
Telecommunication Union. One of requirements set by IMT-2000 was that speed
should be at least 200Kbps to call it as 3G service.
- 3G has Multimedia services support along with streaming are more popular. In 3G,
Universal access and portability across different device types are made possible
(Telephones, PDA's, etc.).
- 3G increased the efficiency of frequency spectrum by improving how audio
is compressed during a call, so more simultaneous calls can happen in the same
frequency range. The UN's International Telecommunications Union IMT-
2000 standard requires stationary speeds of 2Mbps and mobile speeds of 384kbps for a
"true" 3G. The theoretical max speed for HSPA+ is 21.6 Mbps.
- Like 2G, 3G evolved into 3.5G and 3.75G as more features were introduced in order to
bring about 4G. A 3G phone cannot communicate through a 4G network, but newer
generations of phones are practically always designed to be backward compatible, so a
4G phone can communicate through a 3G or even 2G network.
4G - Fourth Generation
- 4G is a very different technology as compared to 3G and was made possible practically
only because of the advancements in the technology in the last 10 years.
- Its purpose is to provide high speed, high quality and high capacity to users while
improving security and lower the cost of voice and data services, multimedia and

36
 internet over IP. Potential and current applications include amended mobile web
access, IP telephony, gaming services, high-definition mobile TV, video conferencing,
3D television, and cloud computing.
- The key technologies that have made this possible are MIMO (Multiple Input Multiple
Output) and OFDM (Orthogonal Frequency Division Multiplexing). The two important
4G standards are WiMAX (has now fizzled out) and LTE (has seen widespread
deployment).
- LTE (Long Term Evolution) is a series of upgrades to existing UMTS technology and
will be rolled out on Telstra's existing 1800MHz frequency band. The max speed of a
4G network when the device is moving is 100 Mbps or 1 Gbps for low mobility
communication like when stationary or walking, latency reduced from around 300ms
to less than 100ms, and significantly lower congestion. When 4G first became available,
it was simply a little faster than 3G. 4G is not the same as 4G LTE which is very close
to meeting the criteria of the standards. To download a new game or stream a TV show
in HD, you can do it without buffering.
- Newer generations of phones are usually designed to be backward-compatible , so a
4G phone can communicate through a 3G or even 2G network. All carriers seem to
agree that OFDM is one of the chief indicators that a service can be legitimately
marketed as being 4G.
- OFDM is a type of digital modulation in which a signal is split into several narrowband
channels at different frequencies. There are a significant amount of infrastructure
changes needed to be implemented by service providers in order to supply because
voice calls in GSM, UMTS and CDMA2000 are circuit switched, so with the adoption
of LTE, carriers will have to re-engineer their voice call network.
- And again, we have the fractional parts: 4.5G and 4.9G marking the transition of LTE
(in the stage called LTE-Advanced Pro) getting us more MIMO, more D2D on the way
to IMT-2020 and the requirements of 5G.
5G - Fifth Generation
- 5G is a generation currently under development, that's intended to improve on 4G.
- 5G promises significantly faster data rates, higher connection density, much lower
latency, among other improvements.
- Some of the plans for 5G include device-to-device communication, better battery
consumption, and improved overall wireless coverage.
- The max speed of 5G is aimed at being as fast as 35.46 Gbps, which is over 35 times
faster than 4G.
- Key technologies to look out for: Massive MIMO, Millimeter Wave Mobile
Communications etc. Massive MIMO, millimeter wave, small cells, Li-Fi all the new
technologies from the previous decade could be used to give 10Gb/s to a user, with an
unseen low latency, and allow connections for at least 100 billion devices .
- Different estimations have been made for the date of commercial introduction of 5G
networks. Next Generation Mobile Networks Alliance feel that 5G should be rolled out
by 2020 to meet business and consumer demands.

37
Generation Definition Throughput/ Speed Technology Time period Features

AMPS,NMT, During 1G Wireless phones are used for voice only.

1G Analog 14.4 Kbps (peak) 1970 – 1980
TACS
Digital 2G capabilities are achieved by allowing multiple users on a single
2G Narrow band 9.6/14.4 Kbps TDMA,CDMA 1990 to 2000 channel via multiplexing. During 2G Cellular phones are used for data
circuit data also along with voice.
In 2.5G the internet becomes popular and data becomes more
171.2 Kbps(peak) relevant.2.5G Multimedia services and streaming starts to show growth.
2.5G Packet Data GPRS 2001-2004
20-40 Kbps Phones start supporting web browsing though limited and very few
phones have that.
CDMA 2000 3G has Multimedia services support along with streaming are more
Digital
3.1 Mbps (peak) (1xRTT, popular. In 3G, Universal access and portability across different device
3G Broadband 2004-2005
500-700 Kbps EVDO) types are made possible. (Telephones, PDA’s, etc.)
Packet Data
UMTS, EDGE
14.4 Mbps (peak) 3.5G supports higher throughput and speeds to support higher data
3.5G Packet Data HSPA 2006 – 2010
1-3 Mbps needs of the consumers.
Digital Speeds for 4G are further increased to keep up with data access demand
Broadband 100-300 Mbps Now (Read used by various services. High definition streaming is now supported in
WiMAX
Packet (peak) more on 4G. New phones with HD capabilities surface. It gets pretty cool. In 4G,
4G LTE
All IP 3-5 Mbps Transitioning Portability is increased further. World-wide roaming is not a distant
Wi-Fi
Very high 100 Mbps (Wi-Fi) to 4G) dream.
throughput
Offering Deliver higher multi-Gbps peak data speeds, ultra-low latency, more
higher OFDM reliability, massive network capacity, increased availability, and a more
upload and (Orthogonal In India uniform user experience to more users.
peak data rates of up
5G download frequency- OCT2022 -
to 20 Gbps
speeds, more division tilldate
consistent multiplexing)
connections

38
 2G SYSTEMS
2G is the second generation of cellular networks, based on the Global System for Mobile
Communication (GSM). Designed to accommodate the growing number of mobile phones, 2G
introduced cellular services like SMS, multimedia messaging, and digitally encrypted voice
conversations.
GSM System Overview
Global System for Mobile Communications (GSM) is a digital wireless network
standard designed by standardization committees from major European telecommunications
operators and manufacturers. The GSM standard provides a common set of compatible services
and capabilities to all mobile users across Europe and several million customers worldwide.
Performance characteristics of GSM (with respect to analog systems)
 Communication
mobile, wireless communication; support for voice and data services
 Total mobility
international access, chip-card enables use of access points of different
providers
 Worldwide connectivity
one number, the network handles localization
 High capacity
better frequency efficiency, smaller cells, more customers per cell
 High transmission quality
high audio quality and reliability for wireless, uninterrupted phone calls at
higher speeds (e.g., from cars, trains)
 Security functions
access control, authentication via chip-card and PIN
GSM Services
GSM offers three types of services
1. Tele Services (Telematic Services)
2. Bearer services ( data services)
3. Supplementary services

1. Tele Services or Telematic Services

Telecommunication services that enable voice communication via mobile phones. All
these basic services have to obey cellular functions, security measurements etc.
Offered services are
 Mobile telephony - primary goal of GSM was to enable mobile telephony offering the
traditional bandwidth of 3.1 kHz
 Emergency number - common number throughout India (100); mandatory for all
service providers; free of charge; connection with the highest priority (preemption of
other connections possible)
 Multinumbering - several ISDN phone numbers per user possible

39
 Non-Voice-Teleservices
 group 3 fax
 voice mailbox (implemented in the fixed network supporting the mobile terminals)
 electronic mail (MHS, Message Handling System, implemented in the fixed network)
 Short Message Service (SMS) - alphanumeric data transmission to/from the mobile
terminal (160 characters) using the signaling channel, thus allowing simultaneous use
of basic services and SMS.
 enhanced message service (EMS) - offers a larger message size (e.g., 760 characters,
concatenating several SMs), formatted text, and the transmission of animated pictures,
small images and ring tones in a standardized way
 multimedia message service (MMS) - offers the transmission of larger pictures (GIF,
JPG, WBMP), short video clips etc. and comes with mobile phones that integrate small
cameras.
2. Bearer Services
GSM users can send and receive data, at rates from 3kbps to 9.6 bps. Typically data
transmission instead of voice. Fax is an example.
Bearer services permit transparent and non-transparent, synchronous or asynchronous data
transmission.
Transparent bearer services only use the functions of the physical layer (layer 1) to transmit
data. Data transmission has a constant delay and throughput if no transmission errors occur.
The only mechanism to increase transmission quality is the use of forward error correction
(FEC), which codes redundancy into the data stream and helps to reconstruct the original data
in case of transmission errors. Transparent bearer services do not try to recover lost data
shadowing or interruptions due to handover.
Non-transparent bearer services use protocols of layers two and three to implement error
correction and flow control. These services use the transparent bearer services, adding a radio
link protocol (RLP). This protocol comprises mechanisms of high-level data link control
(HDLC) and special selective-reject mechanisms to trigger retransmission of erroneous data.
The achieved bit error rate is less than 10–7, but now throughput and delay may vary depending
on transmission quality.
Different data rates for voice and data (original standard)
 data service (circuit switched)
- synchronous: 2.4, 4.8 or 9.6 kbit/s
- asynchronous: 300 - 1200 bit/s
 data service (packet switched)
- synchronous: 2.4, 4.8 or 9.6 kbit/s
- asynchronous: 300 - 9600 bit/s
3. Supplementary Services
GSM supports a comprehensive set of supplementary services that complement and
support the telephony and data services described above. They are all defined in GSM
standards. A partial listing of supplementary services follows.
 Call Forwarding. This service gives the subscriber the ability to forward
incoming calls to another number if the called mobile unit is not reachable, if it is busy,
if there is no reply, or if call forwarding is allowed unconditionally.
 Barring of Outgoing Calls. This service makes it possible for a mobile subscriber to
prevent all outgoing calls.
 Barring of Incoming Calls. This function allows the subscriber to prevent incoming
calls. The following two conditions for incoming call barring exist: baring of all
incoming calls and barring of incoming calls when roaming outside the home PLMN.

40
  Advice of Charge (AoC). The AoC service provides the mobile subscriber with an
estimate of the call charges. There are two types of AoC information: one that provides
the subscriber with an estimate of the bill and one that can be used for immediate
charging purposes. AoC for data calls is provided on the basis of time measurements.
 Call Hold. This service enables the subscriber to interrupt an ongoing call and then
subsequently reestablish the call. The call hold service is only applicable to
normal telephony.
 Call Waiting. This service enables the mobile subscriber to be notified of an incoming
call during a conversation. The subscriber can answer, reject, or ignore the incoming
call. Call waiting is applicable to all GSM telecommunications services using a circuit-
switched connection.
 Multiparty service. The multiparty service enables a mobile subscriber to establish a
multiparty conversation - that is, a simultaneous conversation between three and six
subscribers. This service is only applicable to normal telephony.
 Calling Line Identification presentation/restriction. These services supply the
called party with the integrated services digital network (ISDN) number of the calling
party. The restriction service enables the calling party to restrict the presentation. The
restriction overrides the presentation.
 Closed User Groups (CUGs). CUGs are generally comparable to a PBX. They are a
group of subscribers who are capable of only calling themselves and certain numbers.

GSM Architecture

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A GSM system consists of three subsystems.
1) Radio subsystem (RSS)
2) Network and switching subsystem (NSS)
3) operation subsystem (OSS).
1. Radio subsystem (RSS)
The radio subsystem (RSS) comprises all radio specific entities, i.e., the mobile stations (MS)
and the base station subsystem (BSS).
i. Mobile Station (MS): Mobile Station is made up of two entities.
a) Mobile equipment (ME):
 It is a portable, vehicle mounted, hand held device.
 It is uniquely identified by an IMEI number.
 It is used for voice and data transmission. It also monitors power and signal quality of
surrounding cells foe optimum handover. 160 characters long SMS can also be sent
using Mobile Equipment.
b) Subscriber Identity module (SIM):
 It is a smart card that contains the International Mobile Subscriber Identity (IMSI)
number.
 It allows users to send and receive calls and receive other subscriber services. - It is
protected by password or PIN.
 It contains encoded network identification details. it has key information to activate the
phone.
 It can be moved from one mobile to another.
ii. Base Station Subsystem (BSS): It is also known as radio subsystem, provides and manages
radio transmission paths between the mobile station and the Mobile Switching Centre (MSC).
BSS also manages interface between the mobile station and all other subsystems of GSM. It
consists of two parts.
a) Base Transceiver Station (BTS):
 It encodes, encrypts, multiplexes, modulates and feeds the RF signal to the antenna.
 It consists of transceiver units.
 It communicates with mobile stations via radio air interface and also communicates
with BSC via Abis interface.
b) B. Base Station Controller (BSC):
 It manages radio resources for BTS. It assigns frequency and time slots for all mobile
stations in its area.
 It handles call set up, transcoding and adaptation functionality handover for each
MS radio power control.
 It communicates with MSC via A interface and also with BTS.
2. Network Switching Subsystem (NSS): it manages the switching functions of the system
and allows MSCs to communicate with other networks such as PSTN and ISDN. It consist of
a) Mobile switching Centre:
 It is a heart of the network. It manages communication between GSM and other
networks.
 It manages call set up function, routing and basic switching.
 It performs mobility management including registration, location updating and
inter BSS and inter MSC call handoff.
 It provides billing information.
 MSC does gateway function while its customers roam to other network by using
HLR/VLR.
 Using additional interworking functions (IWF), an MSC can also connect to
public data networks (PDN)

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 b) Home Location Registers (HLR): - It is a permanent database about mobile subscriber
in a large service area. - Its database contains IMSI, IMSISDN, prepaid/post-paid,
roaming restrictions, supplementary services.
c) Visitor Location Registers (VLR): - It is a temporary database which updates
whenever new MS enters its area by HLR database. - It controls mobiles roaming in its
area. It reduces number of queries to HLR. - Its database contains IMSI, TMSI,
IMSISDN, MSRN, location, area authentication key.
3. Operational Support Subsystem (OSS): It supports the operation and maintenance of
GSM and allows system engineers to monitor, diagnose and troubleshoot all aspects of GSM
system. It supports one or more Operation Maintenance Centres (OMC) which are used to
monitor the performance of each MS, Bs, BSC and MSC within a GSM system. It has three
main functions:
 To maintain all telecommunication hardware and network operations with a particular
market.
 To manage all charging and billing procedures
 To manage all mobile equipment in the system.
a) Authentication Centre: - It provides protection against intruders in air interface. - It
maintains authentication keys and algorithms and provides security triplets (RAND,
SRES, Ki).
b) Equipment Identity Registry (EIR):
 It is a database that is used to track handset using the IMEI number.
 It is made up of three sub classes- the white list, the black list and the gray list.
- Blacklist : stolen (or locked) devices
- White list : contains a list of valid IMEI's devices
- Gray list : a list of malfunctioning devices.
Interfaces used for GSM network :
a) UM Interface –Used to communicate between BTS with MS
b) Abis Interface— Used to communicate BSC TO BTS
c) A Interface-- Used to communicate BSC and MSC
O Interface - Singling protocol (SS 7)- Used to communicate MSC with other network .

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